INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
COUNTRIES IN THE REGION
Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Republic of the Congo Democratic Republic of the Congo Cote d'Ivoire Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone South Africa South Sudan Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe

INTRODUCTION
COLONIZATION AND INDEPENDENCE

European colonization by WWI

INTRODUCTION
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
MONARCHIES Hereditary king or queen acts as head of state, power may be limited by constitution REPUBLICS Varies in levels of authoritarianism, single or multi-party

*** OTHER
Military junta, constitutional democracy, parliamentary democracy

TRANSITIONAL Result of civil wars among rebel groups

INTRODUCTION
ECONOMY
Natural resources: the region is a major exporter to the world of gold, uranium, chrome, vanadium, antimoney, coltan, bauxite, iron ore, copper, manganese, platinum, diamonds

Africa's external debt now stands at $255 billion

INTRODUCTION
HUMANITARIAN ISSUES
A majority of Sub-Saharan Africa still lack basic civil liberties and human rights.
Humanitarian crisis as a combination of drought, exrteme poverty, civil conflict, epidemics and economic decline threaten nearly 60 million of the region's 550 million people. Militarization: Hundreds of thousands of Africans have died at the hands of state-supported military units. Scarce foreign currency was used for military hardware - money that could have been used for development or humanitarian aid.

POLITICAL DYNAMICS

[CONCEPT]

STATE
DYNAMICS OF POLITICS

POLITICAL DYNAMICS
STATE:
An organization within the society where it coexists and interacts with other formal and informal organizations from families to economic enterprises of religious organizations. It is however, distinguished from the myriad of other organizations in seeking predominance over them and in aiming to institute binding rules regarding the other organizations activities. [BRATTON]

POLITICAL DYNAMICS

POLITICAL DYNAMICS
THE AFRICAN STATE
Partial autonomy alongside partial interpenetration (forrest) ===========================================

national leaders and administrators remain closely linked to societal actors and groups, to some extent beholden to their interests and often bearing the brunt of their dissatisfactions

=========================================== not able to consolidate the political penetration of local level

institutions remain independent of higher level authorities

===========================================

LEGITIMATING IDEOLOGY ; African leaders are unable to convince the majority of their populace that the state's central purpose is to act in the interests of its citizenry.

POLITICAL DYNAMICS
THE STATE & THE ECONOMY
Link between African bureaucracy and economy (Goldsmith)
===========================================

Legitimacy down because of poor economic performance undermining popular support and reducing further already fragile capacity of state to perform (Bratton)
===========================================

Subject to pressures for financial sector reform from global markets and international financial institutions.
===================================

LIBERALIZED; COOKIE CUTTER Financial Sector

POLITICAL DYNAMICS
THE STATE & INSTITUTIONS
the state's rules and procedures of law are distinguished by a claim to universality
===========================================

REGULATION establishing state autonomy, takes shape in any policies that are designed to displace the rules and practices of alternative institutions.
=======================================

==========================================

state-society relations are really an encounter between a structural arrangement of rule-bearing institutions, of which the state is only one.

POLITICAL DYNAMICS
THE STATE & INSTITUTIONS
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS Conditionality: debts from world institutions

======================================= ==========================================

POLITICAL DYNAMICS
THE STATE & BUREAUCRACY
Link between African bureaucracy and economy (Goldsmith)

Bureaucracy not over-expanded but underperforms (Goldsmith)

=======================================

==========================================

Legitimacy down because of poor economic performance undermining popular support and reducing further already fragile capacity of state to perform (Bratton)

POLITICAL DYNAMICS
THE STATE & CIVIL SOCIETY
Lack of sovereignty, citizens dont recognize or are skeptical that the government will work towards the populace interest Ethno-regional opposition | Inter- Clan, ethnic political disputes
==========================================

=======================================

state-society relations are really an encounter between a structural arrangement of rule-bearing Institutions, of which the state is only one

POLITICAL DYNAMICS
THE STATE & CULTURE
Tension/conflict between retaining culture vs modernity i.e. Bantu: own ontological history; own civilization [evolution of human personality
======================================= ==========================================

