Recent Developments in Design and Construction Techniques of Brick Masonry Buildings

Proceedings of the Workshop
Recent Developments in Design and Construction Techniques of Brick Masonry Buildings 3-4 March, 2012
Editors P. K. Singh P. R. Maiti
Department of Civil Engineering Institute of Technology Banaras Hindu University Varanasi-221005, India
Proceedings of the Workshop
Recent Developments in Design and Construction Techniques of Brick Masonry Buildings

3-4 March, 2012
Editors P. K. Singh P. R. Maiti
Organized by Department of Civil Engineering Institute of Technology Banaras Hindu University Varanasi-221005, India
Sponsored by University Grants Commission New Delhi (Under SAP Scheme)
Department of Civil Engineering, IT- BHU March-2012
DISCLAIMER: Neither the editors nor Department of Civil Engineering, IT-BHU is responsible for statements and opinions printed in this publication. Editors and publishers bear no responsibility with regard to accuracy or authenticity of the information contained in this proceedings and do not accept liability of any kind for any error or omissions towards this publication.
ISBN: 978-81-921121-1-4
Published by Department of Civil Engineering Institute of Technology Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, India
Proceedings of the Workshop on Recent Developments in Design and Construction Techniques of Brick Masonry Buildings, 3-4 March 2012
In Commemoration of 150th Birth Anniversary
Mahamana Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya ji (25.12.186112.11.1946) Founder of Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
ii
Preface
buildings are widely constructed for housing in rural and urban areas. This type of buildings basically consists of un-reinforced masonry wall panels with or without confining element. Earthquake resistant buildings are required to withstand the largest earthquake of a certain probability that is likely to occur at their location, and loss of life should be minimized by preventing their possible damage or collapse. In the recent earthquakes of Bhuj 2001, Kashmir 2005 and Sikkim 2011, several masonry houses collapsed, causing loss of life and properties which occurred due to non-engineered buildings. These earthquakes have exposed the seismic vulnerability of construction practices being followed in the country. For centuries, masonry construction has been used for buildings in the areas where good quality bricks are economically produced. Confined brick masonry, i.e. masonry with vertical tie columns and horizontal bands, represents one of the most widely used construction systems in India and other parts of the world. Confinement of brick masonry prevents its brittle failure and improves the ductility of the masonry when subjected to severe seismic loading. Numerical modeling of the seismic behavior of masonry structures presents a complex problem due to the constitutive characteristics of the structural materials. In India the seismic design of the buildings is based on IS 1893-2002, IS 4326-1993 and National Building Code of India-2005. But these codes do not fully cover this type of construction. However, Euro code covers confined brick masonry construction in detail. The main objective of this workshop is to disseminate design and construction practices of earthquake resistant brick masonry buildings. P. K. Singh & P. R. Maiti
Masonry
iii
Acknowledgement
To
give shape to the proceedings and the workshop in general a large number of individuals and groups have contributed in many ways and it is our pleasure to acknowledge their efforts. We are extremely thankful to the speaker for their contribution. The contributory authors deserve praise for their contribution and cooperation, which is resulted in the timely publication of the proceedings. We are especially grateful to our colleagues namely Prof. V. Kumar, Dr. S. Mandal and Dr. Rajesh Kumar of the Civil Engineering Department for their support at different stages of the workshop. We are thankful to University Grants Commission, New Delhi for providing necessary funds for the workshop. We wish to acknowledge the help we received from various individuals and institutions in the preparation of the proceedings.
P. K. Singh & P. R. Maiti
iv
Contents
Mahamana Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya ji Preface Acknowledgement Contents Masonry Structures: Prospects, Problems and Tasks K. S. Jagadish Failure and Behavior of Masonry Structures in Recent Sikkim Earthquake 2011 D. Bandyopadhyay and J. S. Ali A Systematic Design Approach of Coupled Shear Wall Buildings during Earthquake Dipendu Bhunia Effect of Constituent-Characteristics on Durability of Masonry and Concrete Structure V. Kumar Provisions of Different Codes Buildings: A Critical Review Rajesh Kumar in Brick Masonry 67-100 59-66 29-58 15-28 ii iii iv v-vi 1-14
Earthquake Resistant Confined Brick Masonry Buildings P. K. Singh Analysis of Confined Brick Masonry Buildings P. R. Maiti A Study on Indian Codes and Performance Based Design Dipendu Bhunia Earthquake Scenario of India and Its Relation to Various Rock Types Medha Jha The Effect of Dynamic Loading on Structural Integrity Assessment Debasish Khan
101-124
125-152
153-170
171-184
185-198
vi
Masonry Structures: Prospects, Problems and Tasks

K. S. Jagadish Formerly Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India Currently Professor of PG Studies Department of Civil Engineering, R V College of Engineering
1. INTRODUCTION
Masonry structures have fallen into disrepute in recent years in India. The reinforced concrete framed structure is considered to be superior even for two storeyed buildings. Part of the problem is the dependence on the burnt brick, its energy intensity and the resource depletion due to loss of top soil. It is however, necessary to note that there has been a revival of masonry even for moderate high rise structures in the West. Switzerland and Denmark, who did not have a steel industry of their own, preferred to built 15 to 16 storey buildings out of high strength bricks which were locally available. England and U.S also had high rise masonry going up to 17 storeys Figs (1, 2, 3and 4). In the US, the masonry is built out of hollow concrete blocks which can accommodate vertical reinforcement for earthquake resistance.
2. Why Masonry? It is now pertinent to ask why one can think of masonry in the Indian context. Table-1 presents the energy content and carbon emission of building blocks, cement and steel. It is seen that the burnt brick, cement and steel require higher amount of energy than the other. Their carbon emission is also high. The stabilized mud block is made using 7% cement addition to sandy soil.
Figure 5: SMB being made in soil block press.
Fig 6 and 7 shows hollow concrete and hollow clay blocks.

TABLE-1: ENERGY AND EMISSION OF BUILDING MATERIALS SL. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ENERGY/ UNIT MJ 3.60 28.10 3.75 - 4.5 0.90 0.9 - 1.18 1.80 0.88 0.00 NA CO2 / UNIT Kg 0.80 2.2 - 2.8 0.33 0.19 0.14 0.18 0.18 0.09 0.00 0.06
MATERIAL CEMENT STEEL BRICK STABILISED MUD BLOCK HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCK HOLLOW CLAY BLOCK SANDSTONE BLOCK (BHUJ) GRANITE (BANGALORE) GEOPOLYMER + SOIL
UNIT Kg Kg ONE BRICK BRICK EQUIVALENT --DO---DO---DO---DO---DO--
From the table it is clear that use of cement, steel and burnt brick are not desirable if energy consumption and CO2 emission are to be reduced. Since buildings in India take up about 30% of the carbon emission in the country, there is a great need to reduce their emission. Table-2 describes the energy and emission due to different building technologies.
Table 2: Energy and Emission due to building technologies
BUILDING TYPE 8 STOREY RC FRAME + BRICK INFILL 4 STOREY RC FRAME + BRICK INFILL 4 STOREY SMB MASONRY WITH RC FLOORS 2 STOREY SMB MASONRY WITH SMB FLOOR
EMBODIED ENERGY GJ/M2
CARBON EMISSION T/M2
OPERATIONAL ENERGY, 25 YEARS GJ/M2
CO2, 25 YEARS T/M2
4.2
0.41
9.3
0.91
2.7
0.25
9.3
0.91
1.33
0.13
9.3
0.91
0.62
0.06
9.3
0.91
It is clear that the RC frame construction with brick in-fill is the worst for energy and emission. Masonry using stabilized mud block (or Hollow Concrete block) leads to 50% less energy and carbon 6
emission. It is hence important to utilize masonry for as great height as is feasible. With the example of hollow concrete block (reinforced for earthquake resistance), one can easily think of masonry buildings for 10 storeys. With stabilized mud blocks one can construct upto 5 storeys. A large majority of the high rise buildings in India range from 4 to 10 storeys and it is essential to explore this option. Already, there are more than 300 buildings using hollow concrete blocks for high rise housing. There is a hotel in Nashik going upto 9 storeys built by Mr. Ganesh Kamat of Ganaka Engineers.
Figure 8 & 9: 6 storeyed building, Mumbai and 9 storeyed building in Nashik.
Figure 10: An SMB wall.
3. Barriers to Use of Masonry
It is now necessary to understand why India has missed this opportunity of using low energy building technique. a. Firstly, brick production is a time, energy and labour consuming industry and grinds to a halt in the rainy season. It also requires significant area of land for making and drying bricks. Its cost is hence rising rapidly. b. Engineers of today do not learn masonry design. Two storeyed buildings are built on thumb rule by using brick of 3.5MPa strength. For higher storeys, the requirements of brick/ block strength, type of mortar to be used is not known. c. There is hardly any research in our universities on masonry so that recent innovations of hollow concrete blocks, reinforced masonry and stabilized mud blocks are unknown. Only 4 or 5 reports/ papers have been published in India, between 1947 to 1990. d. The quality of most of the concrete blocks is very poor and they cannot be used for more than two storeys. There is a need to set up quality hollow concrete block manufacturing units like Besser Co. The knowledge that load bearing masonry using hollow concrete blocks/ stabilized blocks/ hollow burnt clay blocks is cost effective and energy efficient is not known to the user public or the professionals. 9
4. Recent Positive Developments
As a corrective to the above lacunae, the Dept of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science launched a detailed R & D programme from 1990 onwards. About 6 Ph.D.s and 3 M.Sc.s have been produced under the guidance of the author between 1990 and 2004. Currently, 5 more Ph.D. programmes and several M.Tech dissertations are underway at the Visvesvaraya Technological University. Electives on Masonry have been introduced in
Undergraduate and Post-graduate courses. The author is also working on a Text book on Structural Masonry which is likely to be published before the end of the year.
Two companies in Bangalore are manufacturing high quality hollow concrete blocks with strength of 6.0 to 7.0 MPa. They can be comfortably used upto 5 or 6 storeys. Machines to make stabilized mud blocks are available in Bangalore, Auroville and New Delhi.
5. Tasks to be undertaken
Courses on structural masonry must be started in all leading Engineering colleges. Short term courses are to be organised for training teachers and practicing engineers in masonry. Periodic conferences and workshops to be organized for wider dissemination of ideas. 10
6. Outline of masonry research
Structural masonry has been extensively researched in the west. One can refer to the books by HENDRY (1), SAHLIN (2), DRYSDALE & HAMID (3), and NARENDRA TALY (4) to obtain comprehensive information on western literature. This is however inadequate in the Indian context since our bricks have low strength and lower elastic modulus. The research thesis by MATTHANA (5), SARANGAPANI (6), RAGHUNATH (7) AND GUMASTE (8) give comprehensive information on brick masonry in India. The paper by GUMASTE et al [9] is also useful.
Research in masonry is based on the strength of masonry unit (brick or block), strength of mortar and strength of masonry element like prisms and wallettes. In general the strength of masonry element is less than the strength of masonry unit and the ratio may be referred as masonry efficiency. Fig 11 shows the sketch of typical masonry prisms, Fig 12 shows prisms after test.
11
The strength of masonry wall depends further on the slenderness ratio and eccentricity of loading. There is hence a need to test storey height walls. Fig 13 shows a storey height wall under test.
12
Such tests need a very tall loading frame which may not be available in all colleges. Such frames have been set up at Indian Institute of Science, B.M.S. College of Engineering and R.V. College of Engineering. More detailed research on the strength of walls using hollow concrete blocks and hollow clay blocks is necessary if high masonry has to become a reality in India.
13
REFRENCES [1] A.W.HENDRY, STRUCTURAL MASONRY MACMILLAN PRESS, LONDON, 1998. [2] S. SAHLIN, STRUCTURAL MASONRY PRENTICE HALL, N.J., 1971. [3] R.G. DRYSDALE AND A.A.HAMID, MASONRY STRUCTURES BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN, THE MASONRY SOCIETY, BOULDER, COLORADO, 2008. [4] NARENDRA TALY, DESIGN OF REINFORCED MASONRY STRUCTURES MCGRAW HILL, 2001. [5] M.H. MATTHANA, STRENGTH OF BRICK MASONRY AND MASONRY WALLS WITH OPENINGS, PH.D. THESIS, DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, BANGALORE, DEC 1996. [6] G.SARANGAPANI, STUDIES ON THE STRENGTH OF BRICK MASONRY [7] PH.D. THESIS, DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, BANGALORE, MAY 1998. [8] S. RAGHUNATH, STATIC & DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF BRICK MASONRY, PH.D. THESIS, DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, BANGALORE, JAN 2003. [9] K.S. GUMASTE, STUDIES ON THE STRENGTH & ELASTICITY OF BRICK MASONRY WALLS, PH.D. THESIS, DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, BANGALORE, JAN 2004. [10] GUMASTE.K.S, K.S.NANJUNDA RAO, B.V.V.REDDY AND K.S.JAGADISH, STRENGTH & ELASTICITY OF BRICK MASONRY PRISMS AND WALLETTES UNDER COMPRESSION, MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES, 40, 241-253, 2007.
14
Failure and Behavior of Masonry Structures in Recent Sikkim Earthquake 2011

D. Bandyopadhyay 1 and J. S. Ali
1Associate
Professor, Department of Construction Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata & NPEEE Fellow 2Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Alliah University, Kolkata
1. INTRODUCTION Most of the structures in structures in Indian subcontinent are built as unreinforced masonry structures built with bricks or stones bonded with cement or lime-mud or simply mud mortar. These structures are normally designed for vertical loads and they do behave well under that considering the fact that bricks and stones have a decent compressive strength. As soon as they are subjected to lateral forces, typical in case of earthquakes, high shear and flexural forces arise leading to the failures of these structures. The strength of masonry under these conditions often depends on the bond between brick and mortar (or stone and mortar), which is quite poor. This bond is also often very poor when lime mortars or mud mortars are used. This is quite evident in the recent Sikkim earthquake 2011, in which large parts of India including Sikkim, northern parts of West Bengal etc. were affected. A masonry wall can also undergo in-plane shear stresses if the inertial forces are in the plane of the wall. Shear failure in the form 15
of diagonal cracks is observed due to this. However, catastrophic collapses take place when the wall experiences out-of-plane flexure. This can bring down a roof and cause more damage. Masonry buildings with light roofs such as tiled roofs are more vulnerable to out-of-plane vibrations since the top edge can undergo large deformations. The behaviour of masonry buildings after an earthquake is significantly important and useful to identify any inadequacies in earthquake resistant design. Studying types of masonry construction, their performance and failure patterns helps in improving the design and detailing aspects. After the Sikkim earthquake on the 18th September 2011, causing severe damage in masonry structures in the region of Sikkim and North Bengal the authors have visited the affected areas thrice to study the damages to buildings. 2. The Sikkim Earthquake 2011 The earthquake of magnitude M6.9 struck at 18:10:48 IST on September 18, 2011 with its epicentre located near India-Nepal border region, about 68 km NW of Gangtok, Sikkim as shown in Fig. 1. It was a shallow focus event, which was felt in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and China. The tremors lasted for about 30-40 seconds and felt in several Indian states such as Assam, parts of West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi. Three aftershocks were also felt in Sikkim within 30 minutes of the initial earthquake. About 100 deaths are reported in India including at least 60 in Sikkim state though the affected area has low population density of an average of 88 persons/sq. km. The state capital Gangtok is the biggest city in the area and Chungthang, Lachung and Mangon in North Sikkim are major towns which have suffered considerable damage to structures. Kalimpong and Darjeeling towns in north side of West Bengal have also suffered significant damages particularly in masonry structures. The affected region lies in the high risk seismic zones of IV of Indian seismic code IS: 1893, 2002
with the expected intensity VIII. This region has experienced relatively moderate seismicity, with several earthquakes in the last few decades prior to the recent event on the September 18, 2011.
Major towns damaged Aftershock reported by USGS Main Central Thrust (MCT) River / Stream
Other major towns Aftershock reported by IMD Main Boundary Thrust (MDT) Field Trip on Road
The earthquake followed by heavy seasonal rains triggered more than 300 landslides, rock/mudslide causing much devastation. Landslides cut off the severely affected areas from the rest and hampered the rescue and relief work in this difficult terrain. General damage to buildings and other structures agreed well with the intensity of ground shaking observed at various places. 17
However, unexpected severe damage in Gangtok and Kalimpong were also observed. 3. General Observations Extensive damage to masonry structures like school, Church and hospital buildings was reported in the worst affected regions of Sikkim and North Bengal. Many unique and inherently poor architectural and construction features such as unsymmetrical, weak partition walls in brick/block masonry or in lightly
reinforced/plain concrete, extended floor plans in upper stories supported on cantilevered beams and slabs, construction on sloped ground, unstable slopes, weak retaining walls, poor construction material etc., significantly added to the seismic vulnerability of structures. It was common practice in Sikkim to construct residential buildings using bamboo/wood, prior to early nineties. These traditional constructions (Shee-khim & Ikra) have better earthquake resistance as observed in the present and past earthquakes. Major RC-frame structures both governmental and private buildings have seriously lacked earthquake-resistant
features compatible to the design level shaking. Most of the RC buildings in Gangtok suffered varying degree of damage, from moderate to collapse during this earthquake. The area has a number of highway and pedestrian bridges on rivers, rivulets, and gorges. Only minor damage to a few highway bridges was noticed.. The concrete gravity dams of National Hydroelectric Power
Corporation (NHPC) over Teesta River near Dikchu and Rangit River near Rangit Nagar have not suffered significant damage due to earthquake shaking or landslide. The poor earthquake performance of cultural heritage such as monasteries, churches and old school buildings is a source of concern as almost all historic structures suffered varying degree of damages in this earthquake. The exterior walls of these historical structures are constructed of stone masonry mostly random rubble with low strength mortar. Heavy damages have been observed to exterior walls at those historical old
structures. In Kalimpong, in West Bengal, front masonry elevation of the historic Church has severly cracked and posed alarming threat to its safety. 4. Case Studies & Discussion Studies have been made to two numbers five storied residential building at Gangtak, one at Temi and two at Mangan. Much of the construction in Gangtak is of empirically constructed reinforced concrete (RC) buildings of four to nine stories adjoining each other on adjacent small plots, with buildings extending to the property A majority of these buildings exhibited extensive damage to
unreinforced masonry (URM) infill panel walls due to weak masonry and large unsupported length or heightto-thickness ratio. Most buildings had a symmetric and uniform grid of beams and columns. Some buildings that had open stories had severely damaged. Likewise, buildings with asymmetry in placement of URM infill walls, causing torsion, also were severely punished. Traditional Ekra housing made of bamboo or wood framing with lightweight infill panels of straw and plaster behaved exceptionally well like past earthquakes. The inadequate stirrups in columns of a building at Gangtak constructed with bad materials and poorly maintained have suffered severe damage. The 250 mm square column size for four story building at Mangan, North Sikkim with bad material have cracked and damaged to an extent. Landslides have resulted in differential settlement of column foundations and suffered damage as observed in Temi, East Sikkim.
19
Figure 2: Severely Damaged Building under Demolition, Gangtak, Sikkim
Figure 3: Collapse of Observatory Shed, Mangan
Figure 4: Wall crack continued to Water Basin, Mangan
A Stone Masonry Historical School Building constructed about 100 years ago at Darjeeling, North Bengal is surveyed in detail. The building is a three storied combined type of structure, part of which is constructed as simply unreinforced stone masonry and another part is retrofitted with reinforced concrete structure with in-filled stone masonry after severely damaged by the 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake. The masonry portions are built using stones bonded with cement-lime mortar. The structure is full of Gothic architectural features which have been largely affected in the recent earthquake. The C type of unsymmetrical plan of the building suffered significant damages during the earthquake. The legs of C are unequal which has further aggravated the plan asymmetry contrary to the earthquake resistance features. Asymmetric parts have invited torsion in the structure resulting in out-of-plane flexural failure. In addition, there was a large number. of nonstructural temporary sheds and other structures like masonry chimneys and rooms made of wooden roof system used as dormitory for students, above the second floor of the building. 21
These structures have undergone large deformations during the earthquake and being made of brittle masonry materials, have even collapsed. A bizarre structural arrangement was observed in the second floor of the structure with floating columns. This floor was probably constructed later and uniform structural arrangement was not followed which resulted in vertical asymmetry. Evidently there was no clear load path in this floor and this floor was worst affected by the earthquake. Arrangement of staircase plays a very important role in determining seismic performance of a structure. Since at the location of staircase there occurs a discontinuity in the floor diaphragm action and also the stiffness of the staircase region is inconsistent with other portions of the structure, it is always much vulnerable to seismic activity. Same has been observed in case of this structure where vertical cracks along with settlement have been observed in the region of staircase due to flexural failure.
Fig ure7: View of C shaped School Stone Masonry Building, Darjeeling
Figure 8: Crack above Arch, Ground Floor
Failures of several Stone Masonry Historical cottage buildings and church constructed more than 100 years ago at Kalimpong, North Bengal is also studied in detail. There are a common features of vertical cracks initiated from centre of the arches over the ground floor window continued to the corner of the window seal at the first floor (Fig.13). In many occasions the key stones are separated and dislodged. Out of plane failure of random rubble stone masonry walls is another common failure symptom in these cottages. These Masonry buildings with light slope roofs appears to be more vulnerable and responsible for the out-of-plane vibrations since the top edge can undergo large deformations. The weak bonds between random sized stones with lime-mud mortar have contributed for the failures. Uses of random stones in withes without through-stones have further aggravated the problem.Separations of wall have been observed at the corners of the outer walls. The long unsupported length of the front wall of a historical church have separated from the cross walls and severely cracked.
23
Figure 9: Out of Plane Failure of Walls above Lintel
Figure 10: Cracked Stone Masonry Wall
Figure 11: View of the Church, Kalimpong
Figure 12: Cracked Arch Crown and Masonry
Figure 13: Cracks from Arch Crown to Window
5. Concluding Remarks The damage to built environment, economic loss and human casualties caused by the Himalayan earthquakes are increasing rather proportionally with the growth of population and subsequent settlements in its upper reaches. The general pattern of damage to structures, particularly of masonry buildings, landslides, etc. is consistent with the recent M6.9 Sikkim 2011 earthquake, except a few building collapses due to faulty design and or construction practices. Monasteries being old and weak were deficient in strength and needs to be retrofitted against future tremors. It is unfortunate that society is not adequately prepared and therefore the seismic risk in the region has risen to unacceptable levels which may lead to a large-scale disaster. Based on the observations of the damages caused to a variety of masonry structures during the Sikkim earthquake 2011, the following conclusions could be drawn. 25
Majority of the multi-storied buildings exhibited extensive damage to unreinforced masonry (URM) infill panel walls due to weak masonry and large unsupported length or height to thickness ratio. Major RC frame structures both governmental and private buildings have seriously lacked earthquake resistant features compatible to the design level shaking. The earthquake followed by heavy seasonal rains triggered many landslides, rock/mudslide causing much devastation. Unsymmetrical plan, uses of floating columns and aseismic construction of chimney etc have suffered severe damage in a three storied stone masonry school building about 100 years old historical structure. Masonry buildings in mud mortar or lime mortar are prone to severe damage due to lack of bond strength. Uses of random stones in withes without through-stones have further aggravated the problem. The failures of such structures are essentially due to out-of-plane flexure. Masonry with cement mortar (which has higher bond strength) has generally behaved better, but only good masonry bonding is not sufficient for earthquake resistance. Traditional constructions (Shee-khim & Ikra) have better earthquake resistance as observed in the present and past earthquakes. Use of lintel band, as suggested by the Bureau of Indian Standards (IS 13828:1993), with additional horizontal bands, possibly at the seal level and at plinth level seems to be required for better performance. The horizontal reinforcement in the lintel band alone does not seem to improve the ductility to the desired level for stone masonry structure. The provision of corner reinforcement in corners and junctions, again as suggested by BIS, has to be properly bonded with the surrounding masonry possibly with dowels or keys to prevent separation.
Masonry buildings with light slope roofs appear to be more vulnerable and responsible for the out-of-plane vibrations since the top edge can undergo large deformations. References
[1] Report on Evaluation of Sikkim 2011 Earthquake damaged
Structures, Jadavpur University, Kolkata. [2] National Information Centre of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Kanpur [3] EERI News Paper, November, 2011 [4] Behaviour of Masonry Structure during Bhuj Earthquake, 2001, IISc, Bangalore.
27
A Systematic Design Approach of Coupled Shear Wall Buildings during Earthquake

