1

Cyclopedia
of

Architecture, ('arpentry, and Build in^>:

./

General Referente

Work
E,
(

ON

.\R(

IIITECTlRi:, rAKI'KNTRY, BI'll.DINO,

SrpKKINTKMJKX(
I

ONTRACTS,

S1'E(

KSTIMATING, MASONRY, RELNKORCEI) rONfRETE, STRlCTfRAL ESGINEERINC, AR( IIITECTIRAL I)KA\VIN(;, SHEET METAL
LI) ING,

IKK ATIDNS, HIILUINC. LAW,

STAIR-Ul

WiiKK, 1IE\TIN(;, VENTILATLSt;,

ETC

PreparfJ hy a Staff of ARCHITECTS, miLDERS, EXCilNEERS, AND EXPERTS OF THE IIKWIEST

l'K<

iFESSIONAL STANUINO

with

ox<er 'Ihrte

'Ihouiond hnj^nwingt

TKN VOL IMKS

lllt:A(io

ami:ki(\\

ri-.ciiM(
I'm:

m.

><)c:i:tv

Copyright.

1907. 1909. 1912

BY

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDEN'CE

Copyright.

1907. 1909. 1912

BV

AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY

Entered

at Stationers' Hall.

London

All Rights Reserved

Authors and Collaborators

JAMES
C.

PLANT

Superintendent of Computintr DivUion. OfUcp of SupcrviHini; Architx-ct. Treaj-ury,

Wushintfton. D. C.

WALTER LOULNG WEBB,

Con.sultinfT Civil

C. E.
'Economics of Railroatl Construction,"

EnKintvr
etc.

Author of

"KailruucJ Construction,"

J.

K.

COOLIDGE,

Jr., A.

M.

Architect. Boston

President. Iloston Society of Architects

ActinK Director, Mu.scum of Fine Arts, Boston

H. V. vo.N

HOLST, A.

B., S. B.

Architect, Chicago

President, Chicaso Architectural Club

FRED

T.

HODGSON
5>elf -Taught,"

Architect and Editor Member, Ontario Association of Architects Author of "Modern Carpentry." "Architectural Drawinar, Square," "Modem Estimator." etc.

"The

Steel

GLENN

M.

HOBBS.

Ph. D.

Secretary. American School of Corresiondcnce

FRANK

O.

DUFOUR,

C. E.
Illinoi*

Assistant Professor of Structural EnKineerinit. University of American Society of Civil Ensineers

SIDNEY

T.

STRICKLAND.

S. B.

Masnachuiietts Institute of Terhnoloiry tkiAa Am Beaux Arts. Paris

WM.

II.

LAWRENCE.
iif

S. B.

i'rufraxir

Arrhltortural Knidnerrini:. Mawiarhuned* Institute of

Twhnolovy

Authors and Collaborators Continued

EDWARD NICHOLS
Architect, Boston

H.

W. GARDNER,

S. B.

Associate Professor of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of TechnoloEy

JESSIE M. SHEPHERD, A.

B.

Associate Editor, Textbook Department, American School of Correspondence

GEORGE

C.

SHAAD,

E. E.

Professor of Electrical Engineering, University of Kansas

MORRIS WILLIAMS
Writer and Expert on Carpentry and Building

HERBERT

E.

EVERETT

Professor of the History of Art, University of Pennsylvania

V
ERNEST
L.

WALLACE,

B. S.

Assistant Examiner, United States Patent Office. Washington. D. C. Formerly Instructor in Electrical Engineering, American School of Correspondence

V
OTIS W. RICHARDSON,
Of the Boston Bar

LL. B.

WM.

G.

SNOW,

S.

B.
of Buildings"

steam Heating Specialist Author of "Furnace Heating." Joint Author of "Ventilation American Society of Mechanical Engineers

W.

HERBERT GIBSON,
Civil

B. S., C. E.

Engineer and Designer of Reinforced Concrete

ELIOT

N.

JONES, LL.

B.

Of the Boston Bar

Author) and Cullaburuturs Continued

R. T.

MILLER.

Jr.,

A. M., LL. B.
School
i>{

I'rt-sident. Aiiu-rican

Corrmponijenct^

WM. NEU BECKER

liMtructor, Sheet Metal

Department of

New York Trade School

WM. BEALL GKAV

Sanitary EnKint-er Member, National Asthxriation of Master Plumbers

EDWARD MAURER.

B. C. E.

rroffs.sor of Mechanics, University of Wisconsin

EDWARD

A.

TUCKER,

S. B.

Architectural Enjrineer

Member. American Society of

Civil

EnKineers

EDWARD

B.

WAITE
of Correspondence

Head of Instruction Department, American School American Six'iety of Mechanicul EnKineers

Western Society of EnKineers

ALVAH HORTON
Lecturer
in

SABIN, M.

S.

York Univorily Author of "Technoloify of I'liint and Varnish." American Society of Mechanical Engineers

New

etc,

GEORGE

R.

METCALFE,

M. E.
cif

^Alitor,

American Institute

Electrical Enifim-i-rs

Formerly Hcud. Technical i'ublication Departtiient. WestinKhousa Electric

turlHK Co.

& Manufac-

HENRY

M.
"

HYDE
Technical World Magazine"

Editor

CHAS.

L.

HL'BBARD,
.S.

S.

B..

M. E.
Vi'ntllntlnff. I.lithtinii.

Conniilllnir Knirineer

on lleatinu.

ami I'owrr

Kormrrly with

Homer

Wmaltirlilun Co.

Authors and Collaborators Continued

FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN

Author of
Architect, Boston " Letters and Lettering'

DAVID

A.

GREGG
in

Teacher and Lecturer

Pen and Ink Rendering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

CHAS.

B.

BALL

Chief Sanitary Inspector, City of Chicago American Society of Civil Engineers

ERVIN KENISON,

S. B.

Assistant Professor of Mechanical Drawing, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

CHAS.

E.

KNOX,

E. E.
Electrical Engineers

Consulting Electrical Engineer

American Institute of

JOHN

H.

JALLINGS

Mechanical Engineer

FRANK

A.

BOURNE,

S. M.,

A. A.

I.

A.

Architect, Boston
Special Librarian,

Department of Fine Arts, Public Library Boston

ALFRED

S.

JOHNSON,

Ph. D.

Formerly Editor "Technical World Magazine"

GILBERT TOWNSEND,
With Ross

S. B.

&

McFarlane, Montreal

HARRIS

C.

TROW,

S. B.,

Managing Editor
American School of Correspondence

Editor-in-Chief, Textbook Department.

Authorities Consulted

THE
m

of

editors have freely consulted the standard technical literature America and Europe in the preparation of these volumes. They
jjarticularly

desire to exjjress their indebtedness

to
in

the

f(j|lowing

eminent authorities whose well-known works should be everyone connected with buildinjr.

the library of

Grateful acknowledgment is here made also for the invaluable cooperation of the foremost architects, engineers, and builders in making these volumes thoroughly re|)resentative of the very best and latest practice the design and construction of buildings; also for the valuable

drawings and data, suggestions, criticisms, and other courtesies.

J.

B.

JOHNSON,

C. E.

Formerly Dean, CoIIckc of Mechanics and Enfrineerinir. University of Wisconsin Author of "Enirinoorintr Contracts and Siiecifications," "Materials of Construction," Joint Author of "Theory and Practice ;in the Desitrnini? of Modern Framed Structures"

JOHN CASSAN WAIT,

M, C,

E.,

LL. B.

Counselor-at-Law iind ConsultinR Entrinecr: Formerly Assistant Professor of Enicineerinjt at Harvanl University Author of "EnKinecrinK and Architectural Jurisprudence"

T.

M.

CLARK
FVIlow of the American Institute of Architects Author of "Buildinir Superintendence." "Architect. Builder, ami

Owner

before the

Law"

FRANK

E,

KIDDER.

C, E.. Ph.

I).

Consultinic Architect

and Structural Knicincer; Kellow of the American Institute of

:

Architocta

Author of "Architects' and Builders' Pocket- Pook " "Ruildinir Construction and Superintendence: Part I. Masons' Wtirk Part II. CariH-ntem' Work: Part 111. Truued lUxjfs and Koof Trunscs; " "Churches and Chapeln"
:

V*

AUSTIN

T.

BYRNE,

C. K.

Civil Knsinii'r

Author of "Inspection of MaU'rIals and Workmanship Employed

"Ilitfhway Construrtlon"

In

Conslruclkm."

"y
VV.

R.

WARE
Form'rly PriifiMor of Arrhltrvture, Columbia University Author of "Mi<lrrn l'rni|>eclivo"

Authorities Consulted

Continued

CLARENCE

A.

MARTIN

Professor of Architecture at Cornell University Author of "Details of Building Construction"

FRANK

N.

SNYDER

Architect

Author of "Building Details"

^*

CHARLES

H.

SNOW
*>*

Author of "The Principal Species of Wood, Their Characteristic Properties"

OWEN

B.

MAGINNIS
of

Author

"How

to

Frame a House,

or

House and Roof Framing

'

HALBERT

P.

GILLETTE,

C. E.

Author of "Handbook of Cost Data for Contractors and Engineers"

OLIVER COLEMAN
Author of "Successful Houses"

CHAS.

E.

GREENE,

A. M., C. E.

Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Michigan Author of "Structural Mechanics"

LOUIS

de C.

BERG
^*

Author of "Safe Building"

GAETANO LANZA,

S. B., C.

&

M. E.

Professor of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics. Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Author of "Applied Mechanics"

IRA

0.

BAKER

Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois Author of "A Treatise on Masonry Construction"

GEORGE

P.

MERRILL

Author of "Stones for Building and Decoration"

FREDERICK W.TAYLOR, M. E., andSANFORD E.THOMPSON, S. B., C.E.

Joint Authors of

"A

Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced"

Authorities Consulted Continued

A. W.

BUEL

and C.
"

S.

1111. L

Joint Authoni of

Reinforced Concrete"

NEWTON HARRISON,
Author of

E. E.

Klectric Wirinir.

DiaKrama anJ Switchboard*"

FRANCIS
Head

B.
of

CROCKER.

E. M.. Ph. D.
i
i

Department of Electrical Enuinecrinir. Columbia Univemity; American Institute of Klectrical Eni?ineer8 Author of "Electric LiRhtini?"

.idem.

V
J.

K.

CKAVATH

and V. K.
"

LANSINGH

Joint Authors of

Practical Illumination"

JOSEPH KENDALL FREITAG.

Authom of
"

B.

S.. "

C. E.
Fireproofinif of Steel BuildinKs"

Architectural Enitincorink'."