THE STATE & COLONIZATION

Tension/conflict between retaining culture vs modernity Question of the political efficacy of totalitarianism vs democratization African state as weak in respect to conventional measures of institutional capacity

FRAMEWORKS
POST COLONIALISM Deconstruction, questions the legitimacy of the state and its institutionalism
=================================

Rationalizing the NON-WEST

FRAMEWORKS
POST COLONIALISM
External Fusion | Internal Fission

============================================

Bhabas HYBRIDIZATION THEORY

FRAMEWORKS
NEO-STATISM
STATE as most eligible institution of power interacting with other institutions BUT
============================================ ==============

TRADITIONAL Rational actor

NEO Natural protector

MODELS

STATE
- constellation of leaders, officials, political institutions, administrative agencies, and military and police organizations that holds centralized political power in a given territorial domain
[FORREST]

MODELS :

States in postcolonial Africa have moved to consolidate their power through the establishment of bureaucratic, behavioral, and decision-making autonomy from social and economic forces in society.

MODELS :
STATE HARDNESS

THEORY OF WEAK STATES [FORREST]

1 STRUCTURAL AUTONOMY

state institutions, leaders and officials effectively remove themselves from the influence of societal actors and influences and are thereby able to act and make decisions independently of social forces

National leaders and administrators remain closely linked to societal actors and groups, thereby counteracting states moves towards autonomy

MODELS:

THEORY OF WEAK STATES [FORREST]

POLITICAL PENETRATION OF SOCIETY national leaders and governmental institutions secure clear cut hegemony over intermediary and ground level political actors and social units

National leaders are not able to thoroughly consolidate the political penetration of local level political and social institutions so that these structures remain mostly independent of higher level authorities rather than becoming effectively integrated into formal, the centralized politico-administrative system

MODELS:

THEORY OF WEAK STATES [FORREST]

EXTRACTION OF RESOURCES FROM THE MOST PRODUCTIVE ECONOMIC SECTORS: peasant agriculture

Severe limitations in appropriating peasant resources and in establishing regularized, official control over rural trade, which presents an especially problematic challenge to states economic growth in these predominantly agrarian and non-industrialized nations

MODELS:

THEORY OF WEAK STATES [FORREST]

IDEOLOGICAL LEGITIMATION promulgation of official doctrines to defend and justify the achievement of autonomy, penetration extraction

Leaders are unable to convince the majority of their populace that the states central purpose is to act in the interests of its citizenry

MODELS:

PATRIMONIALISM/ ANTI-PATRIMONIALISM

MAX WEBER
Top-down and traditional form of political dominion Power flows directly from the leader to the bureaucracy Strengthen bureaucracy

MODELS:

PATRIMONIALISM/ ANTI-PATRIMONIALISM

In order to reconcile the untenable image of an autonomous state and the fragmented nature of society, the patrimonial state model needs to be refined with an analytical tool that adequately assesses the variable weight and influence of competing forms of authority.
(Williams)

MODELS:

PATRIMONIALISM/ ANTI-PATRIMONIALISM

PATRIMONIALISM IS SEEN AS DETRIMENTAL TO A GOVERNMENT

getting ahead becomes a matter of connections than performance (Goldsmith)

MODELS:

WEBERIAN MODEL OF DEMOCRACY

[ [

An effective bureaucracy is run by efficient, capable, and qualified personnel Achieved through competitive system of selection based on merit and qualification

] ]

============================================

MODELS:

WEBERIAN MODEL OF DEMOCRACY

Economic troubles in Africa are more likely related to aimless or inattentive but not necessarily enlarged bureaucracies. (Goldsmith)
============================================

Countries that fail to bring their public bureaucracies closer in line with Weberian precepts are going to have a hard time meeting their populations economic and social needs. (Goldsmith)

CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS ECONOMY - BANKING

============================================

STATE HARDNESS MODEL Relationship between state and private sector (IV) the entrenchment of the domestic politics of financial reform and economic progress (DV)

CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS INSTITUTIONS LAND REFORM

PATRIMONIAL MODEL
============================================ ============================================

Emergence of land reform policies that acts as panaceas for revolutionizing national development (IV) Institutions as elitist instruments (DV)

CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS
BANTU PHILOSOPHY POST COLONIALISM
============================================

STATE HARDNESS MODEL

============================================

Relation of colonial influence towards cultural sturdiness (IV) explosive growth of informal colonial influence through culture (DV)

IMPLICATIONS
X STRUCTURAL AUTONOMY X POLITICAL PENETRATION OF THE SOCIETY X EXTRACTION OF RESOURCES FROM THE X
MOST PRODUCTIVE ECONOMIC SECTORS IDEALOGICAL LEGITIMATION WEAK STATE

Beyond the state: Civil society and Associational Life in Africa

Michael Bratton

Relationship of state and society in Africa: Elite politics The state is an instrument for the accumulation of wealth and power as well as the creation of social classes An endogenous change in civil society is at hand Bratton emphasizes the need to reevaluate African Civil society based on its contribution to political development

Beyond the state: Civil society and Associational Life in Africa

Michael Bratton

Nigeria:
Nigerian Bar association publicly opposed the government's use of military tribunals to prosecute corrupt civilian politicians and to ban critical organs in the press.

Senegal
Islamic brotherhoods and the regional separatists movement in the Casamance opposed the government's experiment with multiparty competition,

Zimbabwe
white and black farmers have organized to "contradict" party socialist policy preferences" and push for policies more to their own liking

Reconsidering State and Society in Africa: The Institutional Dimension in Land Reform Policies
Donald C. Williams

State autonomy through land reform programs

Three patterns of change

1. Concentration of land Rights 2. Land alienation 3. Elevated position of lineage authorities

Reconsidering State and Society in Africa: The Institutional Dimension in Land Reform Policies
Donald C. Williams

1. Concentration of land Rights

- Burkina Fasco: village chiefs used agrarian reform to safeguard their authority - Kenya and Cameroon: use of connections in order to obtain land clearance
- Western Uganda: connections with Bahima chiefs to acquire Mailo lands (land was nationalized in 1975)

Reconsidering State and Society in Africa: The Institutional Dimension in Land Reform Policies
Donald C. Williams

2. Incidence of Land Alienation

- Ivory coast, Nigeria and Burkina Faso: used authority to grant certificates of occupancy to elites
- Uganda and Somalia: Land nationalization failed certificates of occupancy only given to those who could afford it; peasants displaced in the process:

Africas Overgrown State Reconsidered: Bureaucracy and Economic Growth Arthur A. Goldsmith

Examines the relationship between bureaucracy and economic growth

Size of bureaucracy Strength of civil society

Measured through comparison of Botswana and Mauritius with the rest of SSA

Africas Overgrown State Reconsidered: Bureaucracy and Economic Growth Arthur A. Goldsmith

Significant Findings on Botswana & Mauritius

Economic performance over the last 25 years resemble East Asian Tigers\increase in capita income (1985-95) SSA decline Botswana & Mauritius must have been built on a base of impartial, professional bureaucrats Mauritius & Botswanas bureaucracies are four times larger than other African countries (World Bank) B&M have reputations for administrative integrity and capability rapid economic growth

Africas Overgrown State Reconsidered: Bureaucracy and Economic Growth Arthur A. Goldsmith

How do B&M avoid politicizing their bureaucracies?

Botswana: countrys president only entitled to few senior appointments; commitment to neutrality; recruitment open to all; promotion meritiocratic; employees have right to appeal personnel decisions Mauritius: heavy emphasis on achievement as means for climbing up ranks; strong public service commission to insulate bureaucracy from inappropriate political meddling Unlike Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia: civil service became an instrument of political power patrimonialism (getting ahead is a matter of connections than performance) Botswana and Mauritius are confident in their civil service (541)

The Quest for State "Hardness" in Africa

Joshua B. Forrest

Despite a sustained and vigorous drive to achieve state hardness, the political and economic strength of society has to a large extent impeded state rulers from carrying out their goals It is essential for states to achieve at least a degree of autonomy from society in order to secure their power and exercise their hegemony