Dipendu Bhunia
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani, Rajasthan, India
1. INTRODUCTION The growth of population density and shortage of land in urban areas are two major problems for all developing countries including India. In order to mitigate these two problems the designers resort to high-rise buildings, which are rapidly increasing in number, with various architectural configurations and ingenious use of structural materials. However, earthquakes are the most critical loading condition for all land based structures located in the seismically active regions. The Indian subcontinent is divided into different seismic zones as indicated by IS 1893 (Part 1) (2002), facilitating the designer to provide adequate protection against earthquake. A recent earthquake in India on 26th January, 2001 caused considerable damage to a large number of RCC high-rise buildings (number of storey varies from 4 to 15) and tremendous loss of life. The reasons were: (a) most of the buildings had soft and weak ground storey that provided open space for parking; (b) poor quality of concrete in columns and (c) poor detailing of the structural design (http://www.nicee.org/eqe-iitk/uploads/EQR_Bhuj.pdf). Therefore, this particular incident has shown that designers and structural engineers should ensure to offer adequate earthquake resistant provisions with regard to planning, design and detailing in high-rise buildings to withstand the effect of an earthquake to minimize disaster. 29
As an earthquake resistant system, the use of coupled shear walls is one of the potential options in comparison with moment resistant frame (MRF) and shear wall frame combination systems in RCC high-rise buildings. MRF system and shear wall frame combination system are controlled by both shear behavior and flexural behavior; whereas, the behavior of coupled shear walls system is governed by flexural behavior. However, the behavior of the conventional beam both in MRF and shear wall frame combination systems is governed by flexural capacity and the behavior of the coupling beam in coupled shear walls is governed by shear capacity. During earthquake, infilled brick masonry cracks in a brittle manner although earthquake energy dissipates through both inelastic yielding in beams and columns for MRF and shear wall frame combination systems; whereas, in coupled shear walls earthquake energy dissipates through inelastic yielding in the coupling beams and at the base of the shear walls. Hence, amount of dissipation of earthquake energy and ductility obtained from both MRF and shear wall frame combination systems are less than coupled shear walls system in the high-rise buildings [Jain (1999), Englekirk (2003), Park and Paulay (1975), Penelis and Kappos (1997), Smith and Coull (1991), Naeim (2001) & Paulay and Priestley (1992)]. However, the Indian codes of practice governing the earthquake resistant design, such as IS 1893 (Part 1) (2002) and IS 4326 (1993) do not provide specific guidelines with regard to earthquake resistant design of coupled shear walls. On the other hand, IS 13920 (1993) gives credence to the coupled shear walls as an earthquake resistant option but it has incorporated very limited design guidelines of coupling beams that are inadequate for practical applications. It requires further investigations and elaborations before practical use. Further, it is reasonably well established that it is uneconomical to design a structure considering its linear behavior during earthquake as is recognized by the Bureau of Indian Standards [IS 4326 (1993), IS 13920 (1993) and IS 1893 (Part 1) (2002)] currently in use. Hence an alternative design philosophy needs to be evolved in the Indian context to consider the post-yield behavior wherein the damage state is evaluated through deformation considerations.
In the present context therefore, performance-based seismic design (PBSD) can be considered to offer significantly improved solutions as compared to the conventional design based on linear response spectrum analysis. Performance-based evaluation, and seismic construction design of (PBSD) implies facilities design, whose
engineered
performance under common and extreme loads responds to the diverse needs and objectives of owners, tenants and societies at large. The objective of PBSD is to produce structures with predictable seismic performance. In PBSD multiple levels of earthquake and corresponding expected performance criteria are specified [ATC 40 (1996)]. This aspect emphasizes nonlinear analyses for seismic design verification of any structure. This procedure gives some guidelines for estimating the possible local and global damages of structures. A retrofitted structure can be evaluated with the help of PBSD. Similarly, economics in the form of life-cycle cost along with construction cost of the structure is inherently included in PBSD [Prakash (2004)]. On the basis of the aforesaid discussion, an effort has been made in this paper to develop a comprehensive procedure for the design of coupled shear walls.
2. INVESTIGATION OF COUPLING BEAM Coupled shear walls consist of two shear walls connected intermittently by beams along the height. The behavior of coupled shear walls is mainly governed by the coupling beams.
31
The coupling beams are designed for ductile inelastic behavior in order to dissipate energy. The base of the shear walls may be designed for elastic or ductile inelastic behavior. The amount of energy dissipation depends on the yield moment capacity and plastic rotation capacity of the coupling beams. If the yield moment capacity is too high, then the coupling beams will undergo only limited rotations and dissipate little energy. On the other hand, if the yield moment capacity is too low, then the coupling beams may undergo rotations much larger than their plastic rotation capacities. Therefore, the coupling beams should be provided with an optimum level of yield moment capacities. These moment capacities depend on the plastic rotation capacity available in beams. An analytical model of coupling beam has been developed to calculate the rotations of coupling beam with diagonal reinforcement and truss reinforcement. 2.1 Results & Discussion The literatures [Paulay 2002; Hindi and Sexsmith 2001; FEMA356 2000; Xuan et al. 2008; ATC 40 1996; FEMA 273 1997; FEMA 356 2000; Munshi & Ghosh 2000; Galano & Vignoli 2000 and Englekirk 2003] and the results obtained from the ATENA2D (2006) software package show the inconsistent modeling parameters and inconsistent evaluative parameters. Therefore, a new model has been created with some assumptions in the following manner to carry out further study.
db
db
db
Lb
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of coupling beam
Assumptions: The effect of gravity loads on the coupling beams has been neglected. Deflection of the coupling beam occurs due to lateral loading. Contra flexure occurs at the mid-span of the coupling beam. The confined concrete, due to the confining action is provided by closely spaced transverse reinforcement in concrete, is assumed to govern the strength. Total elongation in the horizontal direction (Figure 1) due to lateral loading can be written as:
Lb = d b b
and strain in the concrete, c =
(1)
Lb
Lb
(2)
33
Hence, considering Equations (1) and (2) the following equation can be written as: coupling beam rotation,
b = c Lb
db
(3)
The results, considering Equation (3) with maximum strain in confined concrete ( cu ) of 0.02 [Confining action is provided by closely spaced transverse reinforcement in concrete as per ATC 40 (1996)], have been tabulated in Table 1. Table 1: Maximum rotations in radians Value as per Equation (3) Galano and Vignoli (2000) ATC40 (1996), FEMA273 (1997) and FEMA356 (2000) 0.03
Type of Reinforce ment
Lb db
Englek irk (2003)
Diagonal
< 1.5 1.5 to 4.0
< 0.03
0.062
0.04
Truss
0.03 to 0.08
0.084
0.06
It can be observed from Table 1 that the values obtained as per Equation (3) have similar trend with the values specified by ATC 40 (1996), FEMA 273 (1997), FEMA 356 (2000), Galano and Vignoli (2000) & Englekirk (2003). Based on the above study, Table 2 has been prepared containing modified parameters governing the coupling beam characteristics, which are also considered for developments of the design technique discussed below. As design technique is based on collapse prevention (CP) level of structure, plastic rotation capacity given in Table 2 is for CP level only. Table 2: Modified Parameters governing the coupling beam characteristics controlled by shear
Type of She
Lb d
Type of detailing
Plastic Rotation
coupling beam
ar Spa n to Dept h Rati o Conventional longitudinal reinforcement with conforming transverse reinforcement Diagonal Reinforcement (strength is an overriding consideration and thickness of wall should be greater than 406.4 mm) Truss Reinforcement(addi tional experimentation is required) Shear dominant
Capacity (Radians)
Shear bw d f c'
CP
0.015
No limit
0.010
Reinforc ed concrete coupling beam
< 1.5
< 0.03
1.5 to 4.0 Steel coupling beam
0.030.08
1.6 M p V sp
0.15 Lb
3. PROPOSED DESIGN TECHNIQUE In this paper an attempt has been made to develop a technique to design coupled shear walls considering its ideal seismic behavior (stable hysteresis with high earthquake energy dissipation). For 35
preparing this design technique, symmetrical coupled shear walls have been considered. Design/capacity curve of coupled shear walls is obtained at the collapse mechanism of the structure based on this technique. This technique is applied to both fixed base and pinned base coupled shear walls. To start with, this technique is useful in selecting the preliminary dimensions of symmetrical coupled shear walls and subsequently arrives at a final design stage. Further, this technique is particularly useful for designer, consultant and practicing engineer who have no access to sophisticated software packages. A case study has been done implementing the technique with the help of Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet and the results have also been validated. 3.1 Proposed Formulation In Figure 2, the coupled shear walls are subjected to a triangular variation of loading with amplitude F1 at the roof level. The value of F1 is obtained corresponding to the CP level of structure. Subsequently, the base shear and roof displacement can be determined. The procedure involving Figure 2, the assumptions, steps and mathematical calculation with initial value of F1 as unity has been illustrated as follows.
Figure 2 (a): Coupled shear walls
Figure 2 (b): Free body diagram of coupled shear walls
3.2 Assumptions
The following assumptions are adopted for the design technique to obtain the ideal seismic behavior of coupled shear walls. 1. The analytical model of coupled shear walls is taken as twodimensional entity. 2. Coupled shear walls exhibit flexural behavior. 3. Coupling beams carry axial forces, shear forces and moments. 4. The axial deformation of the coupling beam is neglected. 5. The effect of gravity loads on the coupling beams is neglected. 6. The horizontal displacement at each point of wall 1 is equal to the horizontal displacement at each corresponding point of wall 2 due to the presence of coupling beam. 7. The curvatures of the two walls are same at any level. 8. The point of contra flexure occurs at midpoint of clear span of the beam. 9. The seismic design philosophy requires formation of plastic hinges at the ends of the coupling beams. All coupling beams are typically designed identically with identical plastic moment capacities. Being lightly loaded under gravity loads they will carry equal shear forces before a collapse mechanism is formed. All coupling beams are, therefore, assumed to carry equal shear forces. 10. In the collapse mechanism for coupled shear walls, plastic hinges are assumed to form at the base of the wall and at the two ends of each coupling beam. In the wall the elastic displacements shall be small in comparison to the displacements due to rotation at the base of the wall. If the elastic displacements in the wall are considered negligible then a triangular displaced shape occurs. This is assumed to be the distribution displacement/velocity/acceleration along the height. The acceleration times the mass/weight at any floor level gives the lateral load. Hence, the distribution of the lateral 37
loading is assumed as a triangular variation, which conforms to the first mode shape pattern. Steps The following iterative steps are developed in this paper for the design of coupled shear walls.
1) Selection of a particular type of coupling beam and determining

its shear capacity.
2) Determining the fractions of total lateral loading subjected on

wall 1 and wall 2.
3) Determining shear forces developed in coupling beams for

different base conditions.
4) Determining wall rotations in each storey. 5) Checking for occurrence of plastic hinges at the base of the
walls when base is fixed. For walls pinned at the base this check is not required.
6) Calculating coupling beam rotation in each storey. 7) Checking whether coupling beam rotation lies at collapse
prevention level.
8) Calculating base shear and roof displacement. 9) Modifying the value of F1 for next iteration starting from Step (2)
if Step (7) is not satisfied.
3.3 Mathematical Calculation The steps which are described in above have been illustrated in this section as follows: Step 1 The type of coupling beam can be determined as per Table 2 and shear capacity can be calculated from Englekirk (2003).
Step 2 In Figure 2(b), free body diagram of coupled shear walls has been shown; and are fractions of total lateral loading incident on wall 1 and wall 2, respectively, such that, + =1.0 (4) For symmetrical coupled shear walls, moments of inertias of two walls are equal for equal depths and thicknesses at any level.
Further, curvatures of two walls are equal at any level. Hence based on the Assumption (7), Equation (4) can be written as: = = 0.5 (5) Step 3 In this step, it is explained how to calculate the shear force developed in the coupling beams for different types of boundary conditions. CSA (1994) and Chaallal et al. (1996) defined the degree of coupling which is written as,
DC =
T l M ot
(6)
where, l = Lw + Lb ; T is the axial force due to lateral loading; Mot is total overturning moment at the base of the wall produced due to lateral loading. For fixed base condition DC varies from 0 to 1 and Equation (6) can also be written as:
DC = k
(d b )a (Lw )b (Lb )c
(6a)
The above Equation (6a) is proposed by Chaallal et al. (1996); N is the total number of storeys, k is constant and a, b and c are exponents which are given in Table 3.
Table 3: Values of constant k and exponents a, b and c
N 6 10 15 20 30 40 k 2.976 2.342 1.697 1.463 1.293 1.190 a 0.706 0.512 0.352 0.265 0.193 0.145 b 0.615 0.462 0.345 0.281 0.223 0.155 c 0.698 0.509 0.279 0.190 0.106 0.059
So based upon the above criteria and considering Equations (6) and (6a), shear force developed in the coupling beam could be determined as follows: Fixed base condition: For fixed base condition following equation can be written as: 39
C = T = Vi =
i =1
(db ) M ot k l (Lw )b (Lb )c

a
(7)
where, Mot is total overturning moment at the base due to the lateral loading. Therefore, based on the Assumption (9) shear force in coupling beam at each storey is,
V=
V
i =1
(8)
Pinned base condition: In this study, pinned base condition has been introduced as one of the possible boundary conditions for coupled shear walls. It can be constructed by designing the foundation for axial load and shear force without considering bending moment. It is expected that stable hysteresis with high earthquake energy dissipation can be obtained for considering this kind of base condition. DC is 1 for pinned base condition from the equation (6). Hence, the equation can be written as:
C = T = Vi =
i =1
M ot l
(9)
Therefore, based on the Assumption (9) shear force in coupling beam at each storey is,
V=
V
i =1
(10)
Step 4 After obtaining , and
at each storey for the particular value of
F1, bending moment values in each storey could be determined for each wall. Subsequently, curvature diagram for each wall is generated by using moment area method as adopted in the Microsoft excel spreadsheet; which is required to determine the wall rotation in each storey. The following equations are considered to calculate the wall rotation.
Overturning moment at a distance x from base with respect to each wall can be written as:
M ot ( x ) = { 0.5
j =0
N i
F1 (H jhs )(H x jhs ) H
(11)
where, i is storey number and it is considered from the base as 0, 1, 2, 3 N. Resisting moment in wall due to shear force in the coupling beam at a distance x from base can be written as:
L N L M wr ( x ) = w + b V j 2 j =i 2
(12)
where, net moment in the wall at a distance x from base, generated due to overturning moment and moment due to shear force in the coupling beam, can be written as: Mnet(x) = Mot(x) M wr (x )
ihs
(13)
Wall rotation at i th storey for fixed base can be written as:
wi =
M (x ) dx
net 0
Ec I
(14)
where, I =
t w L3 w 12
(15)
For plastic hinge rotation at the fixed base of wall or rotation at the pinned base of wall, Equation (18) could be written as:
ihs
wi =
M (x ) dx
net 0
Ec I
+ w0
(16)
where, w 0 is the plastic hinge rotation at the fixed base of wall or rotation at the pinned base of wall. 41
Step 5 i. Tensile forces at the base of wall 1 (T) as well as compressive forces at the base of wall 2 (C) are calculated due to lateral loading. ii. Compressive loads at the bases of wall 1 and wall 2 are calculated due to gravity loading. iii. Net axial forces at the bases of wall 1 and wall 2 are calculated, i.e. Net axial force = Tensile or Compressive force due to lateral loading (T or C) Compressive load due to gravity loading. iv. Then, according to these net axial forces for the particular values of fck, bb, d and p, the yield moment values at the bases of wall 1 and wall 2 can be determined from P-M interaction curve [IS 456 (1978) & Jain (1999)]. Where fck, bb, d and p are yield strength of concrete, breadth of a section, depth of that section and percentage of minimum reinforcement in that particular section, respectively; and P is the axial force and M is the moment; here net axial force is considered as P in the P-M interaction curve. v. Therefore, if calculated bending moment value at any base of the two walls is greater than yield moment value, plastic hinge at that base would be formed, otherwise no plastic hinge would be formed. Step 6 The rotation of coupling beam in each storey is determined as follows: Rotation of coupling beam at i th storey for symmetrical walls [Englekirk (2003)] as per Figure 3 is given by
L bi = wi 1 + w Lb
(17)
where, wi is rotation of wall at i th storey and can be calculated as per Equation (14), Lw = depth of wall, Lb = length of coupling beam.
Lw
Lb
Lw
wi
wi
bi
Lb 2
Figure 3: Deformed shape of a i th storey symmetrical coupled shear
For plastic hinge rotation at the fixed base of wall or real hinge rotation at the pinned base of wall, Equation (17) could be written as: bi = Lwb { wi } (18) where, wi can be calculated as per Equation (16) for fixed base of all or for pinned base of wall and
L Lwb = 1 + w Lb
Step 7
(19)
The rotational limit for collapse prevention level of different types of RCC coupling beams and steel beams are given in Table 2. The task 43
was to check whether the rotations of beams attained their rotational limit of CP level at the collapse mechanism of the structure simultaneously. Step 8 The roof displacement can be calculated as per the following equations:
N roof = hs wi i =0
where, displacement at i th storey can be calculated as:
(20)
i i = hs wj j =0
The base shear can be calculated as follows:
(21)
VB =
F1 ( N + 1) 2
(22)
Step 9 The F1 is modified as follows when the condition of Step 7 is not satisfied: To obtain the collapse mechanism of the structure, it is required to increase F1 with equal increment until all coupling beams attain their rotation limit of CP level simultaneously. 3.4 Validation of the Proposed Design Technique The following numerical example has been considered to validate the propose design technique. In this study plan and elevation with dimensions and material properties of the coupled shear walls have been adopted as given in Chaallal et al. (1996). 3.5 Numerical Example The coupled shear walls considered here is part of a 20-storey office building (Figure 4). It is subjected to triangular variation of lateral loading. The dimension and material properties are tabulated in Table 4. Dead loads and live loads are discussed in the following section. A comparison of the results regarding design/capacity curve (Figure 6) and ductility [Equation (27)]
obtained from the proposed design technique with the results obtained in SAP V 10.0.5 (2000) and DRAIN-3DX (1993) software packages may, thus, be required. For obtaining more perfection about the results, these two softwares have been considered here simultaneously.
Table 4: Dimensions and material properties of coupled shear walls for validation of proposed design technique Depth of the wall (Lw) Length of coupling beam (Lb) Depth of coupling beam (db) Number of storeys (N)
Wall thickness (tw)
4m 1.8 m
Width of coupling beam (bb) Storey height (hs) Modulus of concrete (Ec) Modulus of steel (Es)
300 mm 3.0 m 27.0 GPa 200.0 GPa 415 MPa
600 mm
20 Steel yield strength (fy)

300 mm
Figure 5(a) and Figure 5(b) show the plan and sectional elevation of the coupled shear wall building, respectively.
45
a
hs 5m Lw Lb Lw 5m Wall 2 9m 9m 9m 9m Wall 1 I, A db I, A
a
Figure 4(a): Plan view of building
LW
Lb
LW
Figure 4(b): Coupled shear walls at section a-a
3.5.1 Loading Consideration Dead loads (DL) of 6.7 kN/m2 and live loads (LL) of 2.4 kN/m2 have been considered as suggested in Chaallal et al. (1996). Total gravity loading on coupled shear walls at section a-a has been calculated as the sum of dead load plus 25 % LL as per IS 1893 (part 1) (2002) for floor; however, in case of roof only dead load is considered. 3.5.2 Modeling of Coupled Shear Walls in Proposed Design Technique The modeling of coupled shear walls involving Figure 2,
assumptions and steps with mathematical calculation is already described in Section Proposed Formulation.
3.5.3 Modeling of coupled shear walls in SAP and DRAIN-3DX Wide column frame analogy [Mcleod (1966)] has been considered for modeling of coupled shear walls in SAP V 10.0.5 (2000) and DRAIN3DX (1993) as given in Figure 5. In this analogy, shear walls are represented as two line elements (centre line of shear wall) and beams are represented as line elements (centre line of beam) by joining with each other with rigid link. Beam column elastic
element (Type-17) and inelastic element (Type-15) are considered for modeling.
Coupling beam Rigid link
0.5Lw
Lb 0.5Lw
Figure 5: Modeling in SAP V 10.0.5 (2000) and DRAIN-3DX (1993)
3.5.4 Calculation of Ductility The obtained design/capacity curve from the proposed design technique, SAP V 10.0.5 (2000) and DRAIN-3DX (1993) is bilinearized. The bilinear representation is prepared in the following manner based on the concepts given in ATC 40 (1996).
47
Capacity
Figure 6: Bilinear Representation for Capacity Curve
It can be seen from Figure 6 that bilinear representation can be due to the basis of initial tangent stiffness and equal energies (Area a1 = Area a2). Subsequently, ductility of the coupled shear walls has been calculated as:
roof , CP roof , yield
(23)
where, roof , CP and roof , yield can be calculated from the Equation (20); is the ductility which represents how much earthquake energy dissipates during an earthquake.
3.5.5 Results and Discussions Coupled shear walls at section a-a as shown in Figure 4 are considered for conducting the study. 4. RCC coupling beam with Conventional longitudinal
reinforcement and conforming transverse reinforcement: RCC coupling beam with Conventional longitudinal reinforcement and conforming transverse reinforcement in each storey has been selected as per Step 1 for the study. The results of this study for fixed base as well as pinned base conditions have been shown in the following manner.
15
10
SAP V 10.0.5 DRAIN3DX DESIGN SAP V 10.0.5 DRAIN3DX DESIGN
Figure 7(a): Capacity curve for fixed base condition
Figure 7(b): Capacity curve for pinned base condition
Table 5: Ductility of coupled shear walls considering different approaches
Method Proposed Design Technique DRAIN-3DX (1993) SAP V 10.0.5 (2000) 4.1 Discussions of numerical results 7 6.75 6.92
Ductility Fixed base Pinned base 7.5 7.45 7.47
Figure 7(b) shows that the results obtained from proposed design technique for pinned base conditions are almost similar with the results obtained from DRAIN-3DX (1993) and SAP V 10.0.5 (2000). Whereas, Figure 7(a) is showing a bit differences about the results obtained from proposed design technique, DRAIN-3DX (1993) and 49
SAP V 10.0.5 (2000) although same dimensions, same material properties and same loading were considered in all the three techniques. However, the differences were not very high (5-10%). Table 5 is showing the results about ductility obtained for fixed and pinned base conditions with the help of the Figures 7(a) and 7(b) and Section Calculation of Ductility. It is noticed that ductility for pinned base condition is greater than fixed base conditions. It means base. The results obtained from the proposed design technique are satisfactory. However, it is necessary to find the limitations of the proposed design technique. Therefore, in the following section, parametric study is elaborately discussed to detect the limitations of the proposed design technique. 4.2 PARAMETRIC STUDY It has been observed from the CSA (1994) and Chaallal et al. (1996) that the behavior of the ductile coupled shear walls depends on degree of coupling, where degree of coupling depends upon depth and length of the coupling beam as well as depth and height of the coupled shear walls [Park and Paulay (1975) & Paulay and Priestley (1992)]. Therefore, this study has been restricted on length of the coupling beam and number of stories as basic variables and other parameters are considered as constant. These parameters have been considered in proposed method to make out effect on the behavior of coupled shear walls. Further, modifications to achieve ideal seismic behavior according to the proposed method have been included in this study. 4.2.1 Model for Parametric Study A typical building with symmetrical coupled shear walls is shown in Figures 4(a) and (b). Coupled shear walls at section a-a have been considered to carry out the parametric study. Loading Consideration that stable hysteresis with high earthquake energy dissipation can be obtained for coupled shear walls with pinned
Loading has been considered as described as above. 4.2.2 Parameters Table 6 mentions the different parameters with dimensions and material properties which have been considered to carry out the parametric study.
Table 6: Dimensions and material properties of coupled shear walls for parametric study Depth of the wall (Lw) Length of beam (Lb) Depth of beam (db) Number of stories (N) Wall thickness (tw) 4m 1 m, 1.5 m and 2 m 800 mm 10, 15 and 20 300 mm Width of coupling beam (bb) Storey height (hs) Modulus of concrete (Ec) Yield strength of steel (fy) 300 mm 3.6 m 22.4 GPa 415 MPa
4.2.4 Discussions of the numerical results From the above studies, the following discussions have been made for the design of coupled shear walls under earthquake motion. (i) Coupled shear walls with N 15 with equal storey
height h s = 3.6m can be designed with an optimum ratio of
51
Lb = 0.25 for Lw
Lb = 1.25 db
and
Ib = 8 10 03 I
to
obtain
consistency between the behavior with respect to the wall rotation and earthquake energy dissipation. (ii) Pinned base condition can be provided at the base of the shear wall as this type of base condition offers better nonlinear behavior in compare to the fixed base condition.
5. ASSESSMENT OF PROPOSED NONLINEAR STATIC ANALYSIS
DESIGN
TECHNIQUE
USING
In this paper, nonlinear static analysis is carried out to determine the response reduction factors of coupled shear walls at different earthquake levels and through this analysis the proposed design technique was more justified. 5.1 Design Example The following design example is presented for carrying out the non linear static analysis of coupled shear walls. These walls are subjected to triangular variation of lateral loading. The base of the walls is assumed as fixed. Table 7 mentions the different parameters with dimensions and material properties which have been considered to carry out the study.
Table 7: Dimensions and material properties of coupled shear walls for nonlinear static analysis Depth of the wall (Lw) Length of beam (Lb) 4m 1m Width of coupling beam (bb) Storey height (hs) Modulus of concrete (Ec) Modulus of steel (Es) Number of stories (N)
Wall thickness (tw)
300 mm 3.6 m 22.4 GPa 200.0 GPa 415 MPa
Depth of beam (db)
800 mm
20 and 15
300 mm
Steel yield strength (fy)
Figure 4(a) and Figure 4(b) show the plan and sectional elevation of the coupled shear wall building, respectively. The place considered for this study is Roorkee and soil type for this place is medium (Type II); maximum considered earthquake (MCE) level and design basis earthquake level (DBE) are considered for the study. Loading has been considered as described as above. 5.2 Discussions of the numerical results From the Table 8, response reduction factor of coupled shear walls is varying between 1.22 to 2.05 for maximum considered earthquake (MCE) level; which is almost same as the provision of CSA (1994) for coupling beam with conventional reinforcement. Table 8: Response Reduction Factors for DBE and MCE levels
Parameters
e1 [Pore
(2007)]
e 2 [Pore
(2007)]
R [Pore
(2007)]
R IDRS
[First Method of EnergyDuctility Based Response Reduction] [Pore (2007)] 1.04
R IDRS
[Second Method of EnergyDuctility Based Response Reduction] [Pore (2007)] 1.004
R d as per
CSA (1994)
DBE N=20 MCE
1.04
1.004
1.02
2.05
1.2
1.58
2.05
1.34
N=15
DBE
1.01
1.00
1.002
1.01
1.00
1.5 or 2 for coupled shear walls with conventional reinforced coupling beam
53
MCE
1.87
1.13
1.39
1.87
1.22
6. CONCLUSIONS From the above studies, the following conclusions have been made for the design of coupled shear walls under earthquake motion. (i) Design technique should be adopted for fixing the dimensions of coupled shear walls. (ii)Coupled shear walls with N 15 with equal storey
height h s = 3.6m can be designed with an optimum ratio of
Lb = 0.25 for Lw
Lb = 1.25 db
and
Ib = 8 10 03 I
to
obtain
consistency between the behavior with respect to the wall rotation and earthquake energy dissipation. (iii) Pinned base condition can be provided at the base of the shear wall as this type of base condition offers better nonlinear behavior in compare to the fixed base condition. (iv) The behavior of coupling beam should be governed by shear. REFERENCES
[1] Applied
Technology Council: ATC-40 Report (1996): Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Concrete Buildings, Volume I, Redwood City, California. Analysis, Cervenka Consulting, Praha, Czech Republic.
[2] ATENA2D: Version 3.3.0.3 (2006), Nonlinear Finite Element Integrated [3] Bureau of Indian Standards: IS-456 (2000), Plain and Reinforced
Concrete Code of Practice, New Delhi, India.
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Design and Construction of Buildings - Code of Practice, New Delhi, India.
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Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Seismic Forces Code of Practice, New Delhi, India.
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Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures: Part 1 General provisions and Buildings, New Delhi, India.
[7] Canadian Standards Association: CAN3-A23.3-M94, CSA (1994),