WILLIAM

11.

BIRKMIRE,
"

C. E.

Author of IManninj: and Construction of Hiith Office BuildinRs." "Architeotural Iron and Steel, and Ita Application in the Construction of Buildings." "Compound Riveted Girders," "Skeleton Structures." etc.

EVERETT

U.

CROSBY
"

and

HENRY

A.

FISKE
for

Joint Authors of

Handbook of Fire Protection

Improved Risk"

CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY

Author* of "Pocket Companion. ContaininK Useful Information and Tables AppertainInK to the
lIiMS

of Steel"

J. C.

TKAUTWINE,

C. E.

Author of "Civil Kniclncer'a Pockct-Hook"

"y

ALPHA

PlKia'E .lAMLSON, M.
..f

K.
Purdue
l'nlverltjr

Aiiolitunt PrufesHor
Autliiir of

Mi-ctmnliiil Driiwrnn.

"Advnnoi-d Merlmnlcnl Drawinit"

FRANK CHOUTEAU
Arrlillrct
Aiithiir of

BliOVVN
l.'lt<'rintt"

ikinlnn

"
t.<>ttrr<i

nnM

Authorities Consulted

Continued

HENRY McGOODWIN
Author
of "Architectural Shades

and Shadows"

VIGNOLA
Author of "The Five Orders of Architecture," American Edition by Prof. Ware

CHAS.

D.

MAGINNIS
Illustrated Treatise"

Author of "Pen Drawing, An

FRANZ

S.

MEYER

Professor in the School of Industrial Art. Karlsruhe " Author of Handbook of Ornament," American Edition

RUSSELL STURGIS
Author of

"A

Dictionary of Architecture and Building,"' and

"How

to

Judge Archi-

tecture"

A. D. F.

HAMLIN,

A. M.

Professor of Architecture at Columbia University Author of "A Textbook of the History of Architecture

RALPH ADAMS CRAM

Architect

Author

of

"Church Building'

C. H.

MOORE
Author of
"

Development and Character of Gothic Architecture"

ROLLA

C.

CARPENTER,

C. E.,

M. M. E.

Professor of Experimental Engineering, Cornell University Author of "Heating and Ventilating Buildings"

WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD

Author of "A Guide to Sanitary House Inspection"

^
I.

J.

COSGROVE
Author of "Principles and Practice of Plumbing"

COriSTRUCTION

DRAWIHa
IN

snov/iriG.

aHUET i^ETAL mUTi. AND VEMTILATOR. VEriTILATIOM WORK.

'Bz.sndJ

Iron Br>a-C>
<

r^

-^

M^

JL
Vent.
-iboir

',Wood'^

Jomt
befwcen Vent.

a.rjd.

Secfton&Jl view s'ho\A/l"n^ ventilaJtion pipes conrjcclfed To drum in aJlic e>s.lso sTea^m coils in drum To crcavte sucTion.

Foreword
HF^
nii)i(l

I'volutiuii

(if

constructive methods in recent

.\t':iis.

as illustrated in tlif use of steel

i'l^-'i't-'Ji^wl

and concrete,
buildinjfs,

'^

^f 1^^'
~

'^'"^

^'"'

size

and complexity of
foi'

has created the necessity

an antliority wliiih shall

practice along a
of

embody accumulated experience and ai)proved

variety
of
corrt'lated
lines.
is

Tin'

Cyclope(lia
to
lill

Architecture,

Carpentry, and
need.

Huildiiiir

designed

this

acknowledged

C,

There

is

no

indiiNirv

(hut
its

coinpares

with

Building

in

the

close

interdeiwndence of

subsidiaiy trades.
of
Steel
oi-

The

Architect,

for

example,
is

who knows nothing

today
a>

Concrete con-

struction

niurh

out

of

iilace

on

important

work

as the Contractor

who cannot make

hi-^

intelligent estimato,s, or

who

understands nothing of
carpenter must
and. in fact,
ing; and the
all

legal

right-;

and responsibilities.

now know

snn'thing of Nhisoiuy, FJeeliie Wiring,

othei' trades
is

employed
all

in

the erection of a

l)uild-

same

tiue

<yi'

the craftsmen

whose handiwork

will enter into tlie

completed structure.
noi-

C.

Neither

pains
the

expen-^e have lieen

spared

to

make

the

pro.sent

work

most eimipreliensive and authoritative on the

its

Hul)ject of

Building and

allied

industries.
will

The aim has

lo
llie

Immmi.

not

merel\- to create a

work which

a|>peal

trained

expert, but one that will

commend

itself also

to

the

beginner

and the self-taught, practical

man by

giving him a working

his

knowledge

of the principles

and methods, not only of

own

particular trade, but of all other branches of the Building Indus-

try as well.
for

The various

sections have been prepared especially

home

study, each written

by an acknowledged authority on
of matter
is

the subject.

The arrangement

such as to carry the

student forward by easy stages.

Series of review questions are

inserted in each volume, enabling the reader to test his knowl-

edge and make

it

permanent possession.

The

illustrations
text.

have

been selected with unusual care to elucidate the

C, The work will be found to cover

many important
on

topics on

which

little

information has heretofore been available.

This

is

especially apparent in such sections as those

Steel, Concrete,
;

and Reinforced Concrete Construction

Estimating;

Building Superintendence

Contracts and Specifications, including the princi-

ples and methods of awarding and executing Government contracts;

and Building Law.

is

, The Cyclopedia

a compilation of

many

of the most valu-

able Instruction Papers of the

ence, and the method adopted

American School of Correspondwhich

this

in its preparation is that

School has developed and employed so successfully for

This method
tests
is

many years.
all

not an experiment, but has stood the severest of

use which

that of

practical

has demonstrated

it

to be the

best yet devised for the education of the busy

working man.
is

C
this

In conclusion, grateful acknowledgment

due the

staff of

authors and collaborators,

without whose
impossible.

hearty

co-operation

work would have been

Tabic of Contents

Electric Wiring
Wired Run on Inulator

..
-

Vttl.rMK IX
.

By Charles

E.

Knoxf

Pa^e !!

Tubing

Mi-lal Conduit Armored Conduit Armort-d Cable Fibroun Two- Win- and Thrco-Win- .SyHti-ma - SizeH of Comluctom FormulajJ In.sUillation Location of Outlets Chaac* for CalcuUitini; I-oiw. Current, etc.
for Feeders

in Conduitu: in

MoMinit Knob

and Tube Wirinit Wire* Exposed

and Mains

Ix>cation of Cutout Cabinets

and

Distributint: Centers

Outlet-Boxes nuBhintc FuRC-Boxcs Cutout Buildintt

Cartridge Fuse.s Electric Bell Wiring

Testintr -Alternatinir-Currcnt

Circuita-Drop

in

A. C. Line* Wirinsr an Ofllce

Panels

Fuse-Links

Electric LightiN(;

B>j G. r.

Shaad

Page 95

Manufacture Carbon FilamentHistorical Sketch Incandescent Lamps Selection Distribution of Light Voltage and Candlepower Efficiency Tungsten Lamp Osmium Lamp Metallic-Filament Ijimps Tantalum Lamp Helion Lamp Nernst Lamp Mercur>'-Vapor Lamp Moore-Tube LightArc Lamps Arc-Lamp Mechanisms Flaming-Arc Lamp Power Distribution Illumination Residence Lighting Lighting of Public Halls and Offices Table of Lighting Data
Skylights, Roofing, Cornice

Work By William Neubecker Page Reinforcing Strips Weight of Glass Skylight Bars Condensation Gutters
.

163

Single-Pitch and Double-Pitch Skylights Hip Monitor Skylight VentilationRoof Mensuration Corrugate<l Iron Flat Extension Skylight MeUl Roofs Brackets. Tnis.sos Raking MoldMembers of Cornice Roofing ami Siding

ings

Miter Cutting Development of Blanks for Curved Moldings

Plastering

...

By Frank Chouteau Brown

Page 297

Plaster Plaster Finish Patent Plasters Back Plastering Cracks Drying PlasU'r Plaster Molding Exterior Plastering
MorUr Rough
Painting
Ctmi Crcoaoting

Interior Plaatering Lathing Plaster Materials- Slaking

and Working Lime

By

.\.

H. Sabiu

I'ajro

;!2'.>

Linseetl Oil Data of Priming Coat Paintii Oil Finish Mixing and Grinding Thinners and Dryers White Ix?ad White Zinc AdulternlsTinting Colors Brushes Fillers House Painting Painting Plastered VarnishR.">f Painting Painting Structural Metal Walls- Repainting

Shellac

Damar

Enamel Paints - Floor Finishing -Glaxing

Index

....

Page 363

For page numlicrs. "> foot of

pau<i<.

For profesaional standing of authors. front of volume.

'

li'-l

of Aiilhiirs

ami Collaborator*

at

ELECTRICAL KITCHEN IN EDISON BUILDING, CHICAGO

ELECTRIC WIRING
.mi:th()I)s oi

wikiNO
an- ikav
In-

T\\v

(litlVn-iit iiiftlKMls

of

\\iriii<; wliicli

aj>pn>\(.*(l ly tlie

National Hoanl of
i^fiienil lieails,

Firt-

I'mk'nvriters,

may

tlassiliwi uiultT four

as follows:
1.

2.

3.
4.

WiHEs Run' Concealed in Conduits. WiuES Run in Moulding. Concealed Knou a.nd Tube Wikino. Wires Run Exposed on Insulators.
I-JIN

WIRHS
Under

CONCnALED

IN

CONDIITS

this general heail, will Ik- included tiie following:

(o)
(6)
(r)

Wires run Wires run

in rigid conduits. in flexible metal conduits.

Armoreil cable.

Wires Run

in

Rigid Conduit.
(oii>i>i>

The form of

rigid

metal conduit

now

of plain iron gasj)ij)e the interior suruse<l almost t-xcliisix i-ly, Ik-cii face of which has j)rej)are<l liy removing the scale and hy remov-

ing the irregidarities, and which is then coate<l with lle\il)le enamel. The outside of the pi|>e is given a thin coat (f enamel in some eases,

and,
cases,

in
is

h c

galvan-

ized.
Ot
,

Fig.

shows one make

enamelel (UnI

11/

'

'^-^

'

KIkI'I Hiiainrlr.l I'lMiilult. riiHif

CourU$y of American Conduit Mfg.

Co.,

PUtttmrg,

l\t.

lined

conduit.