The Quest for State "Hardness" in Africa

Joshua B. Forrest

EMPIRICAL STUDIES: PARTIAL AUTONOMY FROM SOCIETY VS. PARTIAL INTERPENETRATION OF STATE AND SOCIETY
African rulers and officials seek to augment state hardness Removing themselves form societal influences Attempt to act in their own political, organizational and personal interests

The Quest for State "Hardness" in Africa

Joshua B. Forrest

Zaire
Attempt to allow the political elite to more completely dominate the now restricted political arena The Zairian administration thereby carved out a zone of invulnerability vis--vis society The state constitutes a partially autonomous center with an ability to distance itself from domestic and international class an and ethnic interests giving public officials room to overpower or ignore some of the less pressing interest demands and to expand their administrative functions and powers

The Quest for State "Hardness" in Africa

Joshua B. Forrest

Kenya
patron-client relationships formed in early independence period linked rural groups and individuals to the state through informal ties Cabinet members, members of parliament, middle level bureaucrats became integrated into a hierarchy of patron client ties with regional, district, and local organizations Ultimately, state bureaucracy forced to take greater account of peasant interests Peasant leaders were able to utilize informal links with national officials to win a reversal of the governments initial decision to empower planting restrictions and trade control on coffee crop

The Quest for State "Hardness" in Africa

Joshua B. Forrest

National leaders are not able to thoroughly consolidate the political penetration of local level political and social institutions so that these structures remain mostly independent of higher level authorities rather than becoming effectively integrated into formal, the centralized politico-administrative system Most contemporary African states have been largely unable to overcome the resilience of deeply entrenched traditional, village, ethnic, religious, and other non-formal sector, local level sociopolitical units and to ensure that these groupings function according to official rules and within a centrally

Bantu Philosophy
Placide Tempels

Bantu Philosophy explores the ideologies of the Bantu civilization

the nature of beings, forces and true wisdom

Bantu philosophy is seen to be primitive based on the Western standard of the civilized, Important part is discussion of the Wests mission to civilize the Bantu

Bantu Philosophy
Placide Tempels

Correct attitude in respect of non-civilized people

What is the true primitive man?

The mission to civilize did not begin with a tabula rasa

We are not starting from scratch

Bantu Philosophy
Placide Tempels

Civilization is a progress in human personality

Industrialization has neglected man and may in the long run, lead to the end of a civilization unless human personality steps in Does not civilization consist, before all else, in ability to entertain an intelligent view of the world and of life, to have convictions in regard to man's ends, to be steeped in the enthusiasm of one's faith to the extent of being ready to make sacrifices for it and to suffer for it? (75)

Bantu Philosophy
Placide Tempels

What point of view should the colonizer adapt in face of Bantu Philosophy?
We must get to know how to present them as ways of increasing and strengthening their being, their vital force; and not as means of annihilating the mind of the Bantu. (77)

Reconsidering State and Society in Africa: The Institutional Dimension in Land Reform Policies
Donald C. Williams

3. Elevated position of lineage authorities

- Cameroon and Kenya: land seekers must seek the help of their kin and lineage elders - Uganda: impossible to obtain occupancy rights without seeking the help of kin

On the Postcolony
Achille Mbembe

Commandement: the specific imaginary of state sovereignty Factors on activity of governing 1. Dealing with human behavior and how it is regulated in a state framework 2. Postcolonial African regimes have not invented - what they know of government is from scratch.

On the Postcolony
Achille Mbembe

Two main features of state sovereignty in a colony

1. Weakness of and inflation of "Notion of right 2. Colonial Sovereignty rests on 3 kinds of violence
1. Founding Violence: colonizer as the sole power over laws 2. Legitimization: converts founding violence into an authorizing authority 3. Authoritys maintenance, spread, and permanence: role in everyday life; establishes cultural imaginary that state shared with society

On the Postcolony
Achille Mbembe

Its distinctive feature was to act as both authority and morality

1. Eliminated all distinction between ends and means 2. It introduced infinite permutations between what was just and what unjust

The distinctive feature of colonial sovereignty: unpredictability

Unconditionality and impunity as principle of power in the colony

On the Postcolony
Achille Mbembe

Two Traditions (image of the colonized as an animal)

Hegelian Tradition
the native subjected to power and to the colonial state could in no way be another myself.