Design of Concrete Structures for Buildings, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada.
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methodology for coupled shear walls, Engineering, ASCE, 122(12), 1453-1458. fracture initiation in shear link webs, Engineering, ASCE, 132(8), 11921200. Journal of Structural
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Kurama, Y. (2010), Seismic Design of Hybrid Coupled Wall Systems: State of the Art, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 122(12), 1453-1458.
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Concrete Buildings, John Wiley, NY.
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NEHRP Guidelines for the Washington, DC, U.S.A. Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings,
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Prestandard and Commentary for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings, Washington, DC, U.S.A.
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coupled core wall system wall piers, Journal in Advances in Structural Engineering, 12(3), 299310.
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Coupling Beams with Different Reinforcement Layouts, ACI Structural Journal, 97(6), 876-885.
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design of high-rise coupled wall systems. The Structural Design of Tall and Special Structures, 15(3), 289306.
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R/C Bridge Columns under Cyclic Loading, Earthquake Spectra, 17 (2), 261281.
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Design for Coupled Wall Systems, Earthquake Spectra, 16(3), 621-642.
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Effect of Constituent-Characteristics on Durability of Masonry and Concrete Structure

V. Kumar
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. India
1. INTRODUCTION
The most effective use of masonry construction is seen in load bearing structures wherein it performs a variety of functions, namely, supporting loads, subdividing space, providing thermal and acoustic insulation, as well as fire and weather protection, which normally in a framed building has to be accounted for separately. In India, there has not been much progress in the construction of tall load bearing masonry structures, mainly because of poor quality of masonry workmanship and materials such as clay bricks that are manufactured even today having nominal strength of only 7 to 10MPa. However, recently mechanized brick plants are producing brick units of strength 17.5 to 25N/mm2 and therefore it is possible to construct 5 to 6 storied load bearing structures at costs less than those of RC framed structures. The appearance of a finished confined masonry construction and a RC frame construction with masonry in fills may look alike to layman; however, these two construction systems are substantially different. In confined masonry construction, confining elements are not designed to act as a moment- resisting frame; as a result, detailing of reinforcement is simple. In general, confining elements have smaller cross sectional dimensions than the corresponding beams and columns in a RC frame building. It should be noted that the most important difference between the confined masonry walls 59
and infill walls is that infill walls are not load-bearing walls, while the walls in a confined masonry building are load bearings. There can be no denying the fact that concrete has virtually dominated the field of construction in the 20th century. Due to its versatile and numerous well known advantages, no cost effective substitute has emerged for this 150 year old material. Therefore, it is no wonder that most of the experts believe that concretes distinction of being the largest man made material of construction in the world is not likely to be challenged in the near future. However, the concrete design and construction practices today are essentially strength driven. Due to escalation in the repair and replacement costs of structures and a growing concern about sustainability of the concrete industry more attention is being paid now to durability issues. In homogeneities in the micro-structure of concrete are responsible for micro-cracks which grows into macrocracks due to weathering resulting into fast rate of transport of water, carrying harmful ions and gases from the surface into the interior of concrete and hence deterioration of concrete. The effect of different ingredient on the durability of concrete has been covered to show the changes in concrete technology needed for enhancing the durability of structures. The technology of concrete has traversed a long way from normal strength concrete to high strength, high performance to ultra high performance concrete branching into a variety of innovative developments in the fields of fiber reinforced concrete, polymer modified concrete, self compacting concrete, high volume fly ash concrete etc. Concrete is an environment-friendly as compared to the other major materials of construction such as structural steel, aluminum etc. The production of concrete involves least amount of energy consumption, releases no byproducts and it is recyclable. Also it can be made greener with the incorporation of vast proportion of waste products from other industries such as fly ash from thermal power stations, ground granulated blast-furnace slag from steel industry, silica fume from silicon and ferro-silicon smelting plants and rice husk ash improving the environmental profile and thus sustainability of concrete on one hand and its durability on the other hand.
During the past few decades, the phenomenon of premature deterioration of concrete structure is being witnessed. This has become a matter of concern in many countries bringing the issue of durability of concrete in the fore front. Also the codes of practice of many countries, including Indian code IS 456 -2000 have undergone changes incorporating revised provisions pertaining to durability of concrete. In this context an attempt has been made to highlight the properties and sincere use of different constituent of concrete on the durability of concrete. Prof. P. K. Mehta, a concrete technologist has remarked, In spite of an accumulated knowledge base on how to build durable concrete structures, there has been essentially no progress on the issue. He has also suggested that by a judicious selection of concrete making materials and mix proportions, and by proper construction practice, the micro-structural inhomogeneities in concrete can be considerably reduced and the durability of structures can be radically enhanced.
2. ROLE OF AGGREGATES IN CONCRETE
Aggregates play a crucial role in ensuring long-term durability of concrete. This aspect is not adequately understood on many occasions by persons involved in material selection and mix proportioning, who tend to consider aggregate as an inert component used essentially as economic filler and as a means to render some volume stability to concrete. Aggregate constitute nearly 70 to 80 percent of volume in concrete and have profound impact on a variety of properties of concrete both in the fresh and hardened states. It has a most visible and significant influence on the properties of fresh concrete such as workability, segregation, bleeding etc as well as on the hardened properties, mainly the compressive, flexural, tensile, modulus of elasticity, shrinkage, creep etc. Also the properties of aggregate 61
influences the durability properties of concrete such as resistance to chloride and sulphate attack, carbonation, alkali-aggregate reaction etc. Many of the properties are related mainly to the binder phase but aggregates also play a key role in several ways.
3. ROLE OF CEMENT
Cement is one of the most important constituents of concrete and its physical and chemical characteristics have profound effects on the properties of concrete. Modern concrete also contains a variety of admixtures both mineral and chemical besides cement, aggregate and water. Due to these additives, the nature of concrete tends to be more complex and it becomes difficult to predict the influence of a particular ingredient as the properties of fresh and hardened concrete. However, Portland cement being one of the most reactive materials in concrete, has a considerable influence on the final properties of concrete. From the comparison of data on the characteristics of commercially available Portland cements during the last five decades, some interesting trends have been revealed. It has been found that there has been increase in the C3S content and decrease in C2S content, although the amount of total calcium silicate had remained same. Also the increase in the fineness of cement and SO3 as well as alkali contents have been observed. Due to the forgoing, modern cements generally gain strength more rapidly upto 7 days, due to higher C3S content and higher fineness of the modern cement. Although these changes in the cement composition and increase in fineness helped in obtaining high early strength, but the percentage gain in moist cured concrete strength between 28 days and 10 years has reduced. Several structures constructed during last 20 years using high strength concrete in USA are suffering from epidemic of durability problems. Simultaneously more cases of serious and premature deterioration of concrete infra-structure have been reported from around the world. Some of the high strength concrete structures cracked even before construction was completed. All these were due to high thermal contraction and autogenous shrinkage resulting from the use of high cement content and fast hydrating type cement. Therefore, the concrete which gives high compressive strength may not be durable, so the emphasis is also given to permeability and hence durability of concrete. However, it has been realized that it is difficult to produce durable concrete for
infrastructure work without the use of pozzolans. Concrete mixture with cementitious material including 30 percent fly ash or 40 percent granulated slag has been found to be user friendly, economical and crack resistant. Significance of microcracks: continuous microcracks linking into wider cracks originating from the concrete surface play a wider role in increasing permeability and hence reducing durability of concrete. Hydration reaction of Portland cement minerals produce a multiphase product that consists primarily of an adhesive poorly crystalline, C-S-H (Calcium Silicate Hydrate) phase and some well crystalline products including calcium hydroxide. In freshly mixed and compacted concrete, water films forming around the coarse aggregate particles raise the water cement ratio in close proximity to these particles. In the interfacial transition zone between a coarse aggregate particle and cement mortar, the space with high water-cement ratio becomes filled with a porous framework of large plate-like, oriented, and non-adhesive crystals of calcium hydroxide. In conventional concrete, this is the weak area which is highly vulnerable to microcracks. Therefore, reducing the area of the interfacial transition zone in concrete, and elimination of the defects and inhomogeneities within the hydrated cement paste seem to be the proper tools to control microcracks. In fully hydrated Portland cement pastes, approximately 24 percent of the hydration product by mass consists of oriented heterogeneously distributed and weakly bonded layers of calcium hydroxide crystals serving as potential site for the formation of micro-cracks. By transforming all or most of the calcium hydroxide into the calcium silicate hydrate phase which is much more homogenous hydration product, and stable, the problem of microcracks in the concrete can be reduced. Therefore, concrete mixtures with fewer microcracks can be produced by the use of 63
blended Portland cement containing large proportion of pozzolanic cementitious materials.

4. ROLE OF WATER IN CONCRETE
Water is one of the most vital ingredients of concrete. Its use in concrete can broadly be divided in four categories, viz., hydration of the cementitious matrix, conferring workability to the mix, curing during hardening process and washing of aggregates. It has both beneficial and detrimental effects on concrete. It helps in hydration process, and also in lubricating the concrete mix for easy handling, transportation, placement and finishing. When used for curing concrete, it is instrumental in improving the long term strength gain, durability and many other properties of concrete provided curing is done for adequate period. Besides this beneficial role, water also happens to be the key element involved in a number of deterioration phenomenon. It is a powerful solvent and it has potential to carry aggressive chemical agents, which may prove deleterious for hardened concrete. Carbonation of calcium hydroxide formed in the hydration process cannot take place unless carbon dioxide forms a weak acid by dissolving and associating with water. The degradation like corrosion of embedded steel and alkali aggregate reaction cannot proceed in absence of water or moisture. Thus, water is both a friend and foe of concrete. It is well known that by lowering the w/c, compressive strength and other properties of concrete can be improved. However, water demand increases with increase in workability, ambient temperature and fines content of the cementitious powder. It is easier to place concrete with higher water content but essential properties of concrete are harmfully affected. Excess as well as lack of bleeding of concrete is harmful as in case of higher evaporation and no bleeding, risk of plastic shrinkage cracks increases and in case of excess bleeding, the permeability of concrete increases due to increase in microcracks. For this purpose, the concrete society documents suggests, it might be a good idea to consider the use of an admixture that locks water on position in the fresh concrete state. Also in hardened concrete, the presence of continuous microcracks, facilitate the ingress of water from external sources, increases the degree of saturation which is a pre-requisite for any damage to be
caused by frost action. Similarly, the penetration of salt water to the surface of the reinforcement set the stage for corrosion. A microcracked structure subjected to alternate wetting and drying are prone to damage due to sulphate attack or due to alkali silica reaction. Therefore, if the structure remains dry one can almost have a trouble free reaction even if concrete contains reactive aggregate and mobile alkalies.
5. CONCLUSIONS
To move towards the goal of sustainable construction industry, one must achieve a radical enhancement in the durability of Portland cement concrete which is the most widely used material of construction in the world today. The major root cause of concrete durability problems is the presence of inhomogeneities in the hydrated cement paste. These inhomogeneities serve as potential sites for microcracks and hence increase in porosity which is the single parameter that has the largest influence on durability. Therefore, for achieving the desired durability, it is vital to select and specify appropriate constituents of concrete in correct dosages and giving due considerations to the exposure conditions. Hence, by proper construction practice, the micro-structural inhomogeneities in concrete can be considerably reduced and durability of structures can be radically enhanced.
REFERENCES
[1] Guide to durable concrete, Editorial, ICJ, Vol. 79, no. 10, Oct. 2005. [2] Effect of cement characteristics on concrete properties, Editorial, ICJ, Vol. 79, No. 4, April 2005. [3] Role of water in concrete, Editorial, ICJ, Vol. 80, No. 3, March 2005. 65
[4] How to specify concrete? Editorial, ICJ, Vol. 80, No. 6, June 2006. [5] Mehta, P. K., Durability of concrete the zigzag course of progress, ICJ, Vol. 80, No. 8, August 2006. [6] Nawy, E. G., Concrete construction engineering handbook, CRC Press, New York, 1997. [7] Mehta, P. K. and Monterio, P. J. M, Concrete microstructure,, properties and materials, ICJ, Chennai, 1999.
Provisions of Different Codes in Brick Masonry Buildings: A Critical Review

Rajesh Kumar
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
1. INTRODUCTION
In India, most of the residential buildings up to four stories are either constructed with load bearing brick masonry (BM) wall or reinforced concrete (RC) moment resisting frame type with brick masonry acting as partition/infill walls. In the current design practice for reinforced concrete buildings, the infill walls are considered to be non structural and analysis and design of buildings are done neglecting the strength and stiffness contributions of the infill. This leads to an incorrect idealization of structure. According to Clause 4.4.3.1 of the National Building Code of India, while designing the structure all the walls of the structure should be planned to take load, so that it gives maximum economy. Also according to Structural Masonry Designers Manual for Design of Multi-Storey Structures, the frame in reinforced concrete construction has to carry loads from the roof and floors, and has to be strengthened to carry the weight of the walls. This results in complete wastage of structural potential of the brick or block masonry used in the walls. In India, there has not been much progress in the construction of tall load bearing masonry structures, mainly because of poor quality of masonry workmanship and materials such as clay bricks that are manufactured even today having nominal strength of only 7 to 10 MPa. However, recently mechanized brick plants are producing brick units of strength 17.5 to 25 N/mm2 and therefore it 67
is possible to construct 5 to 6 storied load bearing structured at costs less than those RCC framed structures. Use of confined brick masonry can further improve its load carrying capacity and most importantly its flexural and shear behavior under earthquake loads. A construction system where RC members confine a plain masonry walls on all four sides or reinforced masonry is called confined masonry (1). This paper deals with the study of different codes on the design of masonry structures. The focus has been on the comparative study of the codes and national building codes of India with respect to the design philosophy, effect of reinforcement on masonry and design of masonry under compression, flexure and shear.
2. Masonry Codes
The different codes have been reviewed and presented on the basis of provisions related to design approach, member sizing and details.
2.1 Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ACI 53002/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02)
These codes cover the design and construction of masonry structures and are accompanied with a commentary on the building code requirements. The code provides minimum requirements for the structural design and construction of masonry units using both allowable stress design as well as limit state design for unreinforced as well as reinforced masonry. In limit state design, more emphasis is laid on reinforced masonry than unreinforced masonry. A empirical design method applicable to buildings meeting specific location and construction criteria is also included.
2.2 Indian Standard Code of Practice Unreinforced Masonry (IS: 1905-1987(2)) for Structural Use of
The Indian Standard on masonry design was first published in 1960 and later on revised in 1969, 1980 and 1987. The current third version, published in 1987, was reaffirmed in 1998. The Provisions of this code is very similar to those of BS 5628: Part 1:1978. A separate handbook to this code, SP 20, 1991, is also available. This Indian Standard provides recommendations for structural design aspect of load bearing and non -load bearing walls using unreinforced masonry only. Design procedure adopted throughout the code is allowable stress design, along with several empirical formulae. The code refers to IS: 4326 for strengthening
unreinforced masonry building for seismic resistance and does not provide any calculation for the design of reinforcement.
2.3 Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings- Code of Practice (IS: 4326:1993(3))
This standard provides guidance in selection of materials, special features of design and construction for earthquake resistant buildings including masonry construction. The general principles to be observed in the construction of such earthquake resistant buildings as specified in this standard are lightness, continuity of construction, avoiding/reinforcing projecting and suspended parts, building configuration, strength in various directions, stable foundations, ductility of structure, connection to non-uniform parts and fire safety of structures. Special construction features like separation of adjoining structures crumple section, foundation design, roofs and floors and staircases have been elaborated in the standard. As per IS 4326: 1993 Clause 8.5, the load bearing walls can be made thinner than 200 mm say 150 mm inclusive of plastering on both sides. Reinforced concrete framing columns and collar beams will be necessary to be constructed to have full bond with walls. Columns are to be located at all corners and junction of walls and spaced not more than 1.5 m but so located as to frame up the doors and windows (Fig.1). The horizontal bands or ring beams are located at all floor roof as well as lintel levels of openings. The sequence of construction between walls and columns will be first to build the wall up to 4 to 6 courses height leaving toothed gaps (tooth projections being about 40 mm only) for the columns, and second to pour M15 concrete to fill the columns against the walls using wood forms on both sides. The column steel should be accurately held in position all along. The band concrete should be cast on the wall masonry directly so as to develop full bond with it (Fig. 2). Such construction may be limited to only two storeys maximum in view of its vertical load carrying capacity. The 69
horizontal length of walls between cross walls shall be restricted to 7 m and the storey height to 3 m.
Figure 1: Typical distribution of vertical confining elements in the plan of the building
Figure 2: Framing of thin load bearing brick walls
. As per Clause 8.4.2 of IS 4326: 1993 lintel band shall be provided at lintel level on all load bearing internal, external longitudinal cross walls. The band shall be made of reinforced concrete of grade not leaner than M15 or reinforced brick work in cement mortar not leaner than 1:3. The bands shall be of full width of the wall and not less than 75 mm in depth and reinforced with steel (Fig. 3).
Figure 3: Reinforcement and Bending Details in reinforced concrete band As per clause 8.4.1 of IS 4326: 1993, all masonry buildings shall be strengthened by the methods, as specified for various categories of buildings, as listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Strengthening methods for various categories of buildings listed in IS: 4326-1993. Building Category Number of Storeys Strengthening to be
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A ( h < 0.05) B ( 0.05 h 0.06) C (0.06 < h < 0.08) D ( 0.08 h < 0.12) E ( h 0.12)
i) 1 to 3 ii) 4 i) 1 to 3 ii) 4 i) 1 and 2 ii) 3 and 4 i) 1 and 2 ii) 3 and 4 i)1 to 3*
provided on all Storeys a a, b, c a, b, c, f, g a, b, c, d, f, g a, b, c, f, g a to g a to g a to h a to h
Where, h is Design Seismic Coefficient a- Masonry mortar ( Cl. 8.1.2) b- Lintel band c- Roof band and gable band where necessary d- Vertical steel at corners and junctions of walls e- Vertical steel at jambs of openings f- Bracing in plan at tie level of roofs g- Plinth band where necessary h- Dowel bars * fourth storey is not allowed in category E
2.3.1 Shortcomings of IS: 4326-1993
IS: 4326-1993 provides for vertical column steels to tie the building in the vertical direction. But by simply providing the steel in the vertical direction confinement of masonry is not achieved, which is the main reason by which horizontal force resisting capacity of building increases many folds. Further, if in place of vertical corner steel composite reinforced concrete columns are provided then separation of walls at the corner junction shall also be resisted by the flexural capacity of the composite reinforced concrete columns. Clause 8.5 of IS: 4326-1993 stipulate that the size of offsets should be 40 mm which is too much and this will result in improper filling of the concrete in offsets, leaving voids. Therefore the size of offset should be kept as 5mm to 10mm for proper filling and interlocking of aggregates of concrete.
2.4 Improving Earthquake Resistance of Low Strength Masonry Buildings-Guidelines (IS: 13828:1993(4))
This standard covers the special features of design and construction for improving earthquake resistance of buildings of low strength masonry. The provisions of this standard are applicable in all seismic zones. No special provisions are considered necessary for buildings in seismic zone II if cement sand mortar not leaner than 1:6 is used in the masonry. The various provisions of IS: 4326:1993 regarding general principles, special construction features, type of construction, categories of buildings and masonry construction of low strength dealt with in this standard.
2.5 Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Seismic Forces-Code of Practice (IS: 13920:1993(5))
This standard covers the requirements for designing and detailing of monolithic reinforced concrete buildings so as to give them adequate toughness and ductility to resist severe earthquake socks without collapse.
2.6 Repairs and Seismic Strengthening of Buildings-Guidelines (IS: 13935:1993(6))
The code covers the selection of materials and techniques to be used for repair and seismic strengthening of damaged buildings during earthquakes and retrofitting for upgrading of seismic resistance of existing buildings. The buildings affected by earthquake may suffer both non-structural and structural damages. This standard lays down guidelines for nonstructural/architectural as well as structural repairs, seismic strengthening and seismic retrofitting of existing buildings. Guidelines have been given for selection of materials for repair work such as cement, steel, epoxy resins, epoxy mortar, quick setting cement mortar and special techniques such as shotcrete, mechanical anchorage etc.
2.7 National Building Code of India Guidelines (2005(7))
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Special features of design and construction for earthquake resistant masonry buildings are given in National Building Code. For the purpose of specifying the earthquake resistant features in masonry buildings, the buildings have been categorized in five categories A to E based on the seismic zone and the importance of building I (Table 2).
Table 2: Building Categories for Earthquake Resisting Features Importance Factor 1.0 1.5 Seismic Zone II III IV V A B C D B C D E
Mortars, such as those in table 3 or of equivalent specification, shall preferably be used for masonry construction for various categories of buildings. Where steel reinforcing bars are provided in masonry the bars shall be embedded with adequate cover in cement sand mortar not leaner than 1:3 (minimum clear cover 10 mm) or in cement concrete grade M15 (minimum clear cover 15 mm or bar diameter whichever more), so as to acieve good bond and corrosion resistance.
Table 3: Recommended Mortar mixes Category of Construction A B, C D, E Proportion of Cement-Sand M2 (Cement-Sand 1:6) M2 (Cement-Sand 1:6) H2 (Cement-Sand 1:4)
Masonry bearing walls built in mortar as specified in table 2 unless rationally designed as reinforced masonry shall not be built of greater height than 15 m subject to a maximum of four storeys when measured from the mean ground level to the roof slab or ridge level.
2.8 Euro Code
(8,9,10)-Guidelines
Normally the tie-columns should fit into the thickness of masonry wall and the minimum tie-column cross section is 150x150 mm. The concrete for the confining members should be min grade M15. According to EC, the contribution of the tie-columns and bondbeams to the lateral resistance of the masonry house should not be taken into account. Consequently specific design calculations for confining elements are not required. The amount of reinforcement in vertical and horizontal confining elements is determined on
empirical basis. The min steel tie-columns reinforcement for construction in seismic zones is specified in EC. According to this code the min reinforcement area for tie-columns is 240 mm2. For tie-columns at the house corners and wall intersections, it is recommended that, at least 4 x 12 mm dia mild steel bars are used for reinforcement. In this case the total steel area is 314 mm2. Mild steel stirrups of 10 mm dia are placed uniformly distributed at 200 mm offsets. Although the tie-columns and bond beams do not provide frame system adequate splicing and anchoring of rebars is required at all joints. Sixty rebar diameters splices are required according to EC. In some resources tabulated data are provided, where the area or rebars can be selected in dependence of seismicity of the location and number of storeys in the house. Such data is presented below in Table 4 for tie-columns.
Table 4: Recommended reinforcement for vertical confining elements
No of storeys 2 4 4 6 6 6 1-2 1-2 2-4 1-2 3-4 5-6
Low: ag < 0.1g 4 8 4 8 4 8 4 10 4 8 4 8
Moderate: 0.1g < ag < 0.2g 4 10 4 10 4 10 4 12 4 10 4 10
High: 0.2g < ag < 0.4g 4 12 4 12 4 12 4 14 4 12 4 12
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To enforce the confinement of plane masonry by the confining members EC 8 requires connecting the masonry and tie-columns by means of rebar diameter 6 min at max 600 mm apart. These links
should be anchored at least 250 mm into the mortar joints. Brick masonry should be constructed on the basis of following simple instructions for quality workmanship:
In dry and hot climate, masonry units should be soaked in water before the construction in order to prevent quick drying and shrinkage of cement based mortars.
Masonry units should be assembled together in overlapped fashion (Figure 4 and Figure 4a) so that the vertical joints are staggered from course to course. To ensure adequate bonding the units should overlap by a lenght equal to 0.4 times the height of unit or 40 mm, whichever is the greater.
Same type of masonry units and mortar should be used for structural walls in the same storey.
Bracing walls should be constructed in the same time as the load-bearing walls
The thickness of individual walls is kept constant from storey to storey.
In cases where general purpose mortar is going to be used, the mortar joints thickness should be between 8 and 15 mm. EC 8 specifies that, in seismic zones, the load-bearing masonry wall thickness should be min 240 mm when the masonry is confined. To ensure stability of walls, the ratio of the effective wall height to wall thickness should be max 15. To ensure load-bearing capacity of masonry walls with openings the length of a structural wall should be at least 1/3 of the greater clear height of the openings adjacent to the wall in the case of confined masonry.
Figure 4: Flemish bond for one brick thick wall
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Figure 4a: English bond for one brick thick wall 3. Confined brick masonry action (11) 3.1 Earthquake resistance of masonry walls
In the event of an earthquake, apart from the existing gravity loads, horizontal racking loads are imposed on walls. However, the unreinforced masonry behaves as a brittle material. Hence if the stress state within the wall exceeds masonry strength, brittle failure occurs, followed by possible collapse of the wall and the building. Therefore unreinforced masonry walls are vulnerable to earthquakes, and should be confined and/or reinforced whenever possible. Masonry walls resisting in-plane loads usually exhibit the following three modes of failure:
Sliding shear- a wall with poor shear strength, loaded predominantly with horizontal forces can exhibit this failure mechanism. Aspect ratio for such walls is usually 1:1 or less (1:1.5). Shear- a wall loaded with significant vertical load as well as horizontal forces can fail in shear. This is the most common mode of failure. Aspect ratio for such walls is usually about 1:1. Shear failure can also occur for panels with bigger aspect ratio ie. 2:1, in cases of big vertical load.
Bending- this type of failure can occur if walls are with improved shear resistance. For bigger aspect ratios ie. 2:1 bending failure can occur due to small vertical loads, rather than high shear resistance. In this mode of failure the masonry panel can rock like a rigid body (in cases of low vertical loads).
Failure modes for masonry walls subject to in-plane loads are shown on Fig. 5
Figure 5: Failure modes for masonry walls subject to in-plane loads
3.2 Mechanical properties
In order to estimate the resistance of masonry walls, the following mechanical properties for the masonry needs to be determined:

The compressive strength- f The shear strength- fv The bending strength- fx 79
The stress-strain relationship, s-e
Other essential mechanical characteristics of masonry:

The The The The
tensile strength- ft, as an equivalent to shear strength- fv modulus of elasticity- E shear modulus- G ductility factor-m
The ductility factor is determined only for a specific structural element (specific proportions, boundary conditions etc). It cannot be determined for the masonry itself. Mechanical characteristics of masonry are determined by testing standard specimens of masonry wallets and walls according to code EC.
3.2.1 Compressive strength
Compressive strength is determined by testing masonry specimens of at least 1.5 units length and 3 units height or by testing walls of 1.0-1.8 m length and 2.4-2.7 m height. In cases where the masonry specimen is slender (height/thickness>20), lateral displacements at the mid height of the wall are measured. The slenderness can be taken into account using the measured value for this displacement d and the thickness of the wall t. Thus the measured compressive strength can be increased by the following factors:
t/(t-d), provided the increase is not more than 15%. According to EC three identical specimens are tested and the results evaluated. In cases where the measured mean compressive strength f of masonry is different from the one of its constituents ( masonry units and mortar) by 25% the value of f is modified. The characteristic compressive strength of masonry fk is determined as the smaller value of either fk=f/1.2 or fk=fmin. When verifying load bearing masonry and test data is not available, the characteristic compressive strength of plain masonry made with general purpose mortar may be calculated on the basis of normalised compressive strength of masonry units fb and compressive strength of mortar fm as follows: fk = K*(fb0.65)*(fm0.25) [MPa],
and fm is less than 20 MPa or 2fb, whichever is the smaller. The value of constant K depends on the classification of masonry . Below are shown recommended values for K:

0.60 for group 1 masonry units in a wall without longitudinal mortar joint, 0.55 for group 2a masonry units in a wall without longitudinal mortar joint, 0.50 for group 2b masonry units in a wall without longitudinal mortar joint, and for group 1 masonry units in a wall with longitudinal mortar joint, 0.45 for group 2a masonry units in a wall with longitudinal mortar joint,
0.40 for group 2b masonry units in a wall with longitudinal mortar joint, and for group 3 masonry units.
3.2.2 Shear strength
Shear strength of masonry is defined as a combination of initial shear strength under zero compressive load and increase in strength due to compressive stresses perpendicular to the shear plane. Initial shear strength at zero compressive stress is denoted with fvko. This property is determined according to EN 1052-3 by testing a triplet specimen such that only shear stresses develop in the mortar to masonry unit contact planes. A minimum of five triplets are tested. The minimum acceptable value of fvko is 0.03 MPa. The characteristic shear strength of plain masonry is then calculated as follows: fvk = fvko+0.4*sd, where sd is the design compressive stress perpendicular to the shear plane. The value of sd should be greater than 0.065fb and a limiting value specified in EC 6 depending on masonry unit's group and mortar quality. 81
3.2.3 Bending strength
In cases where the masonry needs to be verified for out-of-plane loads the bending strength is the governing factor. The bending strength parallel to bed joints (see Fig. 6) is denoteed with fx1 and the bending strength perpendicular to bed joints (see Fig. 7) is denoted with fx2. According to EC 6 the value of fx1 should be taken as zero when evaluating seismic resistance.
Figure 6: Vertical orientation of failure plane and corresponding bending strength normal to bed joints
Figure 7: Horizontal orientation of failure plane and corresponding bending strength parallel to bed joints
3.2.4 Elastic properties
The modulus of elasticity E of masonry can be determined after compression tests. The elastic modulus is defined as a secant modulus at service load condition. This load level corresponds to 1/3 of the maximum vertical load. When determined by testing E modulus value is not available the following equation may be used: E=1000fk However in the calculated value of E modulus may not be correct. Reliable E values are the one in the margin: 200fk <= E <= 2000fk Theoretically and as specified in EC 6 the G modulus is evaluated as being 40% of the E modulus. In reality the values of shear modulus G are much lower. Reliable G values are the one in the margin: 1000ftk <= G <= 2700ftk The discrepancy between experimental and predicted values for the mechanical properties of masonry can be explained with the composite nature of the material. There are wide variety of not only masonry units but also mortars and various composition of the masonry wall itself. Therefore the testing of masonry is essential step in seismic resistance verification of masonry houses.
4. Planning and layout
Surveys of earthquake damaged residential masonry wall houses and analysis of the causes of damage indicate that well tied buildings with well defined, continuous load path to the foundations perform much better in earthquakes than building lacking such features. Well defined, continuous load path can be achieved with regular structural layout and uniformity both in plan and elevation. The degree of symmetry is also found to have a 83
significant influence on earthquake resistance. Damage can be five to ten time worse in irregular buildings compared to regular ones. Thus satisfactory seismic behavior can be guaranteed by following the requirements for regular and uniform layout both in plan and elevation, interconnectivity between structural members and strength of materials summaries an earthquake resistant structural form for masonry wall structure is the one which is:

Regular both in plan and elevation i.e. uniform and symmetrical Redundant - capable of providing adequate resistance even after a failure of a structural member With rigid floors interconnected with walls that ensure diaphragm action
Stable foundation should be provided able to transmit the maximum seismic loads from the superstructure to the foundation soil. Masonry buildings with horizontal irregularities and lack of symmetry may have considerable eccentricity between the mass centre and stiffness centre giving rise to damaging coupled lateral/torsional response. Horizontal irregularities in the form of extensions, projections etc. may cause stress concentration and local failures since these extensions are prone to vibrate separately from the rest of the structure. On the other hand vertical irregularity in masonry building may cause stress concentration at a horizontal plane that can lead to total collapse. In order to achieve satisfactory redundancy at least to lines of load bearing walls are required in each principal direction of the building. Lack of rigid floors will prevent proportionate load transfer onto walls at each floor level as well as will not provide out of plane restraint. Not supported masonry walls at floor level tends to separate at corners and/or fail out of their plane, causing collapse of floor or roof. According to EC 8 the following general criteria for structural regularity in plan and elevation should be considered: The building structure is approximately symmetrical along each principal axis in plan, for both stiffness and mass distribution. A sufficient number of load bearing walls with approximately the same stiffness, should be provided in both principal direction of the building -see Fig. 8
Figure8: Structural wall distribution in plan
The plan shape should be simple. Total dimension of projections, reentrant corners or recesses in one direction is limited to 25% of the overall dimension of the building in the corresponding direction -see Fig. 9
Figure 9: Examples of regular configuration of masonry houses in plan
The length of a single portion of the building is limited to four times its width. In cases where longer building is required, a separation joint is necessary. The separation should be min 50 mm Fig. 10
85
Figure 10: Irregular configurations in plan should be separated in regular portions
Vertical regularity is achieved by uniform distribution along the height of the building of stiffness and masses. Lack of vertical regularity may lead to horizontal plane of weakness/stress concentration and collapse. Mixed structural systems, such as a combination of masonry structural walls in one level and RC frame in the next are not allowed. For planning flexibility is possible combined system consisting of RC columns and masonry shear walls. For such configurations the masonry bearing walls should be reinforced and the RC members should be connected into RC floors forming frames. The vertical reinforcement of the masonry shear wall should be anchored into the floor to ensure loads transfer, The floors are rigid in their plane providing diaphragm action and interconnected with masonry walls. To this end the floors should be constructed in a single plane. In cases where large openings are present in the floor, such as for stairways the contour of the opening should be strengthened with a bond beam. Also two-way slabs are preferred to one-way slabs, as they distribute the vertical gravity loads more uniformly onto the masonry walls.
5. Plan dimensions and height or number of storeys
Limitations concerning the height of masonry wall houses have been set in most existing seismic codes. Currently EC 8 limits the construction of confined brick masonry houses located in seismic zones with high seismic risk ie. ag => 0.3g to four storey houses. However confined brick masonry wall buildings which conform with the specifications for structural configuration and quality of materials, the dimensions of the building are not limited by the
code. In this case the dimensions of the house are determined by design calculations based on the load bearing capacity of the masonry. The building should be verified according to ultimate limit states. On the other hand based on the experience from past earthquake as well as the existing technologies for masonry housing construction it is recommended that the height and number of storeys.
6. Distance between masonry bearing walls and wall openings
In EC 8 there is no requirement for maximum distance between walls. However based on experience for different type of masonry houses it is recommended that the distance between walls conform to Table 5.
Table 5- Recommended maximum distance between structural walls
Design ground acceleration ag Unreinforced masonry [m] Confined Masonry [m] Reinforced masonry [m]
< 0.2 [g] 10 15 15
0.2 - 0.3 [g] 8 12 12
>= 0.3 [g] 6 8 8
Another essential factor is the structural wall continuity. This means that the size and configuration of openings in walls should be carefully planned. The following recommendations regarding the configuration and size of openings should be observed:

Openings should be vertically aligned from storey to strorey The top ends of openings in the storey should be horizontally aligned Openings should not stop continuous RC bond beams (at lintel and/or roof level) Openings should be located symmetrically in the plan of the building so that not to get in the way of the uniform 87
distribution of strength and stiffness in two orthogonal directions. 7. Simple houses According to EC 8 certain class of masonry housing can be exempt from seismic resistance verification provided that the quality of materials and construction rules specified in the code are met. Such houses are named "simple buildings". According to EC 8 simple buildings are regular buildings with an approximately rectangular plan. The ratio between the long to shorter side of the house is no more to four and the projections or recesses from the rectangular shape are not greater than 15% of the length of the side parallel to the direction of projection. Such houses have the following limitations regarding number of storeys above ground (Table 6)
Table 6: Number of storeys above ground, allowed for simple buildings
Design ground acceleration ag Unreinforced masonry Confined Masonry Reinforced masonry
< 0.2 [g] 0.2 - 0.3 [g] 3 4 5 2 3 4
>= 0.3 [g] 1 2 3
For masonry house to comply with a simple building a number of specifications are given for the masonry walls. The structural walls should be symetrically located in plan in two orthogonal directions. A minimum of two structural walls per orthogonal direction. The length of each wall should be greater than 30% of the length of the building in the wall plane and the distance between these walls should be maximum 75% of the size of the building in the other direction. The minimum cross sectional area of the structural walls is also specified in EC 8. At every floor, the area of the structural walls in two orthogonal directions is provided as a percentage of the total floor area above the level considered. Table 7 below gives the minimum horizontal structural wall cross-section.
Table 7: Minimum horizontal structural wall cross-section, given as 96 of the total floor area above the level considered (6)
Design
ground < 0.2 [g] 0.2 - 0.3 [g] >= 0.3 [g]
acceleration ag Unreinforced masonry 3 Confined Masonry Reinforced masonry 2 2 5 4 4 6 5 5
To enforce reguliarity, the difference in structural walls crosssectional area in two orthogonal directions from storey to storey should be maximum 20%. The difference in the mass of structural walls in two orthogonal directions from storey to storey should be as well maximum 20%. For such buildings it is also required that 75% of the vertical load is carried from the structural walls.
8. Details for seismic resistance 8.1 Concept
The performance of building subject to an earthquake motions is governed by the inter-connectivity of structural components as well as the individual component's strength, stiffness and ductility. Thus the details to provide seismic resistance can be classified in two categories: Details for complete load path

Provide Provide Provide Provide Provide
wall-to-wall connection ie. tying of walls means for walls to foundations connection connection of bond beams to roof connection of walls to bond beams stiff in their plane floors/roofs
Details to improve structural components strength and ductility
Improve the compressive strength of structural components 89
Improve the bending strength of structural components Improve the shear strength of structural components Improve the ductility, m of the structural components
9. Bond beams
In the case of confined masonry construction bond beams are constructed as part of the vertical and horizontal masonry confining elements. Bond-beams should be constructed in-situ from reinforced concrete and cast simultaneously with the floor slab. Bond-beams should be cast on top of all structural walls at every floor level. The minimum bond beam's cross section is recommended to be 150x250. The bigger dimension being the thickness of the wall. Typical examples of monolithic cast in-situ RC bond beams with RC slabs are shown below on Fig. 11.
Figure 11: Details of cast in-situ RC slabs with bond beams
Maximum vertical distance between bond-beams is 4 m. Bondbeams are constructed because:
Forms confined masonry shear walls in combination with tiecolumns Improves the in-plane stiffness of floors to provide diaphragm action Transfers the horizontal load from the diaphragm to the structural walls Connects the structural walls together and provides out-ofplane support Connects the RC tie-columns
EC8 specifies the following minimum requirements: Concrete of class 15 should be used

Cross section size should be not less than 150x150 mm Four mild steel rebars with total area 240 mm2 To ensure integrity of the bond beam the longitudinal rebars at corners and wall intersections should be spliced a length of 60f Transverse reinforcement-stirrups rebars f6 @ 200 mm intervals (Fig. 12)
91
Figure 12- Detail of RC bond showing splicing of rebars at wall corners
According to EC 8 the resistance of the RC bond-beam should not be taken into consideration in the design calculations.
Consequently there is no mandatory design through calculation for the bond-beams. As was discussed in the confined masonry section the design parameters are determined on empirical basis. In Table 7 the members reinforcement can be determined based on the seismicity of the location the number of stories and position. Table 8:Recommended reinforcement of horizontal RC bond-beams
Number of storeys 2
Position Low: (storey) < 0.2 [g] 4 bars, 8 mm
Moderate: 0.2 - 0.3 [g] 4 bars, mm 10
High: >= 0.3 [g] 4 bars, mm 12
1-2
1-2
4 bars, 10 mm 4 bars, 8 mm 4 bars, 12 mm 4 bars, 10 mm 4 bars, 8 mm
4 bars, mm 4 bars, mm 4 bars, mm 4 bars, mm 4 bars, mm
12
4 bars, mm
14
2-4
10
4 bars, mm
12
1-2
14
4 bars, mm
16
3-4
12
4 bars, mm
14
5-6
10
4 bars, mm
12
10. Tie-columns
Although the tie-columns and bond beams do not provide frame system adequate splicing and anchoring of rebars is required at all joints. Sixty rebar diameters splices are required according to EC8. The cross-sectional area of rebars for tie-columns can be selected in dependence of seismicity of the location and number of storeys in the house. On Fig. 13 below is illustrated the splicing of rebars between bond beam and tie-column.
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Figure 13: Construction of tie-column for confined brick masonry house 11. Floors and roofs
In EC 8 it is specified that the floor and roof structure can be constructed in timber or reinforced concrete, provided a diaphragm action can be achieved. When building confined masonry houses, RC floor slabs cast in-situ are preferred.
Apart from developing diaphragm action and transfer of the seismic forces onto the walls the floors and roof should support the walls out of their plane, ie. all structural walls should be restrained at floor/roof level. In the case of RC slab the connection is provided naturally by constructing RC bond beam onto the structural walls.
12. Lintels and cantilever elements
Lintels are load-bearing elements which support the weight of the wall and floor above opening. Lintels can be made from in-situ reinforced concrete, timber and reinforced masonry. In seismic zones cast in-situ RC lintels are recommended. If the distance between the top of the opening to the top of the floor above is less than 600 mm the lintel can be cast simultaneously with the bond beam and floor slab as shown on Fig. 14. In cases where the distance is bigger the lintels can be cast separately (Fig. 14) and care should be taken to bond the RC lintels to the masonry of the adjoining wall through horizontal rebars.
95
Figure 14: Requirement for lintels in seismic zones
13. CONCLUSIONS
Confined brick masonry is also quite ductile, and it can absorb significantly high energy and undergo large deformation during earthquake. The confined brick masonry technology also ties up the entire building together for better seismic performance. Confined brick masonry construction makes a building very safe against differential settlement and wind load. Also, the confined brick masonry construction results in better aesthetics and is convenient to construct using economically available local material and labour. In the IS 4326-1993 there exists provision for tying up the building members together, but the concept of confined brick masonry is not utilized except in clause 8.5. However, there is clear provision for confined brick masonry in the Euro Code 8, 1998. The
recommended technology is fully supported by Euro Code 8 and IS: 4326-1993 (Clause 8.5), and therefore, there should be no hesitation in application of the technology in the Gangetic plain, as detailed in the report.
REFERENCES
[1] Brzev, S. Sinha, R.., Unreinforced brick masonry building with RC roof slab, World Housing Encyclopedia, Report/India, EERI and IAEE. [2] IS: 1905-1980, Indian Standard Code of Practice for Structural Safety of Buildings-Masonry Walls, Second Revision-1981, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. [3] IS: 4326-1993, Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
[4] IS: 13828-1993, Indian Standard Code of Practice for Improving Earthquake Resistance of Low Strength Masonry Buildings, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. [5] IS: 13920-1993, Indian Standard Code of Practice for Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Seismic Forces, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. [6] IS: 13935-1993, Indian Standard Code of Practice for Repairs and Seismic Strengthening of Buildings-Guidelines, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. [7] National Building Code of India 2005, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. [8] Eurocode 8: Design provisions for earthquake resistance of structures. Part 1-2: General rules- General rules for buildings. ENV 1998-1-2: 1995 (CEN, Brussels, 1995). [9] Eurocode 8: Design provisions for earthquake resistance of structures. Part 1-3: General rules- Specific rules for various materials and elements. ENV 1998-1-3: 1995 (CEN, Brussels, 1995). [10] Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures. Part 1-1: General rules for buildings. Rules for reinforced and unreinforced masonry. ENV 1996-1-1: 1995 (CEN, Brussels, 1995). [11] Singh, k. Pramod, (2006), A Report on Composite Buildings in The Gangetic Plain, Confined Brick Masonry Construction for Four Storey Apartment Report/Department of Civil Engineering, IT, BHU, Varanasi.
97
Earthquake Resistant Confined Brick Masonry Buildings

P. K. Singh
Professor & Head, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India 1. INTRODUCTION As per Euro Code 81, a construction system where plain masonry walls are confined on all four sides by reinforced concrete members or reinforced masonry is called confined brick masonry (CBM). In case of CBM buildings the design philosophy adopted is that neither the brick masonry nor reinforced concrete gets damaged during earthquake condition. Euro Code 8 limits the construction of CBM houses located in seismic zones having design ground acceleration (ag) greater than or equal to 0.3g to four storeys (Table 1).
Table 1: Recommended maximum height of building (H) and number of storeys (n).
Design ground acceleration ag Unreinforced H [m] masonry n Confined Masonry Reinforced masonry H [m] n H [m] n
< 0.2 [g] 12 4 18 6 24 8
0.2 - 0.3 [g] 9 3 15 5 21 7
0.3 [g] 6 2 12 4 18 6
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1.1 Significance of Brick Masonry Buildings in India
As being followed in China and Chile brick masonry apartment buildings can be the future of the apartment buildings in India also. Since 1990, base isolated brick masonry buildings with reinforced concrete floors/roof have been used more widely in China.
Figure 1: Brick Masonry buildings in China
Figure 2: Brick Masonry buildings in Chile
Buildings of confined brick masonry type (Fig 2) are found in all regions of Chile. 1.2 Socio-Economic Impact
Figure 3: Seismic zones II, III & IV of the Gangetic plain having more than 75m soil cover
Seismic zones II, III & IV of the Gangetic plain are shown in Fig 3, where alluvial soil deposit is having a depth of more than 75m and goes up to few kilometers in some areas. Total population residing in the area is approximately 32.91 crores. Therefore, earthquake resistant confined brick masonry building for the area will have very high socio-economic impact. 1.3 Technical Details According to Euro Code 8 the cross-sectional area of rebars for tiecolumns can be selected in dependence of seismicity of the location and number of storeys in the house. In composite confined brick masonry buildings the column shall be of 230 mm x 230 mm having 4 bars of 12 mm diameter as longitudinal reinforcement and 6 mm diameter stirrups at the spacing of 150 mm centre to centre. The details of column are shown in the Fig. 4. 103
230 m m
6 d ia stirrups @ 85 c/c M 20 C oncrete