.\iiother
duit,

form of

rigid

conduit
jiijM-

is

that

known

as the armortd con-

which consists of iron

with an interior lining of pajHT

impregnate*! with asphaltum or ..imilar compound. 'This latter form of conduit is now rapiillv going out of us*-, owing to the uidinctl lilH*
iK-ingclu-aprr ami la^icr to install, and owing also to imj)nivel mellxNls of pn)tccting the iron pipe frnm corrosion, and to the intniduclion of additioiuil hniid on tin- lonductors, which |irtly <-om|H'n.sates ft>r the

ELECTRIC WIRING
pipe being unlined.

Trie introduction of improved devices

such as

outlet insulators, for protecting the conductors from the sharp edges of also decreases the necesthe pipe, at outlets, cui-out cabinets, etc. afforded by the interior paper lining. of the additional

sity

protection

from one-half inch to Rigid Conduits are made in gaspipe sizes, The following table gives the various data three inches in diameter.
relating to rigid,

enameled (unlined) conduit:

TABLE
Rigid,

Enameled Conduit Sizes, Dimensions, Etc.

ELECTHIC WIUIN'G
TABLi: III in Une Conduit

Two Wires
Sizr.

WiHK. U

&.

8 U.

ELECTRIC WIRING
that the sizes of conductors which using these tables, for the reason be safely installed in any run of conduit depend, of course, upon

may

the length of

and the number

of bends in the run.

The

tables are

based on average conditions where the run does not exceed 90 to 100 in the case of the smaller feet, without more than three or four bends,
sizes of wires for a given size of conduit;

and where the run does not

exceed 40 to 50

feet,

with not more than one or two bends, in the case

of the larger sizes of wires, for the

same

sizes of conduit.

Unlined conduit can be bent without injury to the conduit, if the conduit is properly made and if proper means are used in making the bends. Care should be exercised to avoid flattening the tube as a result
of the bend over a sharp curve or angle. In installing iron conduits, the conduits should cross sleepers or beams at right angles, so as to reduce the amount of cutting of the

making

beams or sleepers to a minimum. Where a number of conduits originate

at a center of distribution,

they should be run at right angles for a distance of two or three feet from the cut-out box, in order to obtain a symmetrical and workmanlike

arrangement of the conduits, and so as

"\\Tiile it is

to

have them enter the

cabinet in a neat manner.

usual to use red or white lead

is

at the joints of conduits in order to make them water-tight, this frequently unnecessary in the case of enameled conduit, as there

is

often sufficient

enamel on the thread

to

make a
in

water-tight joint.

When
cement,

iron conduits are

installed

ash concrete, in
in

Keene

or, in general,

where they are subject

action, they should be coated with

tive paint to

any way asphaltum or other similar protecin

to corrosive

prevent such action.

circuit

While the cost of

greater than any other

work run

iron conduits

is

usually

and durable, and

is

method of wiring, it is the most permanent strongly recommended where the first cost is not

This method of wiring should always be used in fireproof buildings, and also in the better class of frame buildIt is also to be recommended for exposed work where the work ings.
the sole consideration.
is

liable to disturbance or

Wires Run shown in Fig. 2,

in Flexible
is

mechanical damage. Metal Conduit. This form of conduit, described by the manufacturers as a conduit com-

posed of "concave and convex metal strips wound spirally upon each other in such a manner as to interlock several concave surfaces and

ELKCTHIC

W111IN(]

their convex surfaces, lx)th exterior aiui interior, thereby prtvstMit securing a smooth and cijniparatively frictionless surface inside and
out.

The
Owing
rigid

fielil

fur thr iim-

i.l"

this

form of conduit
<;iii

is

rapidly increasing.

to its llexil)ility, coiKhiit df this fy|M'

Ik- nsil in

nuniemus

cases where

the

conduit

could not possi1) y be e

1

ployed.
is

Its

use
Fig.
Vourtt*!/
2.

to

be recom-

Flexible Sl.'clC.udult.
Co., Trot/. X. V-

mendeil al)Ove
all

of Sterling Electric

the other forms of wiring, except that installe<l in rigid conduits. For new fireproof buildings, it is not so durable as the rigid conduit,

Ix'cause not so water-tight;

tool)tain as
rigid

and

it is

ver}' difliciilt,

if

not impossible,

workmanlike a condu't system with tiie flexible as with the of conduit. For completed or old frame luiildings, liowever, type

the use of the flexible conduit

Tal)le
duit,

V gives
the

is sujoerior to all other forms of wiring. the inside diameter of various sizes of flexible cx)n-

and the lengths of

is

tandard

coils.

inside diameter of this

conduit
for the

same as

maximum
little

that of the rigid conduit; and the table given sizes of conductors which may l)e installiHl in the

various sizes of conduits,

maybe

usetl also for flexible steel conduits,

Ix;

except that a

more margin should

allowe<l for flexible steel

conduits than for the rigid conduits, as the stiffness of the latter makes
it

jK>ssil)le

to pull in slightly larger sized contluctors.

TABLE V
Orcenfield I-Icxiblc Steel Conduit

Is.HIL'l.

ELECTRIC WIRING
This conduit should, of course, be
first

installed without the con-

ductors, in the

same manner as

the rigid conduit.

Owing

to the

of this conduit, however, it is absolutely essential to fasten flexibility it securely at all elbows, bends, or offsets; for, if this is not done, con-

siderable difficulty will be experienced in drawing the con-

ductors in the conduit.

The
the

rules governing the in-

stallation of this conduit are

same as those covering

Double-braided
i
i

rigid conduits.
Fig.
3.

Use

of

for Fastening FlexIble Conduit in Place.

Elbow Clamp

Conductors are required, and ,, , iii the conduit should be grounded

i i

As already stated, the conduit should as required by the Code Rules. be securely fastened (in not less than three places) at all elbows; or
else the special

elbow clamp made for

this purpose,

shown

in

Fig. 3,

.should be used.

In order to cut flexible steel conduit properly, a fine hack saw

should be employed. Outlet-boxes are required at as bushing and wires to rigid
conduit.
Fig. 4 shows
coil
all outlets,

as well

of flexible steel conduit

5, 6,

Figs.

and 7 show, respectively, an outlet box and cover, outlet plate, and bushing used for this
conduit.

are

many

Armored Cable. cases where

to
install

There
it is

im-

possible

a conduit

system. In such cases, probbably the next best results may

be obtained by the use of steel armored cable. The rules gov-

Fig. 4. A 100-Foot Coll of Flexible Steel Conduit. Courtesy of Sprague Electric Co., New Tork,N.Y.

erning the installation of annored cable are given in the Natimial Electric Code, under Section 24-A, and Section 48; also in 24-S. This cable is shown in Fig. 8.
Steel

armored cable

is

the insulated conductors.

made by winding formed steel The steel strips are similar to

strips over

those used

ELECTRIC WIRING
for the steel eoiuliiit.

(are
tlie

is

taken

cnishinj; or ahraiilinij

insnlation

in forming tlie euljle, tu avoid on the eoiuliictors as the steel

Fig.

5.

Outlet

Box

for Flexible Slei-1

strips are fnl

and formed over the same.

ture, the spools of steel

In tlie process of mannfaeribbon are of irregnlar length, and when a

FIk'.

ft.

outlet IM.itf for Flexible Sttl Co III u 1 1.

I

Flpr

7.

Courtftynf Spriujut 1
;iiid

SnrYork, S.Y.
is

s|>ool is emj)ty, tin-

machine

is

stojipi-d,

the rililum

slarletl

on

the ne.xt sj)ooI, the process being eontinutxl.

There

is

no

rea.son

whv

^ V
PlR.
ft.

y*

Floxlbln

AnnonM

Cable.
Co.,

Courlny of Spragu* KUttrie

Twin PonduotonL Krw York, A". 1*.

the conduit cai>lcs could not

lengths as

In- mndc of any length; but their aetnul made are dctcrmiiuHl by eonvciiien e in haiulling. Ariuoa\]

ELECTRIC WIRING
is

1 to No. 10 B. & S. G.; B. & S. G.; and three-conducin twin conductors, from No. 6 to No. 14 Table VI gives various tor cable, from No. 10 to No. 14 B. & S. G.

cable

made

in single conductors

from No.

data relating to armored conductors:

TABLE

VI
Etc.

Armored Conductors Types, Dimensions,

Size

KLKCTHIC WlUIXr,
tors) art'

aniioml

caljlf ala|>tttl
is

for Dniiiian' iiuli>ur work.

for

Tvjk*

HM

(twill

coiuluctors)
(twin),

a<la|)t'<l

marine

wiriiij;.

(sinfi;le),

HXI.

and

HXL

:{

('i

conductors)

haw

Tvih-s the conductors

DL

lead-encase<l, with the steel

for

armor

outside,

and an-

e.s[)ecially

adapted

damp

Tvpe
is

as l)reweries, staljles, and similar places. places, sucli H is usel for tlexihUword j)cndants, and is suitable for

factories, mills,

show windows, and other

similar jjlaees.

Tj'pe

EM

Type K; hut the flexihle conl is reinforcwl, and is suitable for marine work, for use in damj) places, and in all ca.ses where it
the .siime as

U" subject to ver}' rouf^h handling;;. While this form of wirinj^ has not the advantage of the conduit svstem namely, that the wires can U' withdrawn and new wires
will

any way whatever yet it has many of the advantages of the flexible steel conduit, and it has some additional advantages of its own. For example, in a building
mserte<l without disturbing the buildin<( in

alreadv erected, this cable can be lished between the

partition walls,

tlinirs antl in

the

where

it

would

conduit or flexible

steel

impossible to install either rigiil conduit without disturbing the floors or

l)e

walls to an extent that

wouUl be objectionable.
to outlet,

Annore<l conductors .should be continuous from outlet

without Iw'ing spliced and installed on the loop .system. Outlet Utxes should be installwl at all outlets, although, where this is imi)o.s.sible, outlet plates may be used under certain conditions. Clamps should
l.r
j)ri.\

iilnl at all outlets,

the cable in

switch-boxes, junction-lK).xes, etc.. (o hold of grounding the steel place, and also to .ser\-e as a means

sheathing.
le.ss expensive than the rigid conduit or the but more expensive than cleat wiring or knob flexible steel conduit, and tube wiring, and is strongly reconunenditl in preference to the

Armored cable

is

latt.T.

\\II^!:S

RIN

IN

MOI IDINCi
f<pr

Moulding
also in

is ver}'

extensively used

electric circuit

work,

in

extending circuits in buildings

which have already U-en wiriNl, and which were not pmvidetl with ele<-lric cin'uit wiring buildings
'The n-ason for the |M)pularity
)f

Work

at the time of their erection.

is

niouMing

that

it

furnishes a convenient and fairly giKHl-Kniking

ruiuvav fur the

wiri's,

und protects ihem fnmi mechanical

injur.'.