Bergosnian tradition
one can sympathize with the animal/colonized but be affectionate toward the master in return; object of experimentation

On the Postcolony
Achille Mbembe

COMMANDMENT AS MODE OF EXERCISING POWER:

1. Rgime dException 2. REGIME OF PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES 3. LACK OF RULING BETWEEN RULING AND CIVILIZING 4. CIRCULARITY

On the Postcolony
Achille Mbembe

1. Rgime dException
principle which departed from common/ single law political elite have more power i.e. landlords raising troops, levy taxes

2. Regime of privileges and immunities

companies, being vehicles of colonization were given power to raise taxes, collect rents, exempted from license/customs, right to trade

On the Postcolony
Achille Mbembe

3. Lack of ruling between ruling and civilizing

colonial arbitrariness, political and social ethical increases in supply need justified use of natives in modes of production imaginary of the state as an organizer of state happiness estatisation of colony - patronage and old hierarchies; privatization of public prerogatives & socialization of arbitrariness FIRST AND FOREMOST HAVE COMMAND ON NATIVE compelled to carry out obligations, proceed by orders and demands COMMANDMENT ACCOUTREMENT AND ATTITUDE, power reduced to right to demand, force ban accomplishments not directed to a public

4. Circulatory
-

On the Postcolony
Achille Mbembe

Nigeria
Exploitation of oil and minerals

Cameroon, Cte dIvoire, Kenya, Gabon, Zimbabwe most stable and most prosperous countries

THEORETICAL GAPS
PROBLEM OF THE SUB SAHARAN AFRICAN WEAK STATE One cause of weakness of the state is rooted in colonially drawn boundaries cutting across ethnic groups.
What solutions can be suggested towards reconciling the tensions between post colonial ethnic boundaries and the current state formation of sub Saharan Africa?

THEORETICAL GAPS
PROBLEM OF RISING TENSIONS BET. STATISM & PLURALISM. A reconceptualization of state-society relations is necessary to keep pace with a changing reality, to discern avenues that might lead out of the current economic crisis, and to appraise the prospects for democracy in Africa. (Bratton) What are the conditions which facilitate associational life in Sub Saharan Africa and the strengths, weaknesses, and potentialities of civic organizations in promoting economic, social, and particularly political development? (Bratton)

THEORETICAL GAPS
In order to reconcile the untenable image of an autonomous state and the fragmented nature of society, the patrimonial state model needs to be refined with an analytical tool that adequately assesses the variable weight and influence of competing forms of authority (Williams) How can we resolve the incongruities between the rule of the patrimonial state in Sub Saharan Africa and the formal state apparatus? Williams

HYPOTHESIS: Associational life is likely to be most developed in economies that have undergone the greatest degree of indigenous capitalist industrialization. In these situations, social classes are most likely to have constructed an economic base independent of the state and a set of shared interests that are best defended by autonomous political action

- Beyond the state (Bratton) pg. 427

SOUTH AFRICA

CONGO

Deepest penetration of capitalist production and exchange relations and the highest rates of domestic capital accumulation outside of the state. Banking systems are more clearly dominated by private capital and embedded in more competitive, diverse, and market-oriented financial systems.

Statist banking system: banking is highly concentrated and government controlled. These countries are characterized by low levels of financial development, including and in general have less diversified and developed economies than many other sub-Saharan African countries.

State, capital and the politics of banking reform (Boone)

SOUTH AFRICA

United Democratic Front (UDF) in South Africa Called into being new forms of organizing popular groups in all spheres of life of the society Over six hundred affiliate organizations and two million adherents. It represented a multiclass alliance of workers, poor peasants, rich peasants, traders, students, and professionals, with a known leadership drawn from among the clergy, trade unionists, lawyers, and journalists. Organizationally, the UDF was a loose national federation of membership groups built on principles of mass participation, democratic accountability, and ideological pluralism.