150 mm
4x12 dia ba rs
4 x1 2 dia ba rs
230 mm
230 m m
6 dia stirru ps @ 150 c/c
a) C olum n de tails
b ) B and details
Figure 4: Details of composite column and Lintel level band
The foundation details corresponding to allowable bearing capacity of 100 kN/m2 is given in Fig.5. The width of strip footing for brick masonry shall be 1200 mm and the dimensions for column footing shall be 1200mm x 1200 mm. The column footing shall be reinforced with 6 bars of 10 mm diameter in both the directions.
4x12 dia bars
230 mm
6 dia stirrups @ 150 c/c
250 mm
M20 Concrete
100 mm
Lean Concrete
1200 mm
6x10 dia bars either way
Figure5: Details of foundation for a four storey CBM building
1.4 Site Effect Seismic effect of local soil conditions on peak ground acceleration are shown in figure 6.
Figure 6: Effect of local soil conditions on peak ground acceleration.
From the figure, it is seen that maximum seismic acceleration is considerably lower in the alluvium deposit in comparison to the rock mass. Fig.7 gives a relationship between the natural period of soil and alluvium depth.
105
Figure 7: Relationship between the natural period of soil and alluvium depth
As the depth of soil deposit increases, fundamental period of the deposit also increases. Due to plastic deformation and cracking of the soil, high frequency content of the earthquake waves can not be supported by the soil, and it quickly dies out in the soil. Therefore, in deep alluvial soil deposit area only low frequency and high amplitude earthquake waves are experienced at the ground level. Fig. 8 shows relationship between damage and the fundamental period of the soil in the 1967 Caracus earthquake.
Figure 8: Damage and the natural period of the soil in the 1967 Caracus earthquake
As reported for the 1967 Caracus earthquake , buildings up to 3 to 5 storeys constructed at places having soil cover more than75 meters suffered minimal damage, and suffered considerable damage at places having soil depth less than 75 meters. Similarly, buildings up to 10 to 14 storeys suffered considerable damage at places where soil cover was more than 75 meters and suffered minimal damage at places where soil cover was less than 75 meters. 1.5 Structural Action of CBM Some structural actions of CBM are presented here for its clear structural understanding. 1.5.1 Load Sharing In the CBM building, flexible nature of the slab and the lintel level band, helps the brick masonry wall and the reinforced concrete column to act together to support all the vertical loads in direct 107
compression. Load redistribution between reinforced concrete column and brick masonry wall mainly at the offsets, ensures equal strain in the reinforced concrete and the brick masonry at their interface (Fig. 9).
Approximately 1 mm
RC Column
Brick Masonry
a) From column to wall
b) From wall to column
Figure 9: Load redistribution between reinforced column and brick masonry wall
1.5.2 CBM Action under In-Plane Static Loading Singh et al.2 conducted experiment on three models, namely; (i) Reinforced concrete frame without infill (ii) Brick masonry infilled reinforced concrete frame having no shear connection, and (iii) Brick masonry infilled reinforced concrete frame with shear connection. The Load Deflection Curves for the tested models are given in Figure 10.
300
250
200
Frame without infill Infilled frame without shear connection
Load (kN)
150
Infilled frame with shear connection
100
50
0 0 2 4 6 Deflection (mm) 8
10
12
13
Figure 10: Load deflection curves for static loading
According to them, in-plane strength of CBM wall may go up approximately 10 times in comparison to unconfined brick masonry. 1.5.3 Continuous Lintel Band Action Effect of continuous lintel band on out of plain vibration of the wall, and in plane strength of the wall are discussed below. a) Out of plane effect In case of CBM building continuous lintel band is provided all around the building. This lintel band breaks the wall height and thereby increases stiffness of the wall and results in its reduced deflection to about one fifth (Fig. 11).
109
slab w
slab
lintel band w w
slab
slab
Figure 11: Deflection of BM wall with and without lintel band
Deflections of the wall for the two cases are compared below. Deflection without lintel band action, = Deflection with lintel band action =
wh 4 384 EI
wh 4 384EI
4
2 3
16 4 w h 81 384
/5 Thus, out of plane deflection of the wall reduces to about 1/5th due to the continuous lintel band where the wall is assumed to be supported. b) In-plane effect Singh, P.K. et al.3 have reported experimental results of in-plane effect of continuous lintel band. They have tested models of infilled frame without opening, infilled frame with opening having continuous lintel band, and infilled frame with opening having isolated lintel band. The ultimate load carrying capacity of infilled frame with opening having continuous lintel band was reported to be 1.7 times that of the infilled frame with opening having isolated lintel.
1.5.4 Separation of Orthogonal Walls at the Corner In the CBM buildings, the corner column, which is tied at the lintel and floor level, provides flexural support to the two orthogonal walls
at the corner. This action prevents wall separation at the corner during earthquake. 2. MODEL TESTS 2.1 Scale effect The models have been prepared and tested on 1/5th scale. In the direct model study response of the prototype is directly determined from measurement of response of the model(5). 2.2 UBM Building model Test An UBM 2-storey model was prepared on geometrically reduced scale of 1/5th which is seen as mounted on the shake table in Fig. 13. Materials used for the brick masonry and RC works in the experiment are; (i) Portland pozzolana cement, (ii) 1st class country bricks of size 462314mm, having average water absorption of 10.7% and compressive strength of 35MPa, (iii) Coarse sand of size 4.0mm downgraded to 1mm having FM of 6.29 used as coarse aggregate, and (iv) washed locally available Ganga river sand used as fine aggregate having FM of 2.81. Concrete mix of 1:1.5:3 by weight with water cement ratio of 0.5 was adopted for all RC works, and cement mortar of ratio 1:3 by weight was used for the brick masonry.
111
Figure 13: UBM model Mounted on shake table
2.3 Test Results The building model after failure is seen in Fig. 14. 2.3.1 Amplitude Measurement Detailed measurements are taken using Laser sensors and CATMAN Easy software. The amplitude at the roof slab level was also measured by using a scale mounted on the stand and a pointer fixed to the model, with the help of video recording.
Fig. 14 Test results viewed from East Face
2.3.2 Frequency and amplitude Amplitude of the shake table was fixed at 10mm. In this model rate of change of frequency was 0.033Hz /s. Total number of cycles subjected to the model was 122 cycles in 87sec. The time interval was kept as 3sec for each frequency step. The plots between time and amplitude at top of the model are shown in figures 15 and 16, which represent plot for the first 27sec, and last 54 to 84sec, respectively. From figure 16, it is clear that model vibrated with maximum amplitude of 12.5mm at the top, with a storey drift of 2.5mm.
113
15 13 11 9 7 5 3 1 -1 -3 012345678910 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 1 1 11 1 1 12 2 2 2 2 2 22 2 3 -5 -7 -9 -11 -13 -15 Time in sec
amplitude in mm
Series1
Figure 15: Time Vs amplitude plot of UBM model (0-27sec)
15 10
amplitude in mm
5 0 -5 -10 -15 Time in sec 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 Series1
Figure 16: Time Vs amplitude plot of UBM model (54-84sec) g- level at failure of the UBM model
If the displacement / amplitude is given by; y = a sin t Then, = a cos t = - a 2 sin t And, max = - a 2 Maximum acceleration at the base level= -a 2 = 0.010 * 17.582 = 3.09 m/ sec2 = 0.32g Maximum acceleration at the top slab level= -a 2 = 0.0125 * 17.582 = 3.86 m/ sec2 = 0.39g
The main conclusion drawn from the above experimentation is that the UBM building model failed at 0.32g level in bending. Therefore, reinforcement at the corners was found to be necessary to enhance the g-level of the building before failure. 3. Building Model as per IS 4326-1993. A building model geometrically similar to UBM model was prepared as per IS 4326-19934 provisions, except confinement of openings ( Fig. 17 and Fig. 18). Fig.17 shows the model where masonry up to window sill level with corner reinforcement welded to the base plate is completed.
Figure17: Masonry up to window sill level with corner reinforcement
The complete building model mounted on the shake table is seen in Fig.18.
115
Figure18: Building model as per IS4326 with Laser sensors
3.1 Test Results The building model after failure is seen in Fig. 19. The failure took place at 0.65g level at base level and 1.04g at top. The mode of failure was failure of the corner steel in tension.
Figure 19: Test results viewed after failure
3.3 Frequency and amplitude Amplitude of the shake table was fixed at 5mm. In this model rate of change of frequency was 0.037Hz /s. The amplitude with respect to time at roof slab level, middle floor slab level and base level are measured with laser sensors. The plots between time and amplitude at top, middle and bottom of the model are shown in figures 20, 21 and 22, which represent plot for 14.9-16.08sec, 75.82-76.8sec and 98.8 to 100.0sec, respectively. Observed maximum amplitude at the top is 8.0mm.
10
Amplitud e in mm
5 0
Series1 Series2 15 15.5 16 16.5 Series3
-5
14.5
-10 Figure 20: Time Vs amplitude plot of UBM model (14.9-16.08sec)
10 5 0 75.5 -5 76 76.5 At Top At Middle 77 At Bottom
-10 Figure 21: Time Vs amplitude plot of UBM model (75.82-76.8sec)
117
10 5 0 -5 -10 Figure 22: Time Vs amplitude plot of UBM model (98.8-100.0sec) 98.5 99 99.5 100 Top Middle
Time in sec
100.5
Bottom
The main conclusion drawn from the above experimentation is that the building model failed at 5.7Hz frequency i.e. at 0.65g level by the way of rupture of vertical reinforcement at base level. No other failure mode was noticed.
4. CBM Building Model A building model on 1/5th scale and geometrically similar to UBM model was prepared (Fig.23). Reinforcement details adopted in the CBM model (at 1/5th scale) are given in the table 6.
Table 6: Reinforcement details of the model
Sl. No
Particulars
Dia of rebars As per Euro code 8
Nos./spacin g
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Column reinforcement Slab reinforcement Beam reinforcement Stirrups Lateral ties Binding wire
12 mm 8 mm 12mm 6mm 6mm 22 gauge
4 22mm c/c
Dia of wire used in the model 2.4 mm 1.6 mm 2.4 mm 1.2 mm 1.2mm 26 gauge
2- legged @ 17 mm c/c 2- legged @ 30 mm c/c
Figure 23: Complete CBM model after mounting on shake table
The model after test is shown in figure 24. As seen from here, there is no damage to the model at all after the test. The test had to be stopped due to limitation of the shake table which became unstable at 7.2Hz frequency.
Figure 24: CBM model after test
119
4.1 Frequency and amplitude Amplitude of the shake table was fixed at 5mm. Time vs. amplitude plot for the CBM model are shown in figures 25 and 26. The CBM model was subjected to amplitude at the top level of model of 9mm and base amplitude of 5mm.
amplitude in mm
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 -3 -4 -5 -6 Time in sec
Figure25: Time vs amplitude plot for CBM model ( 0-27sec)
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 Time in sec
Figure26: Time vs amplitude plot for CBM model (111- 120sec)
The CBM model did not fail even at 7.2 Hz frequency. The maximum g-level of CBM at the base level was 1.04g and at the top slab level it was 1.88g.
amplitude in mm
5. CONCLUSIONS On the basis of experimental study, the following salient
conclusions are drawn. 1. In the UBM model initial cracks due to flexure appeared at 0.32g 0.39g at the base in the horizontal direction at a frequency of 2.82Hz, which lead to final failure. Therefore, there is need for sufficient vertical reinforcement at the corners to prevent this type of failure. 2. Building model as per IS4326-1993 failed at the maximum shake table frequency of 5.7Hz. Fixed amplitude at the base level was +5mm, and the observed maximum amplitude at the roof slab level was +8.0mm. The corresponding g-level at the base was 0.65g and at the roof slab level was 1.04g. Model failed by the way of corner reinforcement rupture at the base level. Hence, it is concluded that single bar as the vertical corner reinforcement is insufficient. 3. The CBM model was subjected to maximum practically possible frequency of the shake table of 7.2Hz ( 5mm base amplitude) in 486 cycles. No damage to the model was observed, and the model remained intact after the test. 4. In case of CBM, the shake table amplitude was fixed at 5mm, and maximum roof slab amplitude of the model was observed to be 9mm. The corresponding g-level at maximum possible frequency and amplitude was 1.04g at the base, and it was 1.88g at the roof slab level. 5. In the CBM model no separation of the brick masonry and RC at the interface was observed even at 1.88g level. Therefore, it is 121
concluded that for the CBM buildings, there is no necessity to provide offsets, as given in Euro code 8. 6. In the CBM Building model there is no failure or crack observed at openings and at junction of concrete and masonry even at 1.88 g-level. Hence, it is concluded that there is no need to confine the openings as given in the IS 4326-1993. 7. The CBM building model, tested without bond beams, exhibited no deficiency during the test even at 1.88g level. Therefore, it is concluded that in CBM buildings provision of bond beam below the slab level, as given in Euro code 8, is not necessary.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research work was carried out under Special Assistance Program of the University Grants Commission, New Delhi in the Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University.
REFERENCES [1] Euro Code 8: Design provisions for earthquake resistance of structures. Part 1-2: General rules for buildings. ENV 1998-12:1995 (CEN, Brussels, 1995). [2] Singh, P.K. Saxena S. and Roy. B N (2001) 'Behavior Of Brick Masonry Infilled Reinforced Concrete Frames Subjected to Static Loading Journal of the Institutions of Engineers (India), vol 82, no 01, pp 23-29. [3] Singh, P.K., Singh ,V. and Yadav, S. (2006) Effect of Opening on Behavior of the Infilled Frame with and without Continuous Lintel Band Journal of the Institutions of Engineers (India), vol 87, pp 33-37.
[4] IS 4326-1993, Earthquake resistant design and construction of buildings Code of Practice, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. [5] Ganeshan, T.P. Model Analysis of Structures , University Press (India) Limited.
123
Analysis of Confined Brick Masonry Buildings