10

ELECTRIC WIRING
seems almost unwise to place conductors carrying electric current, wood casing; but this method is still permitted by the National
it is

It in

Electric Code, although

not allowed in
>

damp

places or in places
is liability to

where there
I

"^

%,

dampwalls,

sj

ness, such as
in cellars, etc.

on brick

The

dangers from the use of

moulding are that if the wood becomes soaked with water,

Fig.
9.

Two-Wire Wood MouldiuiJ

there will be a liability to leak-

run in the grooves of the age of current between the conductors

ing,and to fire being thereby started, which
covered.

mould-

may not be immediately dis-

Furthermore,

if

the conductors are Overloaded, and conse-

charred and finally igquently overheated, the wood is likely to become nited. Moreover, the moulding itself is always a temptation as affording
a good "round strip" in which to drive nails, hooks, etc. However, the convenience and popularity of moulding cannot be denied; and until

some
Rules,

better substitute
it

is

found, or until

its

use

is

forbidden by the

will continue to

be used

to a very great extent for

running

circuits outside of the walls

and on the

ceilings of existing buildings.

Figs. 9, 10, 11,

and 12 show two- and three-wire moulding respectively;

to sizes of the

and Table VII gives complete data as

for various sizes of conductors.

moulding required

While the Rules recommend the use of hardwood moulding, as a matter of fact probably 90 per cent of the moulding used is of whitewood or other similar cheap, soft wood Georgia pine or oak ordinarily
.

S
o

Ac-

-Ab-

-Aa-

Ab-

-Ac-*
CD

d
GO

Fig.

10.

Two- Wire Wood Moulding.

costs about twice as

work,

much as the soft wood. In designing moulding appearance is of importance, the moulding circuits shoulJ be laid out so as to afford a symmetrical and complete design. For
if

KI.KCTKK" WIUING

11

is U> In- locatnl in the center of the ceiling, exampli', if an initlct the inoiiltlinj,' shouM Iw continued from wall to wall, the [Mjrtion l>ey(jnl

the outlet, of course, having

If

no conductors inside of
<jn

tiie

moulding.

four outlets are to

1h'

Ih'

should

coinijlctJ-^l

the <eiling, the r-ctangle of moulding placetl mi the fourth side, altliouj^'h, of coiirM*. no (.tm-

Kl^,'. 11.

Thn-i- \Vlr'

Wood

.Mi.uMuik

ductors neel

Ik-

])lace<l

in this

portion of the moulding.

I)ting thi.s

increases the cost

lut little aiul

Moulding
tubing.

is

fre(|nently

adds greatly to the appeanmce. use<l in combination with other meth(Mls

flexible steel tubing,

of wiring, including

armored cable,
instances,
it

and fibrous
the conduc-

In

many

is

po.ssible to fish

tubing U'tween

U^ams or studs nmning

tors are to run in

in a certain direction;

but

when

another direction or

at right angles to the lK>ams or

In such ca.se.s, a junction-lM)x or studs, exj)osed work is nece.s.sary. outlet-box nuist be placed at the point of comiection l)etweeii the moulding and the armored cable or steel tubing.

Where

circuits are

nm

in

moulding, and pass through the

floor,

additional protection must be provi(h'<l, as reciuiriHl by the

('(xlc liu}\s,

GO

Ac

Ab-

Aa - Ab-* Aa --^Ab
-

Agio

1 m

riK.

12.

Tlir.'c'Wli-r

WimmI

MuuUlliifc'.

As a nilc. it is belter to use C4>nduit for all protect the moulding. of moulding within six feet of the flo)r, .S4) as to avoid tlu{Mirtions
til

|)ossibilitv

of injurv to the iriuits.

When-

combination of inn

conduit or flexible steel tubing is us'l with moulding, it is well t<t um* double-}raided conductors throughout, ln'<'ause. although only single-

12

ELECTRIC WIRING
TABLE
Vll

Sizes of Mouldings Required for Various Sizes of Conductors

ol

Z
u.

FT-ErrUIC WIRING
onlinan' conditions, of the cost of annore<l
iiietlKxl of
wiritii:

13

c-ahle.
le

Where

tlie Litter

or the conthiit .system can

Ik-

einplovwj, one or tne

other of

tliese

two methods should

used

in

preference to moulding,

Fig. 13
Courtfity

Fuseless Cord

Fig. H.

Device for Maklng"Tap" In

Mollldlug.
11.

RDseltf. of Croute- Trinrlt Co., Syraaue, X. 1'.

Vourttny of

T. Patttt Ci.,

r/iil>nl<lpfiia,

IM.

ns the

of metal mouldin<j;

not only more .suhstantial, but also siifer. Various forms have been intHMJuced, Init up tt) the present time have not met with the success which they deserve.

work

is

CONCIIALHI)
This metlKHJ
Cfxlf, althou;;h
nlH)lishe<l.

KNOB ANDTl

HP:

IRIN(i

of wirini'

is still

allowed hv the Xaliimal KUctric

vigorous attempts have l)een ma<le to have it Each of these attempts lias met with the strongest

many

opposition from contractors and central stations, particularly towns and villages, the argument for this metluHl InMiig, that
chca|)est metluHl of wiring,

in
it

small
is

the

and that

which are

wirel

according to this

were forbidden, many j)laivs iiielluHl would not 1k> winil at all,
if
it
Ik.'

and the use of

electricity

would therefore

nuich

ri'strictetl, if

not

This argument, lu)Wentirely done away with, in such conununities. is onlv a temponirv makeshift obstruction in the wav of inevitable ever, pntgress, and in a fi-w years, mwloubtnlly, the con<-ealel knob and
tuU- mcthixl will
Ik-

forbidden by the Xaiinnnl EUciricCixlc.

is

The

cost of wiring at-conling to this metluMl

aUuit one-lhinl

of the cost of circuits

nm

in rigid coniluit,

and

alniut one-half of the

cost of circuit.s run in armori-tl cable.

The

latter metluxl of wiring

14

ELECTRIC WIRING

is

knob and tube wiring, and justly so, wherever rapidly replacing the additional price for the latter method of wiring can be obtained. As the name indicates, this method of wiring employs -porcelain knohs

Fig.

15.

Knob and Tube Wiring.

and

tubes, the circuit

and studs of a frame

run parallel to the

work being run concealed between the floor beams The knobs are used when the circuits building. floor beams; and the porcelain tubes are used when
In concealed

the circuits are run at right angles to the floor beams. Fig. 15 shows an example of knob and tube wiring.

knob and tube

that

wiring, the wires must be separated at least ten inches from one another, and at least one inch from the surface wired over,
is,

tened.

from the beams, Fig. 16 shows a

flooring, etc., to

which the insulator

is

fas-

good

knob

type of porcelain for this class of

wiring.

For knob and

tube wiring, it will be noted that, owing to the

wiring is concealed, the conductors
fact

that the

Fig.

16.

Porcelain Knob.

must be kept further apart than in the case of exposed or open wiring on insulators, where, except in damp places, the wires may be run on
cleats or

on insulators only one-half inch from the surface wired ovei.

EI.F.rruiC
Tibrous lubiiiK.

WIRING

15

I'iWroiis tuliiug is fre<|ueiitly

used with knob

and

tiil)e

wirinj;,

and the

re^julations governiiifj its use are

pven

in

Rule 24,
to

Se<'tion S, of thi"

Xatiunal KUctric Code.

This tuhing, as
in

state*! in this Ituli,u\uy Ik- useil

where

it is

irn[MJSsililean<l injj)raeti-al>le

einj)loy

knobs

anl
is

tuU-s,

pmvided
."iOO

the difTerenj-e

]x>tential

bi'twceii the wires

not DVt-r

volts,

and

if

the wires are not sul>-

.^.

...

Flexible Tubing. "Flexauct" Type.

Courttry of Xational iletal Molding Co., IHltgburg, Pa,

ject to moisture.

The

cost of wirinj; in flexible

fil)roiis

tul)ing

is

appn)xiniately about the same as the cost of knob and tul)e wiring. Duplex conductors, or two wires together are not alloweti in fibrous
tubing.

Fibrous tubing
cable
is

is

outlets refjuire<l at all

where conduit or annore<l

;

not use<l (as

in

knob and tube wiring) and, as

shows one make of fibrous

reciuirol

Ritle.i, it

must extend back from the

outlet.

last j)orcelain suj)port to

by the one inch

beyond the

Fig. 17

tubinij.

Table VIII gives the maximum sizes of conductors (doublebraide<J) which may l)e installe<l in hbrous conduit.
TAHLl:
Sizes of Conductors
VIII

in I'lbrous

Conduit

()

16

ELECTRIC WIRING
WIRES RUN EXPOSED ON INSULATORS
This method of wiring has the advantages of cheapness, durabiUty,

and

accessibihty.

Cheapness. The relative cost of this method of wiring as comconduit system, is about fifty per cent pared with that of the concealed of the latter if rubber-covered conductors are used, and about forty

per cent of the latter if weatherproof slow-burning conductors are used. As the Rules of the Fire Underwriters allow the use of weatherproof slow-burning conductors in dry places, considerable saving may be
effected

by

this

method

of wiring, provided there

is

no objection

to

it

Fig.

Is.

Large l<\eders Run Expose* on Insulators.

it is

from the standpoint of appearance, and also provided that

liable to

not

mechanical injury or disarrangement. It Is a well-known fact that rubber insulation has a Durability.
life.

relatively short

Inasmuch as

in this

method of wiring, the insula-

tion does not

depend upon the insulation of the conductors, but on the insulators themselves, which are of glass or porcelain, this system
is
if

much more

desirable than any of the other methods.

Of

course,

the conductors are mechanically injured, or the insulators broken, the insulation of the system is reduced ; but there is no gradual deterioration as there
is in

the case of other methods of wiring, where

IKHip" SiriH't Substation

li.iini

stri-ft suliHt.til.iii

SUBSTATIONS OF THK CLEVELAND ELECTRIC ILLUMINATING COMPANY.

KI.KCTItIC
nihlxT
is

WIRING
This
is
is

17

(ItjHMuK'il ujMiii for insulation.

e.s|K-tially

tnie in hot

such

aUne. For tfinperature the wt'atht'rj)r(M)f slow-hum in;; coiuUn-tors on |)orceliun or glass insulators arc esjH*cially reconuntMulc*!.
120 V. or
cast's,

olatt's, particiihirly whi're thr

Accessibility.