Civil society and associational life (Bratton) pg. 419

LINK BETWEEN ECONOMIC AUTONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT OF CIVIL SOCIETY?

 Greatest number of intermediate activist organizations in Africa today can be observed in urban South Africa One would also therefore expect the expansion of civil society to be led by, and to accrue to the advantage of, social classes well positioned to exploit economic opportunities in a capitalist economy

Potential comparison between South Africa (developed economy) and Congo (under developed economy) and the strength of their civil society

RECOMMENDATIONS
[POTENTIAL COMPARISONS/CONCLUSIONS]

COMPARISON WITH POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF INDIGENOUS COMMUNITY IN LATIN AMERICA, WHERE GROUPS WITHIN CIVIL SOCIETY GAINED GREATER OPPORTUNITIES TO ATTRACT A FOLLOWING, DEVELOP A BUREAUCRATIC FORM, AND FORMULATE POLICY ALTERNATIVES DUE TO STATE REFORMS IN THE 80S
INDIGENOUS POLITICS AND DEMOCRACY Contesting Citizenship in Latin America Deborah J. Yashar
As policymakers face the challenge of responding to indigenous organizations in civil society and their demands, they confront the issue of if and how states can recognize both individual and communal rights in an ideologically meaningful, practically feasible, and enduring way

The conditions under which indigenous movements have emerged in Latin America are primarily a response to the twin emergence of incomplete political liberalization and state economic reforms. Political liberalization in the 1980s provided greater space for the public articulation of ethnic identities, demands, and conflicts.

RECOMMENDATIONS
As policymakers face the challenge of responding to indigenous organizations in civil society and their demands, they confront the issue of if and how states can recognize both individual and communal rights in an ideologically meaningful, practically feasible, and enduring way

The conditions under which indigenous movements have emerged in Latin America are primarily a response to the twin emergence of incomplete political liberalization and state economic reforms.

Political liberalization in the 1980s provided greater space for the public articulation of ethnic identities, demands, and conflicts.

RECOMMENDATIONS
the provision of social and economic policies targeting peasants as a corporate sector

institutionalizing corporate forms of state representation that appeared to offer access to the state.

PROMISES OF DEMOCRATICALLY ELECTED LEADERS IN LATIN AMERICA

Greater state penetration, land reforms, and the establishment/protection of property rights somewhat unwittingly, although not uniformly, increased local autonomyas peasants often increased their economic independence from landlords and carved out local spaces for traditional authority structures and customary law.

RECOMMENDATIONS
COMPARING STATE BUILDING AND SUBSEQUENT POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF INDIGENOUS COMMUNITY IN LATIN AMERICA WITH CURRENT TRENDS IN SUB SAHARAN AFRICA How can this comparison contribute to scholarly literature on civil society and its active participation and integration into the sub Saharan African state?

What comparisons can be made between the degree and effects of political liberalization in Latin America and Sub Saharan Africa?

How does this comparison work towards bridging the gap between the wants and needs of various ethnic identities and the demands of the state in Sub Saharan Africa?

RECOMMENDATIONS
COMPARING STATE BUILDING AND SUBSEQUENT POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF INDIGENOUS COMMUNITY IN LATIN AMERICA WITH CURRENT TRENDS IN SUB SAHARAN AFRICA

Can this be used as a model for the strengthening of associations in civil society?

How can we compare the process of state building and its relation to social movements in Latin America with Sub Saharan Africa?

CONCLUSION
STATES IN SUBSAHARAN AFRICA ARE WEAK WITH RESPECT TO THE FACT THAT IT IS UNABLE TO PENETRATE THROUGH SOCIO-POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS AND PRODUCE MATERIAL WELFARE.
============================================

THE DIFFICULTY TO CONFORM WITH WESTERN STANDARDS MAY SUGGEST THAT THERE IS A NEED FOR INDIGENOUS STRUCTURES OF ORGANIZATION TO BE CONSTRUCTED.