P. R. Maiti
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India of
1. INTRODUCTION Confined brick masonry construction is an alternative to unreinforced masonry (load bearing) structures and RC frame construction. It has some features of both the technologies. It consists of masonry walls with horizontal and vertical RC confining members built on all four sides of the wall. Vertical members resemble the columns in RC frame construction but they are of smaller cross section, they are called tie columns. Similarly horizontal members are called tie beams. Generally they are termed as horizontal ties and vertical ties. These members are effective in i) enhancing the strength of masonry walls under lateral loads; ii) reducing the brittleness of masonry walls hence improving their earth quake performance; and iii) confining the members to restrict damage to masonry wall. The different components of a typical confined brick masonry building are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Components of confined brick masonry building
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Masonry walls: Transmit the gravity load from the slab above down to the foundation. The walls act as bracing panels, which resist horizontal earthquake forces. The walls must be confined by concrete tie- beams and tie-columns to ensure satisfactory earthquake performance. Confining elements (tie-columns and tie-beams): Provide restraint to masonry walls and protect them from complete disintegration even in major earthquakes. These elements resist gravity loads and have important role in ensuring vertical stability of a building in an earthquake. Floor and roof slabs: Transmit both gravity and lateral loads to the walls. In an earthquake, slabs behave like horizontal beams and are called diaphragms. Plinth band: Transmits the load from the walls down to the foundation. It also protects the ground floor walls from excessive settlement in soft soil conditions. Foundation: Transmits the loads from the structure to the ground. It must be noted that horizontal and vertical ties may be of various kind of materials apart from reinforced concrete like steel, timber etc. 1.2 History and Extent of Application of Confined Brick Masonry Construction 1908 - First known use of confined masonry construction was in reconstruction of buildings destroyed by the Messina, Italy earthquake of magnitude 7.0. 1930 Confined masonry construction started in Chile (after 1928 Talca earthquake of magnitude 7.8) and Colombia 1939 Another earthquake of 7.8 magnitude hit MidSouthern Chile which established the confined masonry construction as a better earthquake resistant construction. 1940 Confined masonry construction introduced in Mexico City to control wall cracking caused by large differential settlement under soft soil condition. Confined masonry construction is in practice over last 33 years in Mediterranean Europe, Latin America, Middle East, Indonesia etc.
1.3 Confined Brick Masonry and Reinforced Brick Masonry In confined brick masonry, reinforcement is restricted in the confining members and no reinforcement is provided in masonry itself whereas in reinforced brick masonry construction, vertical reinforcement is provided in the hollow space in bricks which is later grouted with a cement grout to avoid corrosion of reinforcement. Horizontal reinforcement is provided in ladder form i.e. in horizontal joints. Additional vertical reinforcement is provided at corners, joints, openings and wherever necessary depending on the expected severity of seismic load.
Figure 2: Confined Brick Masonry Construction
1.4 Confined Brick Masonry and RC Frame Construction In general observation both confined brick masonry construction and RC frame construction look alike but in reality they are vastly different in manner to resist gravity and lateral load as well as in the sequence of construction. Major differences are as following:127
In confined brick masonry construction walls are constructed first, then vertical ties are constructed and at last horizontal ties are constructed with floor/roof slab whereas in RC frame construction frame is constructed first and then masonry walls are constructed since walls are non structural members in this case. Masonry walls are the main load bearing structures in confined masonry construction, expected to bear both gravity and lateral loads while in RC frame construction, all loads are resisted by RC frame and walls are non load bearing part. While strip footing is used in confined brick masonry structures, RC frame structures require isolated footing. Confining elements are not built to resist moment hence they have relatively simple reinforcement detailing which simplifies design and facilitates construction. Smaller cross section area makes confined masonry structures cheaper than their RC frame counterparts. It is to be noted that even with smaller beam/column size and inadequate detailing too RC frame structures would not perform as good as confined masonry construction under seismic load due to inadequate design and construction.
1.5 Failure of Confined Masonry Structure Failure mechanisms of confined masonry wall panels depend on the direction of earthquake loading. There are two possible scenarios: a) Earthquake ground shaking in the direction parallel with the longitudinal wall axis, also known as in-plane seismic loading, or b) Earthquake ground shaking perpendicular to the longitudinal wall axis, or out-of-plane seismic loading. Mechanisms of seismic response due to in-plane and out-of-plane seismic loading are discussed in the following sections.
1.5.1 In-plane failure mechanisms There are two major failure mechanism observed due to in-plane seismic loading in confined masonry buildings Shear failure mechanism Flexural failure mechanism a) Shear failure mechanism It is due to in-plane seismic loads. It is characterized by distributed diagonal cracking in the wall. These cracks propagate into the tiecolumns at higher load levels, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Shear Failure of the Wall
Initially, a masonry wall panel resists the effects of lateral earthquake loads by itself while the confining elements do not play any significant role. However, once the cracking takes place, the wall pushes the tie-columns sideways. At that stage, vertical reinforcement in tie-columns becomes engaged in resisting tension and compression stresses. Damage in the tie-columns at the ultimate load level is concentrated at the top and the bottom of the panel. These locations, characterized by extensive crushing of concrete and yielding of steel reinforcement, are called plastic hinges (Figure 4). It is to be noted that the term plastic hinge has a different meaning in the context of confined masonry components 129
than that referred to in relation to RC beams and columns, where these hinges form due to flexure and axial loads.
Figure 4: Plastic Hinge in a Confined Brick Masonry
In confined masonry construction, tie-beams and tie-columns resist axial loads. Shear failure can lead to severe damage in the masonry wall and the top and bottom of the tie-columns. b) Flexural failure mechanism It is caused by in-plane lateral loads and is characterized by horizontal cracking in the mortar bed joints on the tension side of the wall, as shown in Figure 5. Separation of tie-columns from the wall was observed in some cases (when toothed wall-to-column connection was absent). Extensive horizontal cracking, which usually takes place in tie columns, as well as shear cracking can be observed on Figure 5.
Figure 5: Flexural Failure Mechanism
1.5.2 Out-of-plane seismic effect on wall Seismic shaking in the direction perpendicular to a masonry wall (also known as out-of-plane seismic loading) causes bending and shear stresses in the wall. This may result in cracking and possible wall collapse by overturning. Due to an increase in spectral accelerations up the building height, the out-of-plane seismic effects are more pronounced at higher floor levels, as shown in Figure 6a. In the area affected by the 2010 Maule, Chile earthquake, wall cracking due to out-of-plane seismic effects was observed at the top floor level, as shown in Figure 6b (no damage was observed at lower floors in the same direction). The building had RC floors and timber truss roof. The extent of damage and a likelihood of wall collapse depends on the type of roof and floor diaphragm (rigid or flexible), and how well the wall is attached to its confining elements (if any). The out-ofplane bending mechanism is critical mainly for buildings with flexible diaphragms, which are not capable of transmitting the lateral forces to the stiffer walls oriented in the direction of the seismic action. In some cases, this mechanism can also be critical in buildings with rigid diaphragms due to inertia forces generated by transverse wall vibrations, as shown in Figure6a. To prevent the occurrence of this failure mechanism, it is important to restrict the maximum spacing of tie-beams and tie-columns and ensure tooting and the interaction between the walls and the confining elements.
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Figure 6: Out-of-plane seismic response of confined masonry walls: a) mechanism of seismic response (Tomazevic, 1999), and b) observed damage at the top floor level of a building after the 2010 Maule, Chile earthquake (M. Astroza)
A possible out-of-plane failure mechanism for walls in buildings with rigid diaphragms is similar to that characteristic of a two-way slab supported on all ends and subjected to uniformly distributed loading, as shown in Figure 7a. This damage pattern was observed at the second floor level of a three-storey building damaged in the 2010 Maule, Chile earthquake, as shown in Figure 7b.
Figure 7: Out-of-plane seismic effects in confined masonry walls: a) two-way slab mechanism, and b) evidence from the 2010 Maule, Chile earthquake (S. Brzev)
1.5.3 Seismic Response of Multi-Storey Confined Masonry Building In multi-story confined masonry buildings, earthquake-induced lateral forces peak at the ground floor level and cause significant shear cracking. Under severe earthquake ground shaking, the collapse of confined masonry buildings may take place due to a soft story effect (similar to that found in RC frames with masonry infills), as shown in Figure 8. This behavior was confirmed by experimental studies (Ruiz and Alcocer, 1998; Alcocer et al., 2004).
Figure 8: Soft-story collapse mechanism for multi-storey confined masonry buildings (Alcocer et al., 2004)
1.6 Key Factors Influencing the Seismic Resistance of Confined Masonry Structures
a) Wall density Wall density is the key parameter influencing the seismic performance of confined masonry buildings. Evidence from past earthquakes show that confined masonry buildings with adequate wall density were able to resist the effects of major earthquakes without collapse. The wall density is quantified through the wall density index d, which is equal to d = AW/AP . Where, AP is area of the building floor plan, as shown in Figure 9, and AW is equal to the cross-sectional area of all walls in one direction, that is, a product of the wall length and thickness. When performing the AW calculations it is not necessary to deduct the area of tie-columns and area of voids in hollow masonry units. It is very important to note that wall cross-sectional area should not be included in the Aw calculation in the following cases: a) Walls with openings, in which the unconfined opening area is greater than 10% of the wall surface area, and b) Walls characterized by the height-to-length ratio greater than 1.5. The d value should be determined for both directions of the building plan (longitudinal and transverse).
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Figure 9: Wall Density Index Parameter
b) Masonry Unit The following types of masonry units are acceptable for confined masonry construction: 1) Solid concrete blocks 2) Hollow concrete blocks 3) Solid clay bricks 4) Hollow clay tiles (blocks). The hollow units are those having, in their most unfavorable cross section, a net area at least 50% of the gross area, and exterior face shell thickness of not less than 15 mm (Figure 10a). For hollow units with two to four cells, the minimum thickness of the interior webs is 13 mm. Multi-perforated units are those with more than seven perforations or cells (Figure 10 b). For multi-perforated units having perforations of the same dimensions and distribution, the minimum thickness of the interior webs is 7 mm.
Figure 10: Different types of hollow bricks
Hollow masonry units should be used with caution in nonengineered buildings. To ensure satisfactory seismic performance of masonry walls built using concrete blocks, it is critical that the minimum material strength and construction quality recommendations outlined in this document have been met. Note that wall density index are by 33% higher for walls built using hollow concrete blocks compared to those built using solid units.
Perforations in solid masonry units are permitted. However, the ratio of net to gross area should be greater than 75%. The following types of units are not recommended for confined masonry construction: 1) Masonry units with horizontal perforations, and 2) Natural stone masonry and adobe (sun-dried earthen units).
c) Mortar
It should be noted that hydraulic cement is commonly used for masonry wall construction. Masonry cement is pre-mixed in a plant and it consists of a mixture of Portland cement and plasticizing materials (such as limestone or hydrated or hydraulic lime), and other materials introduced to enhance one or more properties such as setting time, workability, water retention and durability. Masonry cement is not commonly used for load bearing wall construction, except for rendering wall surfaces to avoid the mortar shrinkage cracking
d) Masonry
Masonry strength has a significant influence upon the seismic resistance of a confined masonry buildings and life safety of its inhabitants. It is therefore extremely important to perform basic tests using local masonry materials; this is particularly important for projects involving several buildings. Compressive strength is a very important property of masonry, and it may be highly variable depending on local materials and construction practices. The design compressive strength (fm) for the combinations of typical masonry units and mortars used in local housing construction practice should preferably be determined by testing prism specimens made of the masonry units and mortar used at construction sites. The prisms should be tested using same procedures as other masonry wall applications (NTC-M, 2004). 135
e) Tie Columns
Tie-columns significantly influence the ductility and stability of cracked confined masonry walls. The provision of closely spaced transverse reinforcement (ties) at the top and bottom ends of tiecolumns results in improved wall stability and ductility in the postcracking stage (Alcocer and Klingner, 1994).
f) Horizontal wall reinforcement
In many countries where confined masonry construction is practiced, reinforcement is usually not provided in masonry walls. However, in four-to-five storey construction in Peru there is a tendency to provide horizontal joint reinforcement in the form of one or two wires laid in the mortar bed joints. The Mexican Code NTC-M 2004 prescribes that the horizontal reinforcement, when provided, be placed continuously along the wall length. Horizontal rebars should be anchored into the tie - columns; the anchorage should be provided with 90o hooks at the far end of the tie-column. The hooks should be embedded in the concrete within the tiecolumn. The bar diameter should be larger than 3.5 mm and less than the joint thickness. Research studies have shown that horizontal reinforcement has a beneficial effect on wall ductility. Specimens with horizontal reinforcement showed a more uniform distribution of inclined shear cracks than the unreinforced specimens. Cold-drawn steel wires are used as horizontal reinforcement in Mexico; these wires are made of steel without a defined yield plateau, where strain hardening develops at very small strains (0.002 to 0.0025). The type of steel used for horizontal reinforcement influences its effectiveness in enhancing masonry shear resistance. Early experimental studies used horizontal reinforcement made of high carbon steel that exhibited elastoplastic behavior.
g) Openings
An experimental research study showed that, when the opening area is less than approximately 10% of the total wall area, the wall lateral load resistance is not significantly reduced as compared to a wall without opening (Yanez et al. 2004). The walls with larger openings develop diagonal cracks (same as solid walls), except that the cracks are formed in the piers between the openings; thus, diagonal struts form in the piers, as shown in Figure 11. Most
building codes prescribe the maximum permitted opening size beyond which the tie-columns need to be provided.
Figure 11: Failure mode in confined masonry with wall openings
1.7 Types of damages Brick masonry is a common construction material in India because of its abundance, low cost, good sound and heat insulation properties and availability of skilled labor. Masonry is extensively used in India as in infill walls in reinforced concrete buildings. When buildings are subjected to earthquakes, various states of damages occur. a) Nonstructural damage b) Slight structural damage c) Moderate structural damage d) Severe structural damage e) Collapse It is obvious that unreinforced masonry buildings are among the most vulnerable structures in earthquakes. Fragility curves are used by different researcher to asses the probabilistic damages of a building in earthquake. Fragility curves provide a powerful tool for anticipating the damage to structures in future probable 137
earthquakes. The effects of different parameters on the seismic behavior of these structures can be investigated through using fragility curve. Fragility curves for a specific type of buildings is a probabilistic method to estimate the probability that the building will exceed a specific state of damage for a definite value of seismic intensity parameter. In the present study, different types of failure of brick masonry building during past earthquake are critically pointed out from existing literature in introduction portion. The stress analysis of brick with mortar joints are analyzed numerically using ANSYS software. A prototype is presented here for experimental analysis in shaking table. 2. Stress analysis of brick masonry using numerical modeling A best numerical model is the one that represents the maximum characteristics of the actual model. The process of representation of an actual object into a numerical model in particular software needs continuous refinement. The existing numerical models for masonry have been divided into two groups, the heterogeneous and homogeneous models. The heterogeneous models analyze the masonry walls discretizing bricks and mortar separately through finite element and or interface elements. A suitable constituents relationship is then assumed for each component. In this way it is possible to take account with particular accuracy, the characteristic of mortar joints, which play very important role in the global behavior for masonry. Numerous finite element programs are available now a day for numerical modeling of structures including SAP, ETABS, ADINA, ABAQUAS, ANSYS. In case of heterogeneous models elastic properties of brick unit and mortar joints are assigned separately to numerical models. A certain value of modulus of elasticity E has assigned to the solid elements representing mortar and different values of E is assigned for brick. Finite element is a mathematical method which makes calculations by dividing complex structures into very little elements. ANSYS program is a program which puts forth the performance and possible fracture loads of constructions into consideration in virtual medium. The program puts forward how a whole construction collecting the behavior and effect of every little piece in the system will display behavior. The results can be obtained as tables or graphics. The solution of very complex systems as geometrical scale or an equation can be made with ANSYS program. Therefore, it can
be used in the modeling of confined brick masonry constructions effectively. SOLID65 element may be used in modeling of RC confining elements as well as the masonry prism. SOLID65 (shown in Figure 12) may be used for the 3-D modeling of solids with or without reinforcing bars (rebar). The solid is capable of cracking in tension and crushing in compression. The element is defined by eight nodes having three degrees of freedom at each node: translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions. Up to three different rebar specifications may be defined. The most important aspect of this element is the treatment of nonlinear material properties. The concrete is capable of cracking (in three orthogonal directions), crushing, plastic deformation, and creep. The rebar are capable of tension and compression, but not shear. They are also capable of plastic deformation and creep.
Figure 12: SOLID 65 element
LINK8 element has been used for modeling of main bars as well as stirrups in reinforcement. LINK8 (Fig. 13) is a spar which may be used in a variety of engineering applications. This element can be used to model trusses, sagging cables, links, springs, etc. The 3-D spar element is a uni-axial tension-compression element with three degrees of freedom at each node: translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions. Plasticity, creep, swelling, stress stiffening, and large deflection capabilities are included. The element is defined by two nodes, the cross-sectional area, an initial strain, and the material properties. 139
Figure 13: LINK 8 geometry
COMBIN39 (Fig. 14) is used for modeling the mortar-masonry unit interface. It is a unidirectional element with nonlinear generalized force-deflection capability that can be used in any analysis. The element has longitudinal or torsional capability in 1-D, 2-D, or 3-D applications. The longitudinal option is a uniaxial tensioncompression element with up to three degrees of freedom at each node: translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions. The element has large displacement capability for which there can be two or three degrees of freedom at each node.
Figure 14: COMBIN39 GEOMETRY
2.1 Example problems Marinilli, Angelo and Castilla, Enrique presented a paper in 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 2004 held at Vancouver Canada, titled as Experimental Evaluation of Confined Masonry Walls with Several Confining Columns. In present study their experimental models are used to make a model in ANSYS and results would be compared with the experimental findings. The same model as used in literature is used here to model in ANSYS. The specification and dimensions are kept same in the ANSYS model.
Model Specifications As shown in Figure 15, the first specimen M1 consisted of one panel and two confining-columns. The second specimen M2 consisted of two panels and three equally spaced confiningcolumns. The third specimen M3 also consisted of two panels, but the central confining-column was located at of the specimen length. Finally, the fourth specimen M4 contained three panels and four equally spaced confining-columns. H = 2.3 m and L = 3 m Bottom beam cross section = 0.3 x 0.5 m Top beam cross section = 0.2 x 0.15 m Confining column cross section = 0.15 x 0.15 Concrete blocks were used as masonry units with dimensions of 0.4 x 0.15 x 0.2 m 4: 1:1Sand, lime cement mortar was used Masonry units of compressive strength = 8.5 N/mm2 Mortar of compressive strength = 7.0 N/mm2 Concrete of grade M25 was used to make RC confining elements Reinforcement detailing of RC confining elements Steel of nominal yield strength = 420 N/mm2 The confining- columns and the top beam were reinforced lengthwise with four 12 bars. The confining-columns were reinforced transversally with 10 stirrups at 60 mm intervals at the 400 mm ends of the elements and at 120 mm intervals in the remaining portions. The top beams were reinforced transversally with 10 stirrups at 100 mm intervals.
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Figure 15: Model used by Marinilli and Castilla (2004)
ANSYS Model of specimen M1, M2, M3 and M4
Figure 16a: Volume plot of model M1
Figure 16b: Volume plot of model M2
Figure 16c: Volume plot of model M3
Figure 16d: Volume plot of M4
Figure 17a: Meshing of model M1
Figure 17b: Reinforcement detailing of model M1
Figure 17c: Meshing of model M2
Figure 17d: Reinforcement detailing of model M2
Figure 17e: Meshing of model M3 with boundary condition
Figure 17f: Reinforcement detailing of model M3
Figure 17g: Meshing of model M4
Figure 17h: Reinforcement detailing of model M4
Physical Testing of any model is a cumbersome task. It not only involves manpower but also ample time and resources. Hence physical test may not be done frequently and for every model, especially for buildings of lesser importance. The maximum displacement response of the top corner of the right side of each model has been calculated for different frequencies and presented in the Figure 18. In the Figure 18 the Y-axis VALU represents the maximum displacement and X-axis applied frequency.
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Figure 18a: Frequency Vs Max deflection curve for the top right corner of specimen M1
Figure 18b: Frequency Vs Max deflection curve for the top right corner of specimen M2
Figure 18c: Frequency Vs Max deflection curve for the top right corner of specimen M3
Figure 18d: Frequency Vs Max deflection curve for the top right corner of specimen M4
It is observed from Figure 18 that maximum deflection in xdirection of the top right corner shows that at lower frequencies deflection value is quite less and it increases almost linearly but after a certain limit, which obviously is different for different specimen, the deflection value shoots to very high value. This abrupt change in deflection value indicates the brittle behavior of confined masonry. And the point at which this happens may be the point when cracking starts. As the frequency is increased; deflection at the top corner increases slowly but after a certain frequency deflection response changes abruptly. This abrupt change in displacement may be due to brittle failure of the confined masonry.
3. Modeling of a masonry building It is obvious that masonry buildings are among the most vulnerable structures in earthquake. Therefore, evaluating the seismic performance of these buildings is essential against earthquakes toward the hazard mitigation and risk assessment. It is very difficult to perform test of the building in laboratory. One may construct the model of the building by simulation. In this section one model is presented and described how one can model the prototype and use for experimental purpose. Here one modeling for laboratory experiments is illustrated for analysis. Prototype The masonry building dimension is approximately 4.0 m x 4.0 m and the overall height of the building is 3.0 m. The building has one door and two windows opening. The dimension of the door and windows are taken as D= 1.2 m x 2.1 m and W=1.2m x 1.0 m The building is 1:10 prototype. Similitude between model and prototype 1. Geometric similarity 2. Kinematic similarity Geometric similarity: Length scale ratio Lr = Here Lr =
Lm Lp
1 10
Kinematic similarity:
Time scale ratio Tr =
Tm Tp
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Lm Vm Tm Lr = = Velocity scale ratio Vr = Vp Lp Tr Tp

Acceleration scale ratio ar =
Lr Tr2
Both model and prototype subjected to gravity loads, therefore acceleration scale ratio ar = 1 From which Tr =
1 and 10
Vr =
1 and Frequency scale ratio 10
Fr = 10
Figure 19: Plan and Elevation of the model
Figure 19: Elevation of the model
Weight calculation of the model Brick size: 30mm x 15 mm x 10mm Weight of one brick = 9.56 gm (Reduced model of brick made by clay in laboratory) Weight of single storey Weight of Masonry Thickness of walls = 25 mm Height of walls = 300 mm Length of walls = 400 mm Volume of Building = 4 x (25 x 300 x 400 25 x 25 x 300) = 1.1 x 107 mm3 Deductions Door opening = 120 x 210 x 25 = 6.3 x 105 mm3 Window opening = 2 x (120 x 100 x 25) = 6.0 x 105 mm3 Volume of columns = 4 x 25 x 25 300 = 7.5 x 105 mm3 Total volume of brickwork = 1.1 x 107 (6.3 + 6.0 + 7.5) x 105 = 9.02 x 106 mm3 Volume of one brick (with mortar) = 31 x 16 x 11 = 5.4 x 103 mm3 No. of Bricks = 9.02 x 106 / 5.4 x 103 = 1670.37 = 1675 approx. Weight of one brick = 9.56 gm. Weight of brickwork = 1675 x 9.56 = 16013 gm = 16.013 kg. Weight of mortar = .02 x 9.02 x 10-3 x 1540 = 0.271 kg. Weight of concrete (column and slab) = (25 x 25 x 300 + 10 x 400 x 400) x 2.4 x 10-6 = 4.29 kg. Total weight = 16.013 + 0.271 + 4.29 = 20.57 kg. 147
2. Total weight of building Model Total weight = 20.57 x 4 = 82.3 kg. 4. Brick and mortar strength test in laboratory The failure of brick masonry depends on the strength of mortar and bricks used. The test of bricks may carry out in the laboratory. Few schematic view of the failure of brick masonry is presented in this section.
Figure 20: Failure of brick masonry under compression testing Machine
4. Concluding remarks Present study covers all the aspects of Confined Brick Masonry structures. Starting from its various parts to its seismic behavior and after that construction guidelines were discussed in detail. A thorough survey of literature gave us insight in the research area of Confined Brick Masonry clearly. This clearly shows that though much has been done in this field when it comes to actual testing of prototypes but the area is still underdeveloped in terms of analytical modeling.
References
[1] Alcocer, S. M., Arais, J. G. and Vazquez, A. (2004). Response Assesment Of Mexican Confined Masonry Structures Through Shaking Table Tests. Proceedings of 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, Paper No. 2130. [2] Alcocer, S.M. and Klingner, R. (1994). Masonry Research in the Americas. Masonry in the Americas, ACI Publication SP- 147, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp.127-169 [3] Astroza, M., Cabezas, F., Moroni, M., Massone, L., Ruiz, S., Parra,E., Cordero,F., and Mottadelli, A., 2010. Intensidades Sismicas en el Area de Daos del Terremoto del 27 de Febrero de 2010, Universidad de Chile, Santiago (in Spanish). [4] Ali, S. and Page, A., W., Finite Element Model for Masonry subjected to Concentrated Loads, Journal Structure Division ASCE, Vol.114, No.8, 1988, pp.1761-1784. of Unreinforced [5] Asteris, P.G., Syrmakezis, C.A. (2005) Strength
MasonryWalls Under Concentrated Practice Periodical on Structural ASCE, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 133-140. Compression Loads , Design and Construction,
[6] Kanit, R. and Donduren, S. (2010). Investigation of Using ANSYS Software in the Determination of Stress Behaviors of Masonry Walls Under Out of Plane Cycling Load. International Journal of the Physical Sciences, Vol 5(2), pp 097-108. [7] Kazemi, T. M., Asl, M. H., Bakshi, A. and Rofooei, R. (2010). Shaking Table Study Of A Full- Scale Single Storey Confined Brick Masonry Building. Transaction A: Civil Engineering, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp 184-193. [8] Marinilli, A and Castilla, E (2004) Experimental evaluation of confined masonry walls with several confining columns, Proceedings of 13th World on earthquake engineering, Vancouver, B. C, Canada Paper No-2129. [9] Milani, G., Loureno, P.B., Tralli, A., Homogenised Limit Analysis of
Masonry Wall, Part I: failure Surface ,Computers & Structures, 84(34),2006, pp. 166-180
[10] Parikshit Verma (2011) Analysis of confined brick masonry, M. Tech Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, IT BHU Varanasi. [11] Tomazevic, M. (1999). Earthquake-Resistant Design of Masonry Buildings. Imperial College Press, London, U.K. [12] Moroni, M., Astroza, M., and Mesias, P. (1996). Displacement Capacity And Required Storey Drift In Confined
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Masonry Buildings. Proceedings of 11th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Acapulco, Mexico, Paper No. 1059. [13] Yoshimura, K., Kikuchi, K., Kuroki, M., Nonaka, H., Kim, K. T., Wangdi and Oshlkata, A. (2004). Experimental Study for Developing Higher Seismic Performance of Brick Masonry Walls. Proceedings of 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, Paper No. 1597. [14] Yanez F, Asrroza M, Holmberg A and Ogaz O. (2004) Behaviour of Confined Masonry Shear walls with large openings, Proceedings of 13th World conference on earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, B. C Canada paper No-3438.
A Study on Indian Codes and Performance Based Design