'V\w comluctors lu-ing run exjK)sel, thev niav

Ije

readily repaired or reniovel, or connections

may

lx>

made
This

to the

sime.
of

inethtjd
is

wiring

esjx'cially

reconunended
mills, factories,

for

and

for

large

feeder
Fig.
FJg.
19.

or long conductors.
e.\-

IS shows

T\vo-\Vlre Cleat.

aujples of
large

e.\jKsfl

fee<ler

con-

ductors, installetl in the

Vork

City.

Life In.surance Huilding, For small conductors, up to say No. B.

New York
may
the

New

&

S.

Gauge

each,

porcelain

cleats

V)e use<l

or three

conductors,

provided

tlistance

support one, two, between the conduc-

to

FlK-

-I'

r<>ri'<'litiii

hisuUtor fur

Fig. 2a

Onc-WJro aoal.

Lartcu Couiluctorn.

tors

is

at

least

21

in<hes in a

two-wire
in

.system,

and

2'

inches

a thnv-win* .system where the U'tween the outsi<le conductors is not over '.HM.) volts. The |)otential cleat must hold the wire at h-ast one-half in<'h front the sirface to whi<-li

U'tween the two outside conductors

the cleat

is

fastenel;

and

in

damp

places the win* must

l>e

helil at

least )ne inch fr>m the .surface wireil over.

'For

IjirgiT

conductors,

18

ELECTRIC WIRING
to

from No. 6
cleats

No.

4/ OB. &
Figs. 19

S.

or knobs.

Gauge, it is usual to use single porcelain and 20 show a good form of two-wire

Fig. 22. Iron Rack and Insulators for Large Conductors. Courtesy of General Electric Co., Schenectady, iV. Y.

cleat

and single-wire cleat, respectively. For large feeder or main conductors from No. 4/0 B. & S. Gauge upward, a more substantial form of porcelain insulator should

-Q^

oo

^ n ^t>

be used, such as shown

insulators are

in

Fig.

21.

These

held in

iron racks or angle-iron frames, of

which

two forms are shown in Figs. 22 and 23. The latter form of rack is particularly desirable for

heavy conductors and where a

number

of conductors are run together. In this form of rack, any length of con-

ductor can be removed without disturbing the other conductors. As a rule, the porcelain insulators

apart; and

should be placed not more than 4h feet if the wires are liable to be

disturbed, the distance between supports should be shortened, particularly for small

conductors.

If

the

beams are

so

far

apart that supports cannot be obtained every 42- feet, it is necessaiy to provide a

running board as shown in Fig. 24, to which the porcelain cleats and knobs can be fastened. Figs. 25 and 26 show two methods of supporting small conductors,

Fig.

Fcr conductors of No. 8 B.

&

S.

23. Elevation and Plan of Insulators Held in AngleIron Frames.

ELECTRIC WliaXC
(

19

Juuge, or over, it is not nect'ssjirv to hrt-ak iinuiul the ln*ain.s, pmviiletl they an* not Hahle to Ik- <li.stiirl>el but the siij)j>ort.s may Ik* plaeed on
;

each

iH'aiii.

Wliere the distance l>et\veen

the

supp)rts, however, 4\ is greater than

feet,
it

is

usually

necessiiry to provide

Ulterniediate
|K)rtS,

SUJ)in

p 1^,34

insulators Moutnod on Running B<i.ira acroshWUeS,.a<.eU

as

shown

Beams.

Fig. 27, or else to provide a ninning-lMiard.

Another

nietho<l
ajKirt,

which
is

may

lie

used,

where heains are

TT^-j-

furtlier

than 4\ feet

to

M~
Method of Supporting Small Conductors. :i

Fig.

25.

F-^
-ct>
Flg.
27.

Intcrmcdlatu SupiK>n for Conductor Ix'twcvu WlJc-Spaccd

Uoam.->.

nin a main along the wall at right angles to the iH'ains, and to have the individual circuits run lietween and parallel t) the U'ams.

FIk-

2<J.

.Mil

li'

"I

of SupiH.!

luK

.1

.s

until

Flu-

2H.

Conductor.

Condiiciort I*rot<vi.-*i dv WiHklpn (iuard Slrl|>H nu l.ow (Vllluj:.

In low-<'eiliiig rooms,
it is

where the conductors are

slri]>
Ik*

liable

f(

injurA*.

Usually rei|uirnl that a wtHxIeii guard of tlic cdiidiictors, as .shown in Kig. '2S.

plac'd

on each side

Where

the conductors

pa.s.s

through partitions or walls, they must

20

ELECTRIC WIRING
or,
if

be protected by porcelain tubes,

the conductors be of rubber, by

means

of fibrous tubing placed inside of iron conduits. All conductors on the walls for a height of not less than six feet

from the ground, either should be boxed in,or,if they be rubber-covered, should (preferably) be run in iron conduits; and in conductors having
single braid only, additional protection should be provided inside of the iron conduit. flexible tubing

bymeans

of

placed Where conductors cross each other, or where they cross iron pipes, they should be protected by means of porcelain tubes fastened with
tape or in

some other

substantial

manner

that will prevent the tubes

from slipping out of place.

TW0=W1RE AND THREE=WIRE SYSTEMS

As both
used in electric wiring,
the two-wire and the three-wire system are extensively it will be well to give some consideration to the
to explain

advantages and disadvantages of each system, and

them

somewhat

in detail.

Relative Advantages.

The

choice of either a two-wire or a three-

wire system depends largely upon the source of supply. If, for example, the source of supply will always probably be a 120-volt, twowire system, there w^ould be no object in installing a three-wire system for the wiring. If, on the other hand, the source of supply is a 120240-volt system, the wiring should, of course, be made three-wire. Furthermore, if at the outset the supply were two-wire, but with a posthree-wire system being provided later, it would be well sibility of a

adapt the electric wiring for the three-wire system, making the neutral conductor twice as large as either of the outside conductors, and combining the two outside conductors to make a single conductor
to

until

such time as the three-wire service

is installed.

Of course,

there

would be no saving of copper in this last-mentioned three-wire system, and in fact it would be slightly more expensive than a two-wire system,
as will be shortly explained. The object of the three-wire system is to reduce the amount of copper and consequently the cost of wiring necessary to transmit a

given

amount of electric power. As a rule, the proposition is usually one of lighting and not of power, for the reason that by means of the
three-wire system

we

turrent

is

transmitted, and at the

are able to increase the potential at which the same time to take advantage of the

ELE( TUH: WIHIN'G

21

j,'rt'atiT

If ciirrt'iit fir |Hj\Vfr rdiciency of the Idwit v()haf,'e lain[). {motors, vtv.) only werr to Ik- tninsinittitl, it woiihl U* a siinplf muttiT to wind the motors, etr., for a hij^her voUafje, ami therely retluee the

weight
If,

of

copjK'r.
in-

however, we
the

crease

voltajLje

of lamps, we find that they are not so

ellitient,
life

nor

is

their

so long ^'

With

t'lK-

iS*-

Thrt-e-Wlrc Syst'-m. wiih N<-iitr;il I'uiiducUir btLWi-i-u the Two outsldo C'ouJuftors.

thestandanl carbon

lamp,
life,

it

has been found that the

24()-volt

lamp, with the siime

cor-

retpiires

about 10

to

12 ])er cent

more current than the

in

resjM)ndin<; 120-volt lamp.

eflicient

Furthermore,

the case of

the

more

fsucii as the Tantalum lamp, has been foimd impracticable, if not iuijxisTunj^sten lamj), etc.), For this reason sible, to make them for pressures alxive 120 volts.

lamps recently

intr(Hluce<l

it

the three-wire system is employed, for by tiiis metluKl we can use 210 volts across the t)utside conductors, and bv the use of a neutral con-

ductor obtain 120 volts between the neutral and the outside conluctor,
enaljUnl to use 12()-volt lamps. Furtherniori', if a should ever be j)lace<l on the market that was as economilamp cal as the lower voltage lamp, the result would be that the 240-lSO-

and thereby
210-volt

l)e

volt

svstem would be introduce*!, and 210-volt lamps usel. As ii . . matter of fact, this

A.
I

A.
I

has

l)een

trietl

in

sevend cities and

2
KIg.
30.

O
I I

particularly
I'rovidence,
Island.

in

Rhode
120-

As a nde,

I.Hnips

.\rr;iiiK''iI III l':ilr-. Ill SiTl'-i. I)Ui>.Ml.-.liik' wltli

Necoii.Hliy for

Third or N"Utral Couduftor.

llOWCNCr, the
volt

lamp has

Urn

found
it

.si>

much more

.sjjtisfacton'

as reganis

life,

clliiencv, etc., that

is

nrarlv alwavs <MUi)loveil.

The
whatever

two-wire system
is

is .so

extremely simple that no explanation

if.

re(|uirnl

concerning

The
will

now

three-wire systiMu, howeve.', Iv consideretl.

is

somewhat confusing, ano

22

ELECTRIC WIRING

Details of Three-Wire System. The three-wire system may be considered as a two-wire system with a third or neutral conductor placed between the two outside conductors, as shown in Fig. 29.

This neutral conductor would not be required

the lamps arranged in pairs, as

if

we

could always have

shown in Fig. 30. In this case, the two lamps would bum in series, and we could transmit the current at double the usual voltage, and thereby supply twice the number of lamps with one-quarter the weight of copper, allowing the same loss
in pressure in the

lamps.

The

reason for this

is,

that,

having the

lamps arranged and, as the pressure at which the current is transmitted is doubled, we can again reduce the copper one-half without increasing the loss
in lamps.

in series of pairs,

we reduce

the current to one-half,

We therefore

see that

we have

a double saving, as the cur-

reduced one-half, which reduces the weight of copper one-half, and we can again reduce the copper one-half by doubling the loss in
rent
is

volts without increasing the percentage loss.

case

For example, if in one two-wire system transmitting current to 100 straight lamps at a potential of 100 volts, and this system were replaced by one

we had a

in which the lamps were placed in and the potential increased to 200

series of pairs, as

being used current really carrj'ing for only 50 lamps, as we would require only the same amount of current for two lamps now that we required for one lamp before. Furvolts
still

100 lamps

shown

in Fig. 30,

we should

find, in the latter case, that

we were

thermore, as the potential would now be 200 instead of 100 volts, we could allow twice as much loss as in the first case, because the loss would now be figured as a percentage of 200 volts instead of a percentage of 100 volts. From this, it will readily be seen that in the second case mentioned, we would require only one-quarter the weight of

copper that would be required in the first case. It will readily be seen, however, tliat a system such as that outlined in the second scheme having two lamps, would be impracticable
for ordinary purposes, for the reason that
it

would always require the

this

lamps
it

to

be burned

in pairs.
is

Now,
to

it is

for this very reason that the

if

third or neutral
will

conductor

required

and,

conductor be added,

This, then, the object of the three-wire system to enable us to reduce the amount of copper required for transmitting current, without increasing the electric pressure employed for the lamps.
is

no longer be necessary

burn the lamps

in pairs.