Dipendu Bhunia
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani, Rajasthan, India
1. INTRODUCTION The calamities due to earthquake prove to be much more disastrous in India in comparison with the similar incidences in developed countries. Authors believe that this is due to lower, nonrealistic design standards and differences in the quality of constructions and construction practices. The process of Earthquake-disaster mitigation starts with acquiring the state-of-the-knowledge. Equally important and rather difficult is to translate and communicate that knowledge so as to put into state-of-the-practice. Seismic design codes are the tools by which knowledge in Earthquake Engineering is conveyed to the field. Often, the aseismic design and construction is considered as merely a dynamic analysis of structure. Even today, Indian seismic codes suffer serious shortcomings, including conceptual errors. This paper is an attempt to address problems with some of the provisions of IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 through the concept of performance based design. 1.1 Seismic Design Current approach of codified seismic design in most of the countries is about 70 years old and is based on satisfying force demands. One major drawback of the approach is that, it does not directly address the inelastic response in terms of either the forces or deformations. It has been recognized that losses due to nonstructural damage and loss of utility services of modern society could be much greater than structural damage (ATC40, 1996, FEMA273, 1997). The Loma Prieta Earthquake of 1989 and the Northridge Earthquake of 1994 resulted in large-scale unacceptable 153
damage to modern structures, which complied with the prevailing building codes. The earthquakes of magnitude even greater than these were anticipated in the US codes. Owing to this, Structural Engineers Association of California (SEAOC) felt the need for development of a new, performance based design philosophy. The post-earthquake studies showed the flaws of using force-based designs. The inconsistency between prescribed linear analyses techniques and specifications of reduced seismic loads for design based on ductile nonlinear behavior led to unacceptable seismic performance in large number of structures. (Vipul Prakash, 2004) 1.2 Performance Based Design In 1992, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
sponsored the development of national consensus guidelines for seismic retrofit of buildings, the ATC-33 project. This was the first effort to standardize the performance based design (PBD) approach. This project documented the qualitative descriptions of performance levels. The approach used, was quickly adopted by SEAOCs Vision 2000 committee and extended to include the design of new buildings. Together, the FEMA-273 NEHRP (National Earthquake hazard Reduction Program) Guidelines and Vision 2000 Report have defined the current state of practice in performance based design and created awareness among engineering fraternity. The intent was to establish a design framework that leads to structures of predictable performance during different levels of seismic shaking. The structure needs to satisfy certain performance criteria in order to achieve specified performance objectives for different levels or damage states. A design performance objective is an expression of desired performance level for the building for each of the considered earthquake level. In short performance level is indicative of anticipated and acceptable damage state (ATC40, 1996; Bertero)
2. Design Criteria Once the performance objectives are selected, the associated limiting values become the acceptability criteria to be checked at
concerned stages of the design. For a given performance objective, calculated response quantities must not exceed appropriate performance limits. The limiting values of the responses are associated with the damage levels for a specified earthquake ground motion. The responses include system level building response (e.g. lateral drift) and element responses. Usually three different performance levels or limit states are specified (Bertero; Dowrick, 2003): Serviceability: corresponds to limit state of serviceability for a minor earthquake. It is desired that structure deform in elastic range and do not suffer any damage. Repairability: corresponds to damage control limit state for a moderate earthquake, structures may have entered in an inelastic range but damage is repairable. Safety: corresponds to limit state collapse for a severe earthquake, structures enter well in to the inelastic range so that damage need not be repairable but total collapse is not allowed. ATC-40, FEMA-273 documents prescribe more elaborate performance levels, which are based on specific requirements of owners. 3. Capacity Design Basis Capacity design is a seismic design approach in which distinct structural components, such as plastic hinges in members, are chosen and detailed for energy dissipation according to a desired mechanism of nonlinear lateral deformation. All other structural components and actions are provided with sufficient strength to prevent failure under the chosen mechanism. FEMA 273 and ATC 40, establish in part, this approach. This approach is in fact a prerequisite of using a nonlinear static procedure, however, the FEMA 273 document does not explicitly explain that a capacitydesign approach must be followed. Failure Mode Control: In general, good designs not only seeks to keep the overall probability of failure below a given level but it arranges the system such that less desirable modes are less likely to happen than other modes of failure. This increases the reliability 155
of the design by decreasing the potential for damage and increasing the overall safety. The less desirable modes of failure for a structure are (1) those resulting in total collapse of the structure, e.g. failure of vertical load carrying system, (2) those involving sudden failure of a member/structure e.g. shear and/or torsion modes. The number of possible failure modes are substantially reduced by suppressing, the chances of occurrence of undesirable failure mechanism/modes. The capacity design principles aim at achieving this (Dowrick, 1994) 4. Trend of the Seismic Design Codes ATC 34 and Vision 2000 Report presents the goal of the future seismic design code/s. They include the short-term goal, mid term goal and long term goal. The long term goal is to draft the guidelines of the performance based design in to code form and to complete the overhaul of seismic design practice during the period 2000 to 2005. Hamburger R., Whittaker A. et al have presented the summary of ATC 58 project related to development of codes of next generation. A brief report on The ATC 58 Project mentions about the Two Stage Implementation Plan for the project. The first phase will comprise development of performance verification procedures that will permit an engineer to evaluate the performance of an existing building or of a proposed design for a new building using the same terms defined by decision makers. Verification procedures will include rules to model buildings and simulate their response to a range of earthquake events, each having different intensity. The goal of the second phase will be to develop design and stakeholder guidance to use performance-based design. The acceptability of current code performance will be evaluated and appropriate minimum performance levels for structures of differing occupancies will be recommended. The final documents would be in the form of design guidelines and resource documents for use in developing future building codes. 4.1 Scenario in India
Jain S. K. (2003) has presented a review of IS 1893-2002 (Part 1), suggesting major improvements in the future edition. The gap of 18 years in revising the penultimate version of the code is referred to as a barrier in inclusion of advances that have occurred in the knowledge related to earthquake resistant design of structures during those 18 years. Some of these new developments have been incorporated in the 2002 version of the code, while many others have been left out so that the implementation of the code does not become too tedious for Indian engineers. Vipul Prakash (2004) has critically reviewed the development of the Indian seismic codes starting with IS 1893-1962 to 2002 (Part I) and IS 139201993. The paper addresses an important issue of exploring potential for implementation of PBE in India. The author expresses an urgent need to incorporate the elements of earthquake engineering at the basic level of the undergraduate program of engineering education, as a prerequisite. Two-level performance criterion and the way of achieving it are suggested. 5. Provisions of IS 1893 (Part I): 2002 Design Criteria: (IS 1893 (Part I): 2002 is referred to as IS 1893 henceforth in this paper.) This is stated as: to ensure that the structures possess at least a minimum strength to withstand minor earthquakes (<DBE), which occur frequently, without damage, resist moderate earthquakes (DBE) without significant structural damage though some non-structural damage may occur and aims that structures withstand a major earthquake (MCE) without collapse. Thus a three level performance is desired. IS 1893:1962, 1966, 1975 and 1984 specified earthquake loading corresponding to single seismic event for use in force based analysis and design, even though the stated performance objective specified two levels of earthquake ground shaking intensities: moderate and heavy. IS 1893 (Part I): 2002 specify two levels of earthquakes: maximum considered earthquake (MCE) and design basis earthquake (DBE), but desires three level performance criteria (Vipul Prakash, 2004). 157
While defining the design basis earthquake IS1893 states that it is the earthquake, which can reasonably be expected to occur at least once during the design life of the structure. The definition becomes vague in light of a loosely used term design life. The very first issue that bothers the structural engineers around the world is the life of the structure. Neither any of the IS codes define this nor this is covered in academic curricula in India. A foreword of IS 1893 mentions about the seismic hazard level with respect to ZPA at 50% risk level and 100 years service life. If the service life is considered as design life, dose it mean that all structures should have the same life span irrespective of the structure type and the maintenance levels of the structure? Maximum considered earthquake is simply defined as the most severe earthquake effects considered by the code. There is no mention of the probability of exceedence of the level considered. 6. Concept of Response Reduction Factor R This was introduced to permit elastic force based design for a system that is expected to respond inelastically in the design earthquake/s. This was a necessity in context of the knowledge then available in 1970s. But this resulted in problems, which exist even today. The factor was assumed to be period independent and the values assigned to the structural systems were purely empirical and judgment based. Over the years the values might have been refined but the basis has remained the same. Second important consideration is that the R value is system based but is used to derive the seismic design forces at component level without paying attention to the redistribution of the forces due the presence of inelasticity. There is no explicit relationship of this factor with the fundamentally depended attributes of the structural systems: ductility, overstrength and the redundancy. If the reduction from MCE level to DBE level (dividing the zone factor Z by 2) is considered to depend on possible overstrength in material and members then R is left with redundancy and ductility. Among these, redundancy is a term, not yet adequately defined. If it refers to statical indeterminancy, it gets exploited while designing: member sizes for indeterminate systems are substantially lower than corresponding determinate system. If availability of alternate
paths for load transfer are considered to be synonymous for redundancy, it conflicts with consideration of inelastic effects which are distributed throughout the system possibly not leaving behind any UNUSED path for load transfer. Finally it may be only the ductility, which is relied upon for the use of R. Further this refers to system/global ductility demand (lateral drift at roof) and member or section ductility is few (3 to 6) times of that. Designers and executors must be made aware rather cautioned about the manifestation of this. IS1893 specifies these values and IS 13920 states the rules for ductile design but there is no procedure to ensure whether this ductility has really manifested in the design. The need to rectify the inconsistencies in R-value is one of the main arguments for implementation of the performance based design. 6.1 Computation of Fundamental Time Period The objective of clause 7.8.2 is to check the overestimation of the time period via through dynamic analysis methods in order to reduce the design base shear. The lower limit on time period is imposed through empirical formulae based on experimental and field investigations. These formulae are independent of stiffness and/or mass distribution in the system. IS 1893 prescribe formulae in this regard for (1) moment resisting frame (steel/concrete) without brick infill panels; (2) for all other buildings and for the case of moment resisting frame with brick infills. ATC 3-06 prescribes almost the same formulae with an exception for RC frames, which is:
T= 0.061 h 0.75
{ Ta = 0.075 h 0.75 for moment resisting RC frame building as per IS 1893} As mentioned earlier, these formulae are empirical and in case of ATC specifications, based on data from buildings in USA. If ATC formulae are adopted in IS 1893, is it based on assumption of similar conditions of buildings in India and USA? If the minor change in formula for RC frames is considered as indication of thought given to the prevailing differences in the two countries, it 159
leads to confusion with formula for estimation of modulus of elasticity of concrete. IS 456-2000 defines this as:
Ec = 5000 f ck
ACI 318M-99 defined this as:
Ec = 4700 fck
It can be seen that the IS 1893 period formula overestimates the period in comparison with ATC formula where as it uses higher value of modulus of elasticity of concrete than that given by ACI. This clearly shows the inconsistency in the IS 1893 specifications. Majority of structural engineers in India use approximate
fundamental time period method to estimate the design lateral forces. IS 1893s inappropriate basis in this context has not affected their designs because most of our buildings are of medium rise type having time period (actual) in the range of 0.25 to 1.0 second. Fortunately the short period range of IS 1893 response spectra covers time periods from 0.1 to 0.67 seconds giving a constant spectral acceleration value, making the process of time period estimation insensitive to design lateral forces in this range. The objective of the fundamental time period method is to ensure provision of certain minimum strength. In this context provision of UBC 97 appears to be more rational. Along with response spectrum approach, UBC 97 specify a formula for base shear, which is independent of time period as well as response reduction factor. It depends on seismic weight of the structure and seismic zone characteristics, as was there in Seismic Coefficient Method of IS 1893-1984. This could have been modified and retained to provide the lower bound on design base shear. 7. Regularity of Building Configuration Clause 7.1 defines the regular and irregular configurations through the aspects of geometrical details and distribution of stiffness and mass. Almost five-page information through 30 diagrams is presented. The source of the information contained under this clause can be found in any standard text on the subject: Earthquake Resistant Design of Buildings/Structures. The
requirements of regularity in various forms are basically a useful guideline to planning authority and of little use to design authority. An attempt to codify/document such requirements will rarely be fruitful because there can be infinite number of possibilities in this aspect. e.g. Table 5, Sl.No.(1), (iii) define vertical geometric irregularity. If the clause is interpreted in its stricter sense, pyramid type geometry of particular dimensions can be shown as irregular structure. Floor heights are not equal. 100 Important point is that the dimensions of adjacent storey can be in excess of 150% of storey under consideration.
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A better way to address this problem is to incorporate the guidelines on understanding and interpreting the mode shapes of the structure. This will necessitate the 3-D model of the structure and free vibration studies compulsory for all the cases. Probably to avoid this, with a fear that it may be beyond the scope of average professional in India or an attempt is made to oversimplify the situation, in either case the purpose is not served. 8. Load Combinations Clause 6.3.1.1.2 and 6.3.1.2.3 states the load combination of 1.7(DL EL) for Plastic design of steel structures and 1.5(DL EL) for limit state design of RC structures respectively, along with other combinations with imposed load. The combinations referred here are the critical one in most of the cases as experienced by the authors in routine design work. In case of the lateral load estimation (i.e. earthquake load, EL) the seismic weight of the building is estimated. This includes full dead load and partial live/imposed load (25% or 50% as the case may be). The issue is 161
why this partial live load is not reflecting in load combinations those involve the earthquake loading? If this part of gravity load is duly acknowledged in load combinations, the effect of lateral load gets reduced resulting in lower design moments for the members. The clause specifies 1.7(DL IL EL) or 1.2(DL IL EL) but this is with full-imposed load, this makes some sense but the earlier referred cases certainly need modifications. 9. Analysis Procedures IS 1893 allows response spectrum method or time history analysis for estimation of lateral forces for structures satisfying certain limitations based on regularity of structure type, height and location as per the seismic zone. A few certain types of irregularities are allowed if within specified limits to get combined in with above stated analysis methods. For remaining cases there is no guidance so also is the case of deciding the necessity of nonlinear analysis. At this point it should be noted that the response spectrum recommendations are essentially forced based elastic procedures and the time history procedure, which can be an alternate to it is the linear time history analysis. This is contradictory with the aim of IS 1893 which is to safeguard against the collapse through inelastic deformations during a major earthquake. If life safety is the target performance of the structure and damage (no matter how much) is accepted in the design, the linear procedures become the improper tools because linear behavior implies designing for no damage condition/s. Maffie (2000) and Vipul Prakash (2004) have discussed the appropriateness of analysis methods in conceptual sense. It is common to assume that, compared to the conventional design, performance based design always requires a more complicated structural analysis, such as a nonlinear static procedure, which need not be true. In many instances, performance-based design is used when better than life safety performance: either immediate occupancy or some measure of damage control is desired. Nonlinear procedures are actually less important to use for immediate occupancy or damage control performance levels than they are for life safety or collapse prevention performance levels. The reason is that for the stricter performance levels such as immediate
occupancy, nonlinear response is limited, and thus an elastic model can acceptably capture the behavior. Currently, in US, nonlinear procedures are used more frequently for existing buildings than for new buildings. This is somewhat illogical because many of the existing buildings being evaluated have little ability to achieve nonlinear deformations, whereas new buildings are intended to have high ductility capacities. It is necessary that IS 1893 incorporates the damage estimation procedures, which are sensitive to displacement/strain type quantities rather than forces or stresses. It can be concluded at this stage that the desired performance objective would dictate the analysis procedure for evaluation of the performance. 10. Basis of Design IS 1893 allows Limit State Method for RC structures and Plastic Method for steel structures. In both these methods, the calculated loading is multiplied by certain safety factors to arrive at the final design forces. The aim of these methods is to ensure that the structure will not attain the limit state under consideration or will not become unfit for use. However with earthquake loading it becomes illogical to reduce the loading by a large margin e.g. minimum of 6 times, reduction in case of RC structure, R=3 for OMRF, during estimation of loading and then again increasing it by [1.5 (partial safety factors for loading) X 1.17 (partial safety factor for material: reinforcing steel) =] 1.75 during member design and claim that it is designed for not attaining the limit state. This is with the limit state of collapse, how one should check the limit state of serviceability or the other limit states? No factors are specified for these cases. This is obvious because in the first paragraph of this paper the design criteria of IS 1893 is reproduced and it states that minimum strength for DBE behavior is ensured but behavior under MCE is only aimed at.
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11. Need for Performance Based Engineering (PBE) Approach In India It has been realized that strength (concept of design base shear) is not the only parameter that decides the extent of safety and the extent of damage. Increase in strength need not lead to enhanced safety and reduced damage. It is recognized that structure would perform better when the distribution of strength is paid due attention (Bertero). The reasoning of what led to development of PBE in western countries is an eye-opening lesson for developing countries like ours. It is necessary for the architects and structural engineers in India to improve the gloomy picture in the field of consultative professional practices. PBE can be considered to offer a promising solution in this regard because of its inherent elements: PBE requires elaborate analysis and design procedures ensuring multilevel performance Behavior of the building is defined in terms of measurable performance characteristics, which are easy to understand, by the building owners/users. Role of the client/statuary body, the architect, the structural engineer and other concerned agencies can be clearly defined with respect to the responsibility and the liability. Quality control procedures can be made more stringent and realistic. Possibility of improving the professional relationship of the key elements such as the owner/user architect/structural engineer structural engineer/architect contractor. This will be helpful in monitoring the post-built behavior of the building, especially in the event of failure. The investigations would focus on finding of what went wrong and learning from the failure rather than finding a scapegoat.
Apart from this and advantages of this approach, there are other aspects such as globalization. According to The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT): 1995 of the World Trade Organization: When appropriate, technical regulations should specify products in terms of performance rather than design or descriptive characteristics. India is a member country of WTO since
01/01/1995. It is not far away that Indian Codes will have to completely switch over to Performance Based Design Philosophy.
12. Historical Evidence for PBE in India Normally it considered that PBE came from automobile industry (Naiem F. 2001). As regards the civil engineering, the first documents based on PBE were produced under FEMA sponsored ATC 33 project in 1992. ATC, FEMA, SEAOC, NISEE Berkeley, and many others have published a series of documents then after. However Hamburger and Mohle claim that PBE in US dates back to 1927 and all the US codes developed so far are PBE based. Akiro Inokuma (2002) mentions that PBE approach was first adopted in building construction industry of Japan in 1963 itself. This may be true. But then the basis on which Hamburger or Inokuma try to justify their claim, can be extended to todays Indian Codes. Not only this, it can be traced much back (in B.C.) in Indian History. A list of classics on building construction science (STHAPATYASHAASTRA)* from Indian Literature is presented
below. The information contained in these granthas* was based on the data collected over a period of time not less than few hundred years or number of generations.
Table1: Famous Architects (STHAPATIS)* of Ancient India and Their Published Literature No. 1 Name of the Architect Vishwakarma (Sthapati of Gods or universe) 1 2 3 2 3 4 5 Sage Mansara Maya ( Sthapati of Asuras or Demons) Maharaja Bhojdeo Mandan 1 2 3 Samarangan Sutradhara Rajvallabha Mundan RupMandan Devata Moorti Prakaran Title of the Publication VishwaKarma Vastushastra Kshirarnava Dynanprakash Deeparnava Mansara Shilpshastra Mayamtam
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4 6 7 8 9 10 Kumarmuni 2 Varaha Mihir Thakkar Pheru Jin Datta Suri Vidyadhara, MahaGovind
Prasad Mandan Shilparatnam Vol. 1 and Bruhatsanhita Vastusara Vivek Vilasa
Literature not available but the structures built by them exist still today.
* These are the devnagari words (in languages prevailing at that time e.g. Sanskrit, Prakrit, etc.). The meaning appears prior to the brackets.
These classics cover very finer aspects and details of building construction process, which was practiced as a science. Guidelines and rules are listed with reference to: Duties of every individual, directly/indirectly associated with the construction project. Selection of proper sites for construction and thereby establishment of cities (town planning) Requirements of plot area and building area for individuals on the basis of their social status. Construction planning on the basis of seasonal changes or weather conditions Details of construction procedures for different forms of structures and quality control. Requirements of structural details of members as well as for the system as a whole. Penalty and bonus/reward clauses for contractors. It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss all these aspects in detail. But it is worth mentioning about the last point. The penalty clause was simple: tit for tat or blood for blood, if structure fails to serve its intended purpose and causes loss to the owner, the contractor (if found guilty) was liable for paying the compensation: if owner/his family/users suffer physical disability the contractor would face the same disability as a punishment this included even the death sentence to contractor or his family. It may seem cruel today, but it was the period of royal monarchy and the crime was looked upon as a sin. The strict rules need to be considered as indicative of the importance given to these activities. The aspect of legal enforcement of the guidelines or rules (what we call it as a code today) was properly addressed, the front on which we lack even today. Further a careful look at the information presented here
would reveal that it contains all the elements needed for performance based engineering and its implementation. Thus it can be said that India is the originator of concept of PBE and it was in a well-developed form in ancient India. All this was gradually lost during the invasions by foreign rulers. India may be the only country in the world to face the invaders from many other countries and religions. Rather, this proves that there existed a rich, advanced and established civilization. 13. CONCLUSIONS The basic philosophy of drafting IS 1893 code has remained to be a force based procedure and that the drawbacks mentioned, are basically by-products of attempts to incorporate the features of otherwise three dimensional and/or inelastic behavior of structures in to two dimensional elastic procedures. In principle code has not retained any method suitable for hand computations hence it would be appropriate to insist the 3-D modeling and include the modeling guidelines for analysis. It is necessary to provide the guidelines to evaluate the nonlinear behavior. Evaluation procedures provide the key to ensure the behavior: which is the core issue in PBE. IS1893 needs to be reformed in its future edition. Time tasted performance of ancient Indian structures is a sufficient proof that designs based on performance concept are not new for India. References
[1]Applied Technology Council, Tentative Provisions for the Development of Seismic Regulations for Buildings, ATC 3-06, NBS Sp-510, NSF 788, N.B.S., USA (1982) [2] Akiro Inokuma, Basic Study of Performance Based Design in Civil Engineering, Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering, Education and Practice, January 2002. [3] Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, California: ATC-40 Report (1996): Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Concrete Buildings, Volume I [4] Bertero V. V. Performance Based Seismic Engineering; a Critical Review of Proposed Guidelines, Seismic Design Methodologies for the Next Generation of Codes, Proceedings of the International Workshop, Slovenia. [5] Dowrick D. J.,Earthquake Resistant Design For Engineers and Architects, 2nd edition-1994, John Wiley and Sons Ltd. ISBN: 0 471 91503 3
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[6] Farzad Naiem, The Seismic Design Handbook, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Massachusetts ISBN 0 7923 7301 4, 2001 [7] Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): FEMA-273: 1997 [8] Hamburger R. O. and Mohle J.P., State Of Performance BasedEngineering In United States, web: peer.berkeley.edu/moehle/papers/State_of_PBEE_in_US.pdf [9] Hamburger R., Whittaker A. and et al, The ATC-58 Project: Development Of Next-Generation Performance-Based Earthquake Engineering Design Criteria For Buildings, Paper No. 1819, 13Th World Conference On Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, Canada [10] Jain S.K., Review of Indian Seismic Code, IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002, The Indian Concrete Journal, November 2003. M.1) Maffei Joe (2000), Suggested Improvements To Performance Based Seismic Guidelines, 12th WCEE, Auckland, New Zealand, February 2000. [11] Vipul Prakash (2004), Whither Performance Based Engineering in India? Journal of Indian Society of Earthquake Technology, Vol.41, No.1, March 2004. [12] Vipul Prakash, Prajapati G. I. Lecture-notes: EQ 512: Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures, PG Course in Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee (India) (Unpublished) (2004) [13] The World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT): Implications For Developing Countries, March 1995 No. 44
Earthquake Scenario of India and Its Relation to Various Rock Types

Medha Jha
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
1. INTRODUCTION
The increasing number of natural disasters, together with the increase in number of victims and significant impacts on socio economic infrastructure requires active development of prevention and mitigation measures, to reduce the number of disasters and / or reduce the damage to infrastructure, economics and social life; better understanding of the mechanism behind natural hazards is required. Geology has a central role in identifying areas of natural hazard risk and recommending the appropriate mitigation measures. Good understanding of all geological processes will lead to better insight in how and what type of prevention or mitigation measures should be taken. Earthquakes are also notorious natural hazards and have enormous impact on life and infrastructure. Understanding the subsurface with respect to active and passive faults, stress and strain are required for earthquake risk assessment.
1.1 Causes of Earthquake
Earthquakes are mostly associated with the Plate Boundaries. There are three types of plate boundaries: Divergent, Convergent and Transform. Movement and slipping along each of these types of 171
boundaries can form an earthquake Figure 1. Depending on the type of movement, the earthquakes occur in either a shallow or deep level in the crust. The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at depths not exceeding tens of kilometers. In subduction zones, where old and cold oceanic crust descends beneath another tectonic plate, Deep Focus Earthquakes may occur at much greater depths (up to seven hundred kilometers!). These earthquakes occur at a depth at which the subducted crust should no longer be brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure. A possible mechanism for the generation of deep focus earthquakes is faulting. Earthquakes may also occur in volcanic regions and are caused there both by tectonic faults and by the movement of magma (hot molten rock) within the volcano. Such earthquakes can be an early warning of volcanic eruptions.
Figure 1: Tectonic Setting of Earthquakes
2. Tectonic set up of India
Peninsular India constitutes one of the largest Precambrian shield areas of the world (Figure 2). The Indo-Gangetic Alluvium Plain (IGAP) separates the Himalaya to the north and the Peninsular Shield to the south. The Shillong Plateau in northeast India constitutes an outpost separated from the main shield by the Bengal Basin and from the Himalaya by the Brahmputra River. The Peninsular Shield of India is made up of three main cratonic regions (Figure 2); the Aravalli, the Dharwar and the Singhbhum which are separated by Proterozoic rifts and mobile belts. The major prominent rifts that separate the southern and northern blocks of the shield are the Narmada Son Lineament (NSL) and the Tapti Lineament (TL), together called the Son-Narmada Tapti lineament (SONATA). The other rift basins are the Kutch, Cambay, Godavari, Cuddapah etc.
Figure 2: Seismo-tectonic map of India
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The Himalayan region is very much associated with a high degree of seismicity in comparison to that of Peninsular India, and making the Himalayan region seismically more vulnerable to earthquake damage (Zone V) than that of Peninsular region(Figure 3).
Figure 3: Seismic zonation within India.
3. Tectonic setting of Central India
Tectonically
the
earthquake-affected
area
of
Central
India
encompasses two crustal provinces of central Indian shield, namely, the Northern Crustal Province (NCP) and the Southern Crustal Province (SCP) (Acharrya and Roy, 1998). The two provinces are separated by a Central Indian Suture (CIS, Jain et.al., 1995).The southern part of NCP, containing the Satpura and Son Narmada (SONA) valley geographic domains is known as Central Indian Tectonic Zone, (CITZ; Radhakrishna and Ramakrishna, 1988). The boundaries of CITZ are marked by Narmada North Fault (NNF) in the north and CIS in the south (Acharrya, 1997). The main earthquake affected area lies in SONA lineament zone, which forms the northern unit of CITZ. The SONA zone is about 1600 km long and 150 km 200 km wide extending from the southern margin of Kathiawar Peninsula in the west to the margin of Vindhyan basin in the east (Crawford, 1978; Ahmed, 1964). The zone has been a major centre of tectonism with evidences of reactivation. The E-W to ENEWSW trending Narmada and Tapti lineaments form a prominent tectonic belt Son Narmada Tapti lineament (SONATA) in midplate continental India Narmada tectonic line and its presumed eastward extension, Son have been considered as a major Precambrian deep crustal features (Auden, 1949; West, 1962) and possibly a paleorift extending hundreds of kilometers in E-W direction (Mishra, 1999). Correlation of structural and geophysical data shows that the Son Narmada Tapti lineaments together represent an intraplate rift with a central (Satpura block) horst bounded on either side by grabens; the Narmada graben on the north and the Tapti graben to the south (Mishra, 1999). The trace of the Narmada South Fault (NSF) was noted in the Jabalpur area. The seismicity pattern of the earthquake has a correlation with the ENE- WSW structural feature of the terrain. The main shock of Jabalpur earthquake of May 22 1997 and its after shocks are interpreted to have generated as a 175
result of reactivation of the NSF at the crust mantle boundary (Gupta et.al, 1997;Acharryya 1997; Acharrya et.al, 1998, Devarajan et.al, 1998). Intraplate seismicity may be due to reactivation of preexisting faults and stress concentration which may be caused by lateral variation in crustal structure, density, lithologic boundaries and stress concentrations along the edges of the structures; strain on the other hand is concentrated along the faults and shear zones, resulting in their reactivation. As regards seismicity in the Narmada valley, the reactivation of faults or shear zones would be favoured over new fault generation since the SONA fault is in a high shear stress orientation. 4. Case Study of Jabalpur Earthquake An earthquake of magnitude 6 rocked a large portion of the shield area of Peninsular India in the early hours of May 22, 1997 around Jabalpur, M.P. The epicenter of the shock was about 20 km E-SE of Jabalpur at 23.08N latitude and 80.06E longitude and Focal depth was 35 kms. As it was the summer time most people were sleeping outside their houses, there were fewer fatalities. The seismicity pattern of the earthquake has a correlation with the ENE- WSW structural feature of the terrain. The Jabalpur earthquake of 1997, fall under zone III of seismic zoning map of India (IS: 1893 - 1984). The main shock of Jabalpur earthquake and its after shocks are interpreted to have generated as a result of reactivation of the Narmada South Fault (NSF) at the crust mantle boundary. For classification of building types and vulnerability classes and for establishing the damage grade guidelines provided by Grunthal in 1993 was adopted. Jabalpur area represents a complex of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. The analysis of the damage patterns was done on the basis of seismic rigidity of these litho units and it shows that
the seismic rigidity characteristics of the litho-units have played a main role in accentuating the damage. The Jabalpur earthquake is an important event for India from the point of view of seismic preparedness and expertise in repair of seismically damaged structures.
4.1 Geology of the Area

Jabalpur is a historic town named after Rishi Jabali in the state of Madhya Pradesh. Petrographically, this area comprises of all types of rocks namely igneous eg granites and basalts, sedimentary eg. sandstones, limestones, shales and clays and metamorphic rock eg. marble, schist and gneiss. Stratigraphically it comprises of the litho-units belonging to geological age from palaeoproterozoic to tertiary lavas and recent compacted alluvium (Matley, 1921). Thus, it allows a vision from recent to the remotest end of the beginning of the geological time. (Table1). Geomorphologically, the area reveals dominant imprints of structural control and lithological differentiation and mixed topography, which is a combination of plains, inselbergs, highlands, and trappean plateau. Narmada is the main river that confines the area in the south. It occupies the tectonically active linear valley on the face of the Peninsula (Project CRUMANSONATA, 1995).
Table 1: Litho-stratigraphic Succession of the Area
Age
Super group/ 177 Group/ Formation
Lithology
Quaternary Recent Lower Eocene to Upper Cretaceous Upper Cretaceous Lower Cretaceous to Permo -Carboniferous Meso to Neoproterozoic Palaeoproterozoic Deccan trap Lameta group Gondwana group Super
Alluvium along river Narmada and its tributaries Basalts Sandstone, shale marl, Impure cherty limestone Sandstone, clay, shale, Conglomerate in basal part
Vindhyan Super group Madanmahal
Essentially sandstone shale and limestone Pink porphyritic and Nonporphyritic granite Acid and Basic intrusive Conglomerate, qua rtzite quartz mica schist, chert breccia, dolomitic marble chert and quartzite bands and amphibolites, phyllite, metabasalt, quartz schist, banded haematite quartzite, quartzite and amphibolites
Late Archaen to Palaeo-proterozoic
Mahakaushal
4.2 Geotechnical assessment of the area The foundation of construction in different areas of the town rests over various lithounits, viz Madanmahal granite, Gondwana and Lameta sediments which comprises of sandstones, clays and limestones, Deccan trap basaltic flows and alluvium. Constructions have also been made in reclaimed land fills. The analysis of the damage pattern was based on European macroseismic scale- 1992 (updated MSK scale, Grunthal,1993), which uses the parameters of degree of damage to man made structures of various vulnerability
classes seismogeological and hydrological changes. Jabalpur has 1.5 lakhs house of vulnerability classes A to D (Grunthal, 1993). The ratio percent for class A: B: C is nearly 20:75:5. A few class C structures are G+2 to G+4 storied with a maximum height of nearly 20 meters.
The analysis of the damage patterns shows that the seismic rigidity characteristics of the litho-units have played a main role in accentuating the damage. As originally defined by Reid (1908), the seismic rigidity is the product of rate of propagation velocity of longitudinal seismic Waves (Vc) and density. Seimogeological changes are restricted to the units of low and moderate seismic rigidities. Thus the structures over high seismic rigid terrain have comparatively less damage as compared to those over low and moderate seismic rigidity.
The areas, which are situated directly on the granite basement, are Madan Mahal, Adhartal, Ghamapur, Shobhapur, Gokalpur. In these areas, most of the houses were of class A and class B. Most of the vulnerability class A houses and many class B types houses with brick,mud mortar tiled roof have grade 1 damage. A few class A houses have grade 3 damage. The less degree of damage in these areas may be due to the high seismic rigidity of granite which ranges between 13 -16.
The
construction
in
the
northwestern,
south
central
and
southeastern parts of the Jabalpur are either over Gondwanas or 179
on the soil cover developed over Gondwanas with seismic rigidity of 9. Most of the class A and B and some class C structures have grade 2-3 damage. Some class A and B buildings with grade 3-4 damage have also been reported. Many ground fissures were noticed in these areas. In the areas located on the Deccan traps with seismic rigidity (13 -16) with varying soil cover most of the class A houses with 2-4 damage; most of class B and a few class C houses with grade 1 damage and some class B houses with grade 2 damage have been reported. The areas located on / near river banks and alluvium(of varying thickness)includes Gwarighat, Jilherighat, Gauriyaghat area . Maximum damage occurred in these areas due to low seismic rigidity which ranges from 3-5.Most of the class A structures have grade 2-5 damage, many class B type with grade 1-2 damage and a few with damage upto grade 4 have been reported. In ancient times Jabalpur was the land of tals and talaiyas . With the passage of time these tals and tanks were filled and reclaimed. These areas have vulnerably low seismic rigidity, which is less than1. Intensity accentuation is also maximum in reclaimed zones with high moisture content. The area mainly includes Marhotal, Ranital, Gulowa chowk, Phoolnagar, Sharda Chowk, Gangasagar.Most of the class A and B structures have grade 2-4 damage and some class C have grade 5 damage and a few class A have grade 5 damage.
In addition to the damages to the houses gas emanations, landslips and bank failure, ground fractures and changes in ground water regime were also recorded. The gas escaping from the standing water column on channel part of Narmada river was reported.
Emanations of gas charged with dust from ground fissures was reported from many localities.
Extensive ground fissures were noticed in residual soils and alluvium. Most of these were irregular in outline, varying in length from 1m to as much as 50m. Alluvium and soil on reclaimed areas as well as on Gondwana have poor cohesion. In Dhanwantri nagar, enechelon ground fissures, predominantly trending ENE-WSW and N-S were developed. In Supatal area, discontinuous, parallel tensional fissures trending E-W and running for nearly 25m were observed on the Chuikhadan hillock exposing Gondwana
sediments. A 3m long hairline crack trending WNW-ESE had developed in the Sharda Chowk area on compacted earth.in Gulowa Chowk area, E-W trending 3-5m long tensional fissures had developed in soil. Ground cracks trending E-W and NW-SE developed in the soil in the Nehrunagar (Medical college) area. In Lalpur, on the banks of Narmada, conjugate hairline cracks trending WNW-ESE and NE-SW were seen in semi-consolidated alluvium. In Tilwaraghat, 2.5m long lunate ground cracks were noted in compacted soil in the school playground.
Hydrological changes occurred both in surface and subsurface water regimes. Strong agitation of standing water bodies
accompanied by mud churning emergence and disappearance of natural springs occurred in surface water regimes. Changes in colour, turbidity, taste and odour were observed in addition to fluctuation in the water table in groundwater regime. The localities 181
over the Gondwanas sediments, alluvial tracts and the reclaimed areas showed the maximum changes in the groundwater regime. In the northeastern part of the city the people reported muddy water with brownish black colour. In Supatal area, water became brackish, laden with mud and was rendered viscous. In the Shivnagar area groundwater became turbid and white accompanied by rise in water table. In the area around Medical College appeared in many dry bore wells. This water was reddish and moderately turbid. In the southern part of Jabalpur town, turbidity remained for 4 to five days after the earthquake. These changes may be due to the less cohesive nature or loosening of the soils or formations due to shaking.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Seimogeological changes are restricted to the units of low and moderate seismic rigidities. Thus the structures over high seismic rigid terrain suffered comparatively less damage as compared to those over low and moderate seismic rigidity.The less degree of damage in the granitic areas may be due to the high seismic rigidity of granite which ranges between 13 -16.The construction in the northwestern, south central and southeastern parts of the Jabalpur is either over Gondwanas or on the soil cover developed over Gondwanas with seismic rigidity of 9.Medium damage was reported from these area.The areas located on / near river banks and alluvium (of varying thickness)includes Gwarighat, Jilherighat, Gauriyaghat area . Maximum damage occurred in these areas due to low seismic rigidity, which ranges from 3-5.
REFERENCES
[1] Acharrya, S.K., Kayal, J. R., Abhinaba Roy and Chaturvedi, R. K. (1998) Jabalpur earthquake of May 22, 1997, Constraints from aftershock study, Jour. Geol. Soc. India. [2] Acharyya, S. K. (1997) Jabalpur earthquake of May 22, 1997. Journal Geol. Soc. India. V.50, No.3, pp. 375. [3] Acharyya, S.K. and Abhinaba Roy (1998): Thermal-mechanical history of Central Indian Tectonic Zone and Reactivation of major faults Chapman Hyderabad. conference on SCR earthquake, NGRI,
[4] Ahmed, F. (1964) The line Narmada Sona Valley. Curr. Sci. 33: pp 362 363. [5] Auden, J.B., (1949) Dykes in western India A discussion of their relationship with Deccan traps , Trans. Nat. Inst. Sci., India, Vol 3, pp 123 157. [6] Crawford, A .R. (1978) Narmada Son lineament of India traced into Madagaskar. Jour. Geol. Soc. India, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp 144 153. [7] Devarajan, M.K. et al (1998) Seismotectonic studies of Jabalpur earthquake of 22 May, 1997. Indian Min. Vol. 50, No. 4, pp. 377396. [8] Grunthal, G. (1993) European Macro seismic Scale, 1992. European Seismological Commission, Luxembourg. pp. 1 79. [9] Gupta, H. K., Chada, R. K., Rao, M. N., yana, D. L., Mandal, P., Ranikumar, M. and Kumar, N. (1997) Jabalpur earthquake of May 22, 1997; Jour. Geol. Soc. of India; 50, pp. 85 91. [10] Jain, S.C., Nair, K. K. K., Yedekar, D. B., (1995) Geology of the Son Narmada Tapti Lineament Zone in Central India. In: Project CRUMANSONATA, Geol Surv. Ind. Spec. Pub.No. 10. pp. 1 154. [11] Matley, C. A., (1921) The rocks near Lametaghat, Jabalpur district Rec. Geol.Surv.India. Vol. 53 (2) pp.165 169.
183
[12]
Mishra (1999): Prediction, exemplified by Garm area of the Tadzhik,SSR, Akad.Nauk. USSR Inst. Fiz. Semli, Moscow, pp 72 99.
[13] Radhakrishnan, B.P. and Ramakrishnan, M. (1988) Archaean Proterozoic boundary in India, Jour. Geol. Soc. India. V.32, pp. 263 278. [14] Reid, H.F. (1998) The California earthquake of April, 1906, Report of the state earthquake investigation commission, V 2. The mechanics of earthquake. Carneige Institute. Washington. [15] West, W. D. (1962) The line of Narmada Son Valley, Curr. Sci., 31. pp. 143 144.
The Effect of Dynamic Loading on Structural Integrity Assessment

Debashis Khan
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U. P.
1. INTRODUCTION Now-a-days in the design of civil engineering structures, static loads like dead weight, superimposed loads and environmental loads (wind or waves) are considered together with the time varying load or dynamic load. Previously, people used to evaluate the effects of dynamic loading by use of an equivalent static load or by a modification in the factor of safety value. It is very important to consider dynamic loading effects in the construction of tall buildings, long bridges under wind-loading conditions, buildings in earthquake zones, any component subjected to vibrations due to equipment or machinery, impulsive load produced by blasts etc. It has been observed in literature that rapid loading of a structure can come from a number of sources and it affects not only the structural behavior but also may affect the material properties. In reality, an inertia effect from dynamic load can source plastic behavior. In many cases, dynamic loads give rise to high stress levels near cracks and fracture takes place so rapidly that there is insufficient time for large scale yielding to develop. With increase in strain rate, it has been noticed that there is increase in yield stress and ultimate tensile stress. Also under high loading rate, the fracture toughness for cleavage fracture is reduced. Therefore, it is 185
very important to consider the effects of dynamic loading on fracture in detail [1]. The structural engineering earthquake design community became very upset after observing the effects of the earthquakes at Northridge, California in 1994 and at Kobe, Japan in 1995. There were widely spread fractures within welded steel moment resisting frames. These frames have been originally designed to be strong enough to resist the stresses and also ductile enough to accommodate the distortions generated by a severe earthquake. There are many such examples of brittle fractures which occurred at the connection between the beams and columns at lower load and deformation. These failures have encouraged the engineering community to investigate the reason and as part of this to explore alternative connection types. A great deal of research and laboratory testing have been carried out in order to identify better moment connections for new steel moment connection in buildings. Failures in such kind of engineering structures made of materials with high toughness and low strength may occur due to preexisting flaws/ defects or through nucleation of crack and its subsequent growth into the defect free regions with disastrous consequences to human lives, often involving large scale financial loss. It is therefore essential to characterize quantitatively the residual strength of material in the presence of cracks, as the presence of a crack reduces the structural strength [2]. Currently, various numerical techniques like finite element, boundary element method are used to study the local behavior of connections with defects within a complete building frame under the dynamic loading. The purpose of the numerical analyses is to identify the effects of crack length, connection design, and material properties on the local behavior of sub model connections located in the full steel frame building under such loading. The stress distribution in the region of the column and beam flange connection is also considered. Over the years, the development of methodology and criteria for accurate failure prediction has been the focus of quantitative fracture mechanics, which is based on the energetic concepts correlated to crack extension.
2. THE CONSEQUENCE OF DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
LOAD
ON
THE
In structural design the influence of dynamic load on material properties is often ignored. However, it is a fact that an inertia effect from dynamic load can cause plastic deformation. From the research work in the last few decades, it is known that increase in loading rate affects the material properties of steel. Normally, the quasi-static tests of yield stress are conducted at low strain rates. Under seismic loading conditions for short periods the local strain rates in structures may be causing increase in yield stress of 30% [1]. It was investigated by Manjoine that the lower yield stress and ultimate tensile stress are increased with increase in strain rate [3]. In a separate study it was shown by Campbell and Cooper that the fracture strain decreases with increasing strain rate [4]. This implies that the material becomes more brittle when the strain rate increases. Cowper and Symonds suggested the following important relationship of strain rate, static flow stress and dynamic flow stress [5].
1 ,
Where rate ,
is the dynamic flow stress at a uni-axial plastic strain is the static flow stress. D and q are constant for a
particular material. Figure 1 represents dynamic uni-axial tensile tests on mild steel at various mean plastic strain rates
187
Figure1. Dynamic uni-axial tensile tests on mild steel at various mean plastic strain rates. A: = 106 ; B: = 55 ; C: = 2 ; D: = 0.22 ; E: = 0.001 . 1 unit of ordinate is 6.895 MPa [1].
In a separate study Wakabayashi et. al. [6] found smaller dynamic enhancements than those given by Symonds [7] from tests which resulted in the following expression:
= 1 + 0.0473 Where =50 x 10-6 s-1
In Figure 2, the curve corresponding to k = 1 represents a very limited ductility and k = 10 represents fully ductile behavior.
Figure 2. Dynamic enhancement of yield stress of steel as a function of period of vibration and maximum strain reached [1]. 3. THE INFLUENCE OF LOADING RATE ON THE FRACTURE PROPERTIES OF STEEL The fracture toughness of structural steels under dynamic loading without significant effects of stress wave normally increases with decreasing loading rate and increasing temperature, as shown in Figures 3 and 4.
189
Figure 3. The effect of temperature and loading rate on KIc [8].
Figure 4. The effect of loading rate on KIc [8].
Generally loading rate is proportional to strain rate which in turn implies that the material cleavage fracture toughness decreases with increasing strain rate. In 1987, Barsom and Rolfe classified the loading rate for fracture analysis and testing of steel into three categories, as shown in Table 1, [8]. Table 1 Type of load, strain rate and example
Type of Load Static and Quasi-static Dynamic
Strain rate < 10

-2 -1 1 -5
Example Steady-state, creep and Relaxation
10 10 10 - 10 10 - 10
6
-1
Traffic, Machinery Earthquake, Crane Explosion, Blast load
Barsom and Rolfe [8] also presented typical results of Charpy Vnotch impact tests which are shown in Figure 5. It is being observed that brittle to ductile transition behavior occurs at lower temperature for slow loading tests compared to dynamic loading tests. The rate of change of energy absorbed in the dynamic loading test is higher than that for the slow-bend test. The brittle-to-ductile transition temperature is quantified in terms of a temperature shift. In the region of temperature shift, loading rates reduce the fracture toughness rapidly and increase the propensity for brittle fracture of the steel. However, at temperatures lower than the transition region, the loading rate does not have much effect. In the upper region, dynamic loading tends to increase the toughness behavior of steel. Also, at high loading rates, the local temperature at the tip of a crack may increase due to absorption of energy from local plastic work thereby affecting the fracture toughness but this effect is automatically taken into account in dynamic fracture toughness tests at the appropriate loading rate [1].
191
Figure 5. The temperature shift in CVN and upper-shelf level due to strain rate [8]. 4. FRACTURE PARAMETERS FOR EVALUATING THE CRACK TIP SEVERITY Contrary to the advances in static fracture mechanics, significantly fewer reliable facts with established criteria and solved problems (for both stress intensity factors and J integral) are found in dynamic fracture mechanics. The two kinds of problems which are generally dealt under the domain of dynamic fracture mechanics are fast fracture mechanics and impact fracture mechanics. Fast fracture mechanics treats various behaviors of fast propagating crack tips such as growth initiation, propagation, arrest, kinking and curving, branching etc and in such conditions the effects of crack velocity play significant roles. On the other hand, impact fracture mechanics deals with various fracture behaviors under impact or dynamic loading, wherein the effects of material inertia and stress wave interactions play significant roles, [9], [10] [17]. In the case of a sudden or impact loading, fracture can occur unexpectedly, which may be the main concern for a failure analysis.
Since the work of Eshelby, Cherepanov and Rice [18] [20], the subject of the so-called path-independent integrals has received much attention both in linear elastic and more complex nonlinear elastic plastic fracture mechanics applications due to its many advantages. In this case, the Eshelby-Cherepanov-Rice J integral has played a very significant role in the advancement of static fracture mechanics. From the theory and computational point of view, the static J integral comprises the salient features like it has the physical meaning of energy release rate; it has the property of path independence; and it can be related to the stress intensity factors by shrinking the integral path to the crack tip, [9]. A local value of the strain energy release rate for non-linear elastic material, denoted J, is given by:
Where W is the strain energy per unit volume,
, Ti are
components of tractions and ui are the components of displacements. The crack extends along the x-axis, and s is the arc length along an arbitrary contour traversed counter clockwise from the lower face of the crack around the tip to the upper face. The J-integral defined by above equation is valid for most types of monotonic loading for elasticplastic material. In the dynamic case, the J-integral is not path independent due to the presence of material inertia in the vicinity of the crack. Also if unloading occurs for elasticplastic material, the J-integral will no longer represent strain energy release rate. Therefore the calculation of the J-integral under dynamic loading for non-propagating cracks should be developed by including the kinetic energy density of material at the crack tip in the same manner as the strain energy density [10]. Thus 193
where W and T are the stresswork density and kinetic energy density per unit volume at t = 0; is a vanishingly small contour which lies in the principal normal plane at s, and n is the unit vector normal to . Pij denotes the non-symmetric first Piola Kirchhoff stress tensor which is work conjugate to the displacement gradient expressed on the t = 0 configuration work rate is simply Pij , i.e., the stress
per unit volume at t = 0. All field quantities
are expressed in the local orthogonal coordinate system, X1X2X3, at location s on the crack font.
In many monotonic loading conditions, the calculation of J-integral can be carried out using general purpose finite element programs such as ANSYS/ ABAQUS provided crack tip inertia effects are not considered. The J-integral formulation is similar to the static case as shown in Rices J-integral. Due to the omission of the inertia effect term in the standard J-integral formulation, the J-integral option in ANSYS/ ABAQUS cannot in general be used for dynamic conditions. In order to evaluate the integral an alternative approach is to develop a post processing code which will use the stress-strain data once finite element stress analysis by the package is done. Extensive research for developing the finite element software for calculating dynamic non-linear fracture of solids has been carried out by Dodds et al. [15] leading to the introduction of a program called WARP3D. This WARP3D software is mainly used to analyse 3D solid models subjected to static and dynamic loads. A general Jintegral computation facility (with inertia, face loading, thermal loading, anisotropic materials) is also included in WARP3D. If there is no sign of inertia effects WARP3D will calculate J value by using
the conventional J-integral formulation. When inertia effects are present, it will calculate separately the static and dynamic terms. An alternative method of defining crack tip severity is to use crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) values. 5. CONCLUSIONS From the current review work it is clear that the dynamic load can affect structural behavior, material properties and fracture toughness of structural steel to a great extent. An overview of various numerical techniques which can handle the influence of dynamic loading in tall building, bridges, various equipments subjected to impact load has also been presented. However, it is being advised that results generated from the above mentioned software are to be compared with the available analytical solutions to validate the methodology and accuracy. 6. REFERENCES [1] Kuntiyawichai, K. and Burdekin, F.M., Engineering assessment of cracked structures subjected to dynamic loads using fracture mechanics assessment, Engg. Fract. Mech., Vol. 70, pp. 1991 2014, 2003 [2] Khan Debashis and Biswas K. Circular arc crack under dynamic load: a generalized approach for energy release rate, Int. J. Fract., Vol. 141, pp. 27-35, 2006 [3] Manjoine MJ. Influence of rate of strain and temperature on yield stresses of mild steel. J Appl Mech 1944;11:2118.
195
[4] Campbell JD, Cooper RH. Yield and flow of low-carbon steel at medium strain rates. In: Proceedings of the conference on the physical basis of yield and fracture. Institute of Physics and Physical Society; 1966. [5] Cowper GR, Symonds PS. Strain hardening and strain-rate effects in the impact loading of cantilever beams. Report No. 28, Department of Mathematics, Brown University; 1957. [6] Wakabayashi M, Nakamura T, Iwai S, Hayashi Y. Effect of strain rate on the behaviour of structural members subjected to earthquake force. In: Proceedings of the eighth world conference on earthquake engineering, San Francisco, vol. IV; 1984. [7] Symonds PS. Viscoplastic behaviour in response of structures to dynamic loading. In: Huffington, editor. Behaviour of materials under dynamic loading. New York: ASME; 1965. [8] Basom JM, Rolfe ST. Fracture and fatigue control in structures applications of fracture mechanics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall; 1987. [9] Nishioka T, On the dynamic J integral in dynamic fracture mechanics. FRACTURE: A Tropical Encyclopedia of Current Knowledge (Dedicated to A. A. Griffith), Edited by G. P. Cherepanov, Krieger Publishing Company, Melbourne, USA, pp. 575617, 1998 [10] Nakamura T, Shih CF, Fround LB. Analysis of a dynamically loaded three-point-bend ductile fracture specimen. Engng Fract Mech 1986;25:32339. [11] Kanninen MF, Popelar CH, Advanced fracture mechanics. Oxford University Press, New York, 1985 [12] Nakamura, T., Shih, C.F., and Freund, L. B., Threedimensional transient analysis of a dynamically loaded three-pointbend ductile fracture specimen, ASTM STP 995, Vol. I, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 217 241, 1989
[13] Freund LB, Dynamic fracture mechanics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990 [14] Guz, A. N. and Zozulya, V. V., Problems of dynamic fracture mechanics without contact of the crack faces, Int. Appl. Mech., Vol. 30 (10), pp. 735 759, 1994 [15] Dodds RH, Gullerud A, Koppenhoefer K, Ruggieri, Warp3drelease 13: 3-D dynamic non-linear fracture mechanic analysis of solids using parallel computers and workstations. Structural Research Series, 607, UILU-ENG-95-2012, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1999 [16] Zaho, W and Burdekin, F.M., Dynamic structural integrity assessment for offshore structures, J. Offsh. Mech. Arct. Engg., ASME, Vol. 126, pp. 358 363, 2004 [17] Anderson, T. L, Fracture mechanics: fundamentals and applications, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, USA, 2005 [18] Eshelby, J New York.. D., The continuum theory of lattice defects, Solid State Phy., 3, Academic Press, New York, 1956 [19] Cherepanov, G. P., Crack propagation in continuous media, Appl. Math. Mech., 31, 3, pp. 467 488, 1967 [20] Rice, J. R., A Path independent integral and the approximate analysis of strain concentration by notches and cracks, J. Appl. Mech., vol. 35, pp. 379-386, 1968
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Recent Developments in Design and Construction Techniques of Brick Masonry Buildings

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Proceedings of the Workshop

Editors P. K. Singh P. R. Maiti

Proceedings of the Workshop

Recent Developments in Design and Construction Techniques of Brick Masonry Buildings

Editors P. K. Singh P. R. Maiti

Sponsored by University Grants Commission New Delhi (Under SAP Scheme)

Department of Civil Engineering, IT- BHU March-2012

In Commemoration of 150th Birth Anniversary

P. K. Singh & P. R. Maiti

Masonry Structures: Prospects, Problems and Tasks

Figure 5: SMB being made in soil block press.

Fig 6 and 7 shows hollow concrete and hollow clay blocks.

UNIT Kg Kg ONE BRICK BRICK EQUIVALENT --DO---DO---DO---DO---DO--

Table 2: Energy and Emission due to building technologies

EMBODIED ENERGY GJ/M2

CARBON EMISSION T/M2

OPERATIONAL ENERGY, 25 YEARS GJ/M2

CO2, 25 YEARS T/M2

Figure 8 & 9: 6 storeyed building, Mumbai and 9 storeyed building in Nashik.

Figure 10: An SMB wall.

3. Barriers to Use of Masonry

4. Recent Positive Developments

6. Outline of masonry research

Failure and Behavior of Masonry Structures in Recent Sikkim Earthquake 2011

Figure 2: Severely Damaged Building under Demolition, Gangtak, Sikkim

Figure 3: Collapse of Observatory Shed, Mangan

Figure 4: Wall crack continued to Water Basin, Mangan

Fig ure7: View of C shaped School Stone Masonry Building, Darjeeling

Figure 8: Crack above Arch, Ground Floor

Figure 9: Out of Plane Failure of Walls above Lintel

Figure 10: Cracked Stone Masonry Wall

Figure 11: View of the Church, Kalimpong

Figure 12: Cracked Arch Crown and Masonry

Figure 13: Cracks from Arch Crown to Window

A Systematic Design Approach of Coupled Shear Wall Buildings during Earthquake

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of coupling beam

Type of Reinforce ment

Englek irk (2003)

< 1.5 1.5 to 4.0

Reinforc ed concrete coupling beam

1.5 to 4.0 Steel coupling beam

Figure 2 (a): Coupled shear walls

Figure 2 (b): Free body diagram of coupled shear walls

1) Selection of a particular type of coupling beam and determining

2) Determining the fractions of total lateral loading subjected on

3) Determining shear forces developed in coupling beams for

(db ) M ot k l (Lw )b (Lb )c

Step 4 After obtaining , and

at each storey for the particular value of

F1 (H jhs )(H x jhs ) H

Wall rotation at i th storey for fixed base can be written as:

Figure 3: Deformed shape of a i th storey symmetrical coupled shear

300 mm 3.0 m 27.0 GPa 200.0 GPa 415 MPa

20 Steel yield strength (fy)

Figure 4(b): Coupled shear walls at section a-a

Coupling beam Rigid link

Figure 5: Modeling in SAP V 10.0.5 (2000) and DRAIN-3DX (1993)

Figure 6: Bilinear Representation for Capacity Curve

roof , CP roof , yield

Figure 7(a): Capacity curve for fixed base condition

Figure 7(b): Capacity curve for pinned base condition

Table 5: Ductility of coupled shear walls considering different approaches

Ductility Fixed base Pinned base 7.5 7.45 7.47

height h s = 3.6m can be designed with an optimum ratio of