ELECTRIC WIRING

23

With re^anl to the size of the iieiitnil C(iii(luctor, one im[xjrtant must l>e Ixjnie in iniiul; ami that is, that the Rules of the J^ ational {Mjiiit
Electric

Code

coiKluctor in all interior re(|uire the neutral

wiring to

Ik?

niale at least as lar;;e as either of the

two outside eonduetors.

The
if

reasons for this from a

fire

staiuljx^int are obvious, bec-jiuse,

for

unv reason either of the outside eonduetors l)eeame diseonnected, the

iieutRil wire

side eonduetors,

mi^ht In- re<|uintl to earrv the siime eurrent as the outami therefore it should In- of the same eapaeity. ( )f

course, the chaiiees of such an event haj)j>ening are slight; hut, as the fire haziird is all-important, this rule nuist Ik- complied with for
interior wiring or in all cases
fire.

where there would he a

jirohahility of

For outside or umh-rground work, however, where the fire hazjinl would l)e relatively unimportant, the neutral conductor might
lie relucetl

in size;

and, as a matter of

fact,

it is

made
where

smaller than

the outside conductors.

The
to use the

three-wire system

is

.sometimes

installeil

it is

desired

so that

it

system as a two-wire, 125-volt .system, or to have it arninged mav he use<l at any time also as a three-wire, 1 2.")-2.')0-volt
(

system.

)f

course, in onler to

do

this,

it is

nece.ssiirv to

make

the

neutral conductor ef[ual to the combined capacity of the outside conductors, the latter being then connected together to form one conductor, the neutral ln-ing the return conductor. This .system is not

reeonnnended except
Lsolated plant of
12.')

in

volts

such instances, for example, as where an is installed, and where there is a |>ossibility
t)

of changing over at .some future time

the three-wire,
it

12.")-2.")()-volt

system.
po.ssible,

In such a ca.se as this, however,

to design the i.solated

would be

U-tter.

where

plant for a three-wire, 1 2.")-2.")<>-volt to make the ncutr.il ondiictor the siime system originally, and thru size as each of the two oiilsid*' coMdiictors.
<

weight of copper re(|uired in a three-wire .system where the conductor is the s;ime size as either of the two outside eonluctneutral
'I'he

ors, is 3 "f

'!''

rei|uini| for a
It

eorresjMinding two-win* .system using

is

the s;ime voltage of lamps.*

obvious that

this is true, lHM-au.st,

of
oni-li

V"Tr
i|ii<

If.

In

fhf wo-wln> nvHU-m. wi< n'prrwnt

t

lln< wi'lulif

of

in

wo

ront

>f

rnrhor
if

In- iiiiin1iIi< riiiniti'

Ih'
I

liiiil

lhn'<> loiidiiildi
III

.o

p.,

u 11 mK iwiHwIru nyitli'in IuivImk

If
,;

of ru|i|HT nHjulnnl

.
iIi)<

>

Haiiiv |M<n'^<n(at!i<
'

uf Ionh mhI
"x. '

M
J

In iw>i
k-

..li.lm lor wen- iimili' 4 of iiiK III iiiiilt'rrouinl work.

1 1

'

'

'

,-,

,,

1.1

hat n^iiiln^l In the romii>..i,...i,K

......

.,

.i.

-..

24

ELECTRIC WIRING

as the discussion proved concerning the arrangement shown in Fig. 30, where the lamps were placed in series of pairs, we found that the

weight of copper for the two conductors was one-quarter the weight
It is then of course true, that, if we of the regular two-wire system. had another conductor of the same size as each of the outside conduct-

we increase theweight of copper one-half, or one-quarter plus one-half of one-quarter that is, three-eighths. In the three-wire system frequently used in isolated plants in
ors,

which the two outside conductors are joined together and the neutral conductor made equal to their combined capacity, there is no saving
of copper, for the reason that the same voltage of transmission is used, and, consequently, we have neither reduced the current nor increased
tlie
it is it

potential.

Furthermore, though the weight of copper

is

the same,

divided into three conductors, instead of two, and naturally costs relatively more to insulate and manufacture three conductors

now

total

than to insulate and manufacture two conductors having the same weight of copper. As a matter of fact, the three-wire system,

having the neutral conductor equal to the combined capacity of the two outside ones, the latter being joined together, is about 8 to 10 per cent more expensive than the corresponding straight two-wire
system.

In interior wiring, as a
for the

rule,

where the three-wire system

is

used

feeders, the two-wire system is nearly always emfor the branch circuits. Of course, the two-wire branch cirployed cuits are then balanced on each side of the three-wire system, so as to

mains and

obtain as far as possible at all times an equal balance on the two sides This is done so as to have the neutral conductor carry of the system.
as

obvious that in case there

From what has already been said, it is a perfect balance, the lamps are virtually in series of pairs, and the neutral conductor does not carry any current. Where there is an unbalanced condition, the neutral conductor carries
little

current as possible.

is

the difference between the current on one side and the current on the

For example, if we had five lamps on one other side of the system. side of the system and ten lamps on the other, the neutral conductor
to five lamps. In calculating the three-wire system, the neutral conductor is disregarded, the outer wires being treated as a two-wire circuit, and

would carry the current corresponding

the calculation

is

for one-half the total

number

of lamps, the per-

KLKCTHIC Wild NT,

c-entage of loss l)eing hasttl
roiitlia-tors.

25

mi the

[X)teiitial

across the two outside

The

three-wire system

is

ver}'

generally ernployeil in altenuitiiig-

eurreiit secoiuhiry wiring, as nearly all transformers are built with

three-wire c-oniieetions.

While unhalancing
coniluetjrs, yet
it

will nut alVect the total Idss in

the outsiile

tloes atfeet the loss in the

lamps, for the reason that

the system the loss

is

is

usually calculated on the basis of a perfect balance, and

divided e<)Ually between the two lamps (the latter Ix'ing consideretl in series of pairs). If, however, there is ur.ljalaiicing to
a great degree, the loss in lamps will be increase-*!; and if the entire load is thrown over on one side, the loss in the lamps will lie doubled

on the remaining
in

side,

because the

total loss in voltage will

it

now

(M-cur
l>e

these lamps, whereas, in the case of j)crfect balance,

would

e(jually divided

between

tlie

two groups of lamps.

CALCULATION OF SIZES OF CONDUCTORS

The formula
currents,
for calculating the sizes of conductors for direct
loss in volts are given, is as fol-

where the length, load, and

eondurtor

lows

The

size of

(in circular mils) is eciual to

the curn^rit mullifflicd

tiie

by the distance (.one way), niulliplud hy 21.0, duidid by

los^ in vuils; or,

^^^^ rxDx2i.r.
in

^(^

which C

= D
V

Current, in amperes; Distance or length of the circuit (one way, in feet); Loss in volts between the licginnini^ and end of tiie circuit.
is

The
77''

constant (21.0) of this fornnda

\)S

derivcl

fnm the resistjmee

of a mil foot of wire of

FahR-nheit.

The

conductivity at 2') ("enlignide or resistance t)f a conductor of <inc mil diam-

per

<eiit

eter
tivity

and one named.

foot

long,

is

lO.S at the

ti-mperatiire

and eondi)<>

nndtiply this figure (10. S) by 'J, as the length of a circuit is usually given as the distance one way, and in onler t obtain the resistance of lM)th conductors in a two-wire circuit, we must
multiply by 2. The formida as alM)ve given, therefore, is for a tw>wire circuit; and in calculating the si/e of conductors in a thri'e-win*
.system, the calcidatioti

Wf

shouM be made on

u (wo-wire Im.sis, as ex-

plained

lieri'iiiaflcr.

26

ELECTRIC WIRING
Formula

1 can be transformed so as to obtain the loss in a given or the current which may be carried a given distance with a circuit, stated loss, or to obtain the distance when the other factors are given,

in the following

manner:
Loss
in Circuit rr

Formula

for Calculating

when

Size, Current,

and Distance are Given

_ ~ CX

DX
CM

21.6

y-^)

/^x

Formula

(or Calculating Current

which may be Carried by a Qiven Circuit of Specified Length, and with a Specified Loss

^^ DX
Formula for Calculating Length
of Circuit

21.6

V'';
Size, Loss,

when

and Current to be Carried

X

are Given

^= CM XV ex 21.6
etc.,

.X

(4)

Formulae are frequently given for calculating sizes of conductors, where the load, instead of being given in amperes, is stated in lamps or in horse-power. It is usually advisable, however, to reduce the load to amperes, as the efficiency of lamps and motors is a variable
It is in

quantity, and the current varies correspondingly.

terms of watts.

sometimes convenient, however, to make the calculation It will readily be seen that we can obtain a formula

expressed in watts from Formula I. To do this, it is advisable to express the loss in volts in percentage, instead of actual volts lost. It

must be remembered

that, in the

above formulse,

represents the

volts lost in the circuit, or, in other words, the difference in potential

between the beginning and the end of the

circuit,

and

is

not

the

applied E. M. F. The loss in percentage, in any circuit, is equal to the actual loss expressed in volts, divided by the line voltage, multiplied

by 100;

or,

P=
From
this equation,

^X

100.

we have:

y^ PE 100

example, the calculation is to be made on a loss of 5 per cent, with an applied voltage of 250, using this last equation, we would have:
If, for

= 5X250 - V
Substituting the equation

= ,.
in

,^ 12.5 volts.

V= PE
^

Formula

we haver

KLECrUIC WUtlNG
r
\t

27

C X Dx
100

21.0

C X D X C X D X PE
This
W|iiati()ii
it

21.6

100

PE
2.100

.should

he reinemherwl,
the

i.s

oMprt'.ssttl
is

in

tenn.s of

ajiplieil vollaiijf.

Now,

.since

pjwer

in

watts
it

voltage mtiltipliid by the current (M'

= EC),

the applied etjual follows that

tt>

E
C' xD X C'xD
\\\ sul)stiiutint; this value of

C
. ,

in the e([uation
.

given above

M
I

iMOUv l-MO Uv

p-= PE

tlie

, fornuila

is

)
^ir

expresseti \n

r , .. , terms of watts instead

of current, thus:

_ W'x D X

2.160

.-X

in

which

II'

= Power
=
I.cngtii

in

watts transmitted;

J)

of tlio ciriuit (one

way)

tliat

is,

the length of one

P= E*=
In

conductor; Figure rei)rf.scnting the percentage

Ai)j)lie(l

loss;

voltage.

All the al)ove forniuhe are for calculaticjiis of two-wire cirtiiits.

making calculations

for three-wire circuits,

it is

usual to

make

the

calculation on the hasis of the two outside conductors;

and

in three

wire calculations, the alnne formula' can

cation, as will
l)e

In-

used with a slight miHliii-

.shown.
it

In a three-wire circuit,

is

culatinii, that the load is e<|Ually l>alancel

usually a.ssuinel in making the cidon the two sides i)f the

is
it

neutral conductor; and, as the |>otential acnt.ss the outside conductors douhle that of the corresponding poti-ntial acrt>.ss a two-wire circuit,
is

evident that for the siixuv

si/.*- <f

con<luctor the total

lo.ss in

volts

coulil

witiiout increasing the jM-rcentage of loss in lamps. as the load on one side of the neutral c<tnductor, when I'urtlu'rmore,
is

U-

douMnl

the sy^lcin

halaix cd,

is

virliially
is

in

.series

with the load on the

thini side, the curreiu in am|)eres

(iirreiil

rei|iiired

l.y

;dl

llie

lam|s.
In Ki>riiiuln>

usually one-half the sum of the If (' l>e still taken as the total
1

*NoTr..

llinnoiiitM<r timl

I'

lo 4 rf>|imM'iiiii tlu< voliii Uat, liui tlil

In Knrtntiln 8

n'prtwiKM

tlii<

appili')! vnliiiKo,

28

ELECTRIC WIRING
is,

current in amperes (that

in

the

sum

of the current required by all of

to divide this current by 2, the lamps) to use the formula for calculating the two outside conductors for a three-wire system. Furthermore, we shall have to multiply the lost in the lamps by 2, to obtain the voltage lost in the two outvoltage side conductors, for the reason that the potential of the outside com

Formula

1,

we

shall

have

ductors

is

double the potential required by the lamps themselves.

1

In other words, Formula

will

become

^^J^CXDX 2 X FX2 - CXDX 21.6

4.'
in

21.6

(6)
lamps on both
sides of

which C = Sum

of current required

by
of
i.

all

of the

D=
V=

the neutral conductor; Length of circuit that

is,

any one
e.,

of the three conductors;

Loss allowed

lamps, two outside conductors.

all

in the

one-half the total loss in the

In the same manner,

of the other formulae

making

calculations for three-wire systems.

may be adapted for Of course the calculaif

it

tion of a three-wire system could be

made

as

were a two-wire

number of lamps supplied, at system, by taking one-half the total one-half the voltage between the outside conductors.
It is

Formula 6

understood, of course, that the size of the conductor in is the size of each of the two outs de ones; but, inasmuch

as the Rules of the National Electric Code require that for interior wiring the neutral conductor shall be at least equal in size to the outside

conductors,
conductor.

it

is

not necessarv' to calculate the size of the neutral

that, in a three-wire

It

must be remembered, however,

system where the neutral conductor is made equal in capacity to the combined size of the two outside conductors, and where the two outside conductors are joined together, we have virtually a two-wire
system arranged so that it can be converted into a three-wire system In this case the calculation is exactly the same as in the case later.
of the two-wire circuits, except that one of the two conductors is split This is frequently done into two smaller wires of the same capacity. where isolated plants are installed, and where the generators are wound
for 125 volts

and

it

may

be desired at times to take current from an

outside three-wire 125-250-volt system.

ELE(jriUC WIRING

29

MliTMOI)
Tlif ln>i
llif (lata

Ol-

A INSIAI.LAIION
or

PLANMNd

IkMNO
to ^'atlier all
tlu'

>iij)

it)

planiiinj; a wiring iiistallati<n,

is

wiiirii will allVct fillu-r dirfctly

tin-

iiidiri-ctly

.system of
installed.

wirinj;

and

maiiiiiT in wliicli

tjic

coiKluctors are to

U*
(jf

These data

will iiulude:

Kind

of l)uildin<r; c-onstnietion

Wuilding;

space available for conductors; sjurce and systenj (jf electric-current supply; and all details wlii'li will determine the method of wiring
to Ir' employetl.

These

last

items materially

all'ej-t

the cost of the

work, and are usually deterniini'd hy the character of the huilding and i)y commercial considerations.
jMcthod of Wiring. In a mo<lern fireproof huilding, the only system of wiring to he recommended is that in which the contluctors
are installed in rigid conduits; although, even
desirable,
feetler
in

such

ca.ses,

it

mav be

and economy may Ije effected thereby, to install the larger and main conductors e.\jK).se<l on insulators using weatheq)ro<jf
is

slow-burning wire.
only where there

This latter method should be u.sc<l, however, a convenient runway for the conductors, so that they will not be crowde<l and will not cross pipes, ducts, etc.. ?.nd

also will not have too

ties

many bends

should be consultitl before

.Mso, the local inspection authoriusiiij;, this metluxl.

For

mills, factories, etc., wires e.\jK)seil

on cleats or insulators

are usually to be recommende<l, although rigid conduit, flexible conduit, or armored cable may be desirable.
In
finishe<l

buililings,

and

for

extensions of existing

iutlets,

where the wiring could not readilv or cniivenientlv be concealetl. moulding is generally u.se|, particularly where cleat wiring or other
ex|osed

has alri-ady Iwen

is

methixls of wiring would be objectionable. However, as .said, moulding shoidd not Ih' emplovnl when* therv

any

liability to

dampness.

In finished buildings, particidarly where they are of frame coiistniction, flexible steel conduits or arinore<l cable are to be rect)m-

mende<l.

While in new buildings of frame construction, knob ai.d tuU* wiring are frecjuently employel, this mcthol shouM U' us<'l )nK
when* the
(|uestioii of first cost is of jirinic ini|M)rtance.
.'id

\Vhilearmonil

cable will cost approximatciv

(o |(M(

per cent mon." than knob and

30

ELECTRIC WIRING
is

tube wiring, the former method

so

so

much more permanent and

is

much

safer that

it is

strongly

recommended.

Systems of Wiring. The system of wiring that is, whether is usually deterthe two-wire or the three-wire system shall be used If the source of supply is an isolated the source of supply. mined

by

two-wire generators, and with little possibility plant, with simple of current being taken from the outside at some future time, the

be laid out on the two-wire system. If, wiring in the building should the isolated plant is three-wire (having three-wire on the other hand, or two-wire generators with balancer sets), or if the curgenerators,

rent

taken from an outside source, the wiring in the building should be laid out on a three-wire system. It very seldom happens that current supply from a central station
is

arranged with other than the three-wire system inside of buildings, because, if the outside supply is alternating current, the transformers
is

are usually adapted for a three-wire system. For small buildings, on the other hand, where there are only a few lights and where there would be only one feeder, the two-wire system is used. As a rule,

however, when the current

is

taken from an outside source,

it is

best

to consult the engineer of the central station

supplymg

the current,

and

to

conform with his wishes.

As a matter

of fact, this should be

done

any event, in order to ascertain the proper voltage for the and for the motors, and also to ascertain whether the central lamps for, if these station will supply transformers, meters, and lamps
in

are not thus supplied, they should be included in the contract for the

wirmg. Location of Outlets.

to outline briefly the

It is

not within the scope of this treatise

it is

to discuss the matter of illumination, but

desirable, at this point,

A set of

plans,

method of procedure. including elevation and details,

if

any, and show-

ing decorative treatment of the various rooms, should be obtained

A careful study should then be made by the and the Engineer, or some other person qualified Architect, the Owner, The location of the to make recommendations as to illumination.
from the Architect.
outlets will

depend:

First,

upon the decorative treatment

of the

room, which determines the aesthetic and architectural effects; second^ of fixtures to be used, which shoula upon the type and general form decided on; third, upon the tastes of the owners or be
previously

FLECTUic wiiiixn
occupiUits
ill

:n

rt'ijaril

to illiiitiiiiatiuti

in

jjcntTal, us

it

is

fouiul that

tastes van* widciv in rf^anl to ainoiiiit

and

kiiul of illiiiiiiiiation.

The
at eaih.

location of the outlets,

ami the

iiuiiiImt

(f

li^'hts re<|uirei

having

iH^en (leteniiinnl. iht- outlets shuultl Ik*

marked on
tiie

the j)laMs.

The

Architect should then

Im.-

consulted as to the hx-ation of

centers of distriliution, the available jM)ints for the risers or fettlers, ami the available space for the branch circuit coinluctors.

In re<;ard to the rising fMint.s for the ftcdrr.t and mahut, the lowing precautions shoidd Ik- useil in selecting chases:
1.

fol-

The space

mains
but
it

likly to rise at
is

amply large to acfomriodate all (lie feeders and that j;ivcn f)oint. This seems trite and unii' the most usual trouble with tha-ses for risers. Foniierly a; ...;
sliould be
paiil little attention to the refiuirements for chjuses for electrical
in

.s

and builders
work; but

these pipes are not so invisible

tribute, particularly
in a buihliiiR

these later days of 2-incii and 2i-inch conduit, they realize that and mysterious jis the force they serve to dis-

when twenty or more such conduits must be stowed away where no special provision hits been made for them. 2. If possible, the space should be devoted solely to electric wiring. Steam pi|)es are objectionable on account of their tem|)erature; and these and
other i)ipes are objectionable in the same space occupied by the electrical conduits, for if the sjjace i)roves too small, the electric conduits are the first to Ik* crowded out.
all

The chase, if possible, should be continuous from the cellar to the roof, This i.s neces.sary in ortler to avoid unnecessary bends or or as far as needed. elbows, which are objectionable for many reasons.
In .similar manner, the location of
c(//-<<///

cabintfs or ditlrihuling

centers .shoidd fulfil the following re(|iiirements: 1. They shoukl be jicce.ssible at all times.
2. They should be |)laced sufTicienily do.se together to prevent the circuits from being too long. 3. Do not place them in too prominent a position, as that is obje<*tionable from the .Architect's point of view.

4.

They should be

placeil as near

a.s

po.s.sible

to the

risking

ch.'uses. in

order to shorten the feeders and mains supplying them.

of outlets

Having determiiHMl the .system and meth(Hl of wiring, the l(H-ation and distributing centers, the next step is to lay out the liranch
various outlets.

cirruil.H sup|)lyiiig tlu'

Heforc starling

to lay

the floor construction,

out the branch ciniiits, a drawing shwing and showing the space In'tween the top of the

JM-ams and ginlersand the flooring, should Im* obtitineil fmiii the Architect. In f -proof buildings of iron or sl'el constnK'tion. it is almost
the invariable jmicticc, where the W(rk
is

to Ik* co^lX'all^l, to

nin

<lu'

32

ELECTRIC WIRING

conduits ove^ the beams, under the rough flooring, carrying them between the sleepers when running parallel to the sleepers, and notching the latter

when

the conduits run across

them

(see Fig. 31).

In

wooden frame

buildings, the conduits run parallel to the beams and to the furring (see Fig. 32); they are also sometimes run below the

Finished Floor^
Kii^mmm^ss^i^^xm.'iiii'i^j^sMfZ'mss&mssms^^^mim!^^^^

JRoia.gh Flooring/

Fig.

31.

Running Conductors Concealed under Floor

in Fireproof Building:.

beams. In the latter case the beams have to be notched, and this is allowable only in certain places, usually near the points where the beams are supported. The Architect's drawing is therefore necessary
in order that the location

and course of the conduits may be indicated

is

on the plans.

The
number
circuit.

first

consideration in laying out the branch circuit

the

of outlets

and number

The

Rules of

be wired on any one branch the National Electric Code (Rule 21-D) require
of lights to

lamps requiring more than GGO watts, whether grouped on one fixture or on several fixtures or pendants, will be dependent on one cut-out." While it would be possible to
that
set of incandescent
circuits supplying more than 660 watts, by placing various cut-outs at different points along the route of the branch circuit, so as to subdivide it into small sections to comply with the rule, this

"no

have branch

method

is

in factories or mills.

not recommended, except in certain cases, for exposed wiring As a rule, the proper method is to have the

cut-outs located at the center of distribution, and to limit each branch

660 watts, which corresponds to twelve or thirteen 50-watt lamps, twelve being the usual limit. Attention is called to the fact that the inspectors usually allow 50 watts for each socket connected
circuit to

to a branch circuit; and although 8-candle-power lamps may be placed at some of the outlets, the inspectors hold that the standard lamp is approximately 50 watts, and for that reason tb*?"? is always

the likelihood of a

lamp

of that capacity being used,

and

their inspec-

KLECrUIC WIHIXG
tion
is

33

Imstil

rt*<|uirfnR'iits,

mi that assumption. Tlierefore, to t-omply with the an allowance of not more than twelve himps j>er hranch

circuit .shoultl Ix"

made.

still

In onlinarA- practice, howcscr, it is best to reduce this number fur'licr, so as to make allowance for future extensions or to increase

For this the nuniher of lamjjs that may he j)lacetl at any outlet. the numljer of the outlets on a circuit at the is wise to rea.son, it keep
It has iK-en lowest p)int consistent with econ(mical wiriniij. pmven that the best results are obtainel by limitinj; the by actual practice,

nunil>er to five or six outlets on a branch circuit.

all

Of

course, where

the outlets have a .single

lijjht

each,
tiiis

it

is

fre(|uently nece.ss5ir\", for

ti

rea.sons of

economy,

to increase

miml)cr

ei<jht,

ten, and, in

some
This

ca.ses,

twelve outlets.
referred to the location
ot"

Wv have already
(|uestion
is

the wires or conduits.

f;enerally settlwl

by the peculiarities of the constnicto

tion of the building'.

It is nece.s.sarj'
it

know

this,

however,

In'fore

laving out the circuit work, as a circuit.

frecjuently determines the course of

Now,
as
it

as to the course of the circuit work,

little nee<l

Im?

.said,

is

largely influenced by the relative position of the outlets, cut-

Ksi.r-'

Nv-

tr.-,-

.f-

Jtfr

Wooden
stud or
Wall

BecAii.

ing

Furring Strips

Lathing

^
it

:bel

I'l^;. s-s

lUiuuluf Comluclors ConoeaUM undor Floor In WotHlcu

Framo

Uuiiaiiit;,

outs, switches, etc.

Hetwfi'U the cut-out box and the

will

first

outlet,

and

iH'tween the outlets,

havi- to

l)e

diiidiil, however,

whether

the circuits

nin at right angles to the walls of the buiKling or HKnn, or whether they .shall run direct from one point t( another,
.shall

irn"s|K'ctive
cours<',
ill

of the angle they

latter case, the
(In-

make

to the sli-eiwrs or U-am.s.

is

Of

the

advantages are that the cost

Ik-iuIs is nxlucetl.

.s<ime-

what

less

and

numlK-r of cIIkiws and

If the

34

ELECTRIC WIRING

tubes are bent, however, instead of using elbows, the difference in cost is usually very slight, and probably does not compensate for the

disadvantages that would result from running the tubes diagonally. As to the number of bends, if branch circuit work is properly laid out and installed, and a proper size of tube used, it rarely happens
that there
It
is

any difference
it

in "pulling" the

branch

circuit wires.

may happen,

in the event of

number
most

of bends, that

a very long run or one having a large might be advisable to adopt a short and

direct route.
to this time, the location of the distribution centers has

Up
made

been

solely with reference to architectural considerations; but they must now be considered in conjunction with the branch circuit work.
It frequently

happens

that, after

running the branch circuits

on the plans, we
distribution

find, in certain cases, that the position of centers of

groups
points.

may

may be changed to advantage, or sometimes certain be dispensed with entirely and the circuits run to other
see the

We now

wisdom

of ascertaining

from the Architect

selecting particular

where cut-out groups may be located, rather than

points for their location.

As a
branch

rule,

circuit to

wherever possible, it is wise to limit the length of each 100 feet; and the number and location of the dis-

tributing centers should be determined accordingly. It may be found that it is sometimes necessary and even desirable
to increase the limit of length.

One

instance of this

may

be found in

hall or corridor lights in large buildings.

in

It is generally desirable,

number

such cases, to control the hall lights from one point; and, as the of lights at each outlet is generally small, it would not be

economical to run mains for sub-centers of distribution.

in instances of this character, the length of

Hence,

frequently exceed In the great majority of cases, however, the best limit named. the results are obtained by limiting the runs to 90 or 100 feet.

nms will

There are

several good reasons for placing such a limit

on the

length of a branch circuit. To begin with, assuming that we are going to place a limit on the loss in voltage (drop) from the switchboard to

the lamp,
limit
it

it

may be

easily

more economical centers and shorter branch

is

to

proven that up to a certain reasonable have a larger number of distributing

than to have fewer centers and

circuits,

longer

circuits.

It is usual, in the better class of

work, to limit the

ELECTRIC WIRING
loss in
V()lta>,''

35

in

anv Ijianth
at

<

ircuit to a|)|)rit\iinat('ly
it

nnr

volt.

A.v

suniinf^ this limit (one volt loss),

can

rtMilily
le

lc'

calcnlati-il (hat the

nuinl)er of

lijjhts

circuit 1(X) feet

ca.se of outlets

which may i^ t.^ NO. long (using

outlet
I 1

one

conne<-te(|

on a hrancli
or
in the

S. wire), is four;

having a single light each, five outlets may le connecte<l on the circuit, the first In-ing tlO feet frcrn the cut-<jut, the others
U'ing 10 feet apart.

These
circuits are
to

e.xaniples are selecteil sini[)ly to

show

that

if

the hninch
increa.si-*!
Ih*

longer than KM) feet, the loss must more than one volt, or else the numl)er of lights that

much

l)e

may

con-

nectcil to

verj' small ijuantity, pnjvideil, of course, the size of the wire remains the .sjime.

one

circuit

must

lie

reduced to a

Either of these alternatives

is

objectionable

the

first,

on the

score of regulation; and the second, from an economical standp>int. If, for instance, the loss in a branch circuit with all the lights tunie<l

on

is

lamp nn that

four volts (assuming an extreme case), the voltage at which u circuit burns will vary from four volts, depending on the
of lights burning at a time.

numlKT
lamp
it is

This, of course, will cau.se the

to

or else

burn below candle-power when all the lamps are turne<l on, to (liiiiiiii.sh its life by burning above the proper voltage when

the only

lamp burning on
is

the circuit.

Then,

too,

the branch circuits

increa.scd, the sizes of the feeders

(if

if the drop in and the mains

must be correspondingly increased

the total loss remains the .sjune),

thereliy increasing their cost. If the mimber of lights on the circuit

to go<Hl
(

is

decreasc<l,

we do

not

u.se

)f

advantage th' available carrA'iiig capacity of the wire. cour.se, one solution (f the problem would Ik* to increase the

size of the wire for the

branch circuits, thus n'ducing the lrop. This, however, would not be desind)le, except in certain cases where there were a few long cin nils, >u( li as for corridor lights or other six^-ial
ontrol circuits.
In such instances as these,
it

wouM

be U'ttcr to
10

increase the sizes of the bninch circuit to NO.

12 or even No.

H.
)f

fiauge condu<'(ors, than to incn-asc the distribution for the sjikc of a few circuits only,
S.

&

numU'r
in

of vnters
rt<duct*

order to

the nnmlK-r of lam|)s (or loss) within the limit. The melhiKl iif calcidating the loss in conductors has Ikhmi given ol.sewheir; but it must br lMrne in mind, in cjdculating the lo.ss of n

branch

circuit

supplying mon- than one outlet, that

.sej^inite calcu-

36

ELECTRIC WIRING
must be made for each portion of the circuit. That is, a must be made for the loss to the first outlet, the length in case being the distance from the center of distribution to the first
and the load being the total number of lamps supplied by the The next step would be to obtain the loss between the first

lations

calculation
this

outlet,
circuit.

and second outlet, the length being the distance between the two outlets, and the load, in this case, being the total number of lamps supminus the number supplied by the first outlet; plied by the circuit,
and so on.

The

loss for the total circuit

would be the sum of these

losses for the various portions of the circuit.

Feeders and Mains.

elevation should be

If the building is

more than one

story,

an

On

the height and number of stories. this elevation, the various distributing centers should be shown

made showing

diagrammatically; and the current in amperes supplied through each center of distribution, should be indicated at each center. The
next step is to lay out a tentative system of feeders and mains, and to ascertain the load in amperes supplied by each feeder and main.

The

estimated length of each feeder and main should then be determined, and calculation made for the loss from the switchboard to
It

each center of distribution.

will

may be found

that in

some cases

it

be necessary to change the arrangement of feeders or mains, or even the centers of distribution, in order to keep the total loss from the
switchboard to the lamps within the limits previously determined. As a matter of fact, in important work, it is always best to lay out the entire work tentatively in a more or less crude fashion, according to
the "cut

and dried" method,

in order to obtain the best results,

first

because

the entire layout

may
Of

be modified after the

course, as one

preliminaiy layout

has been made.

becomes more experienced and

almost identical with

skilled in these matters, the final layout is often

the

first

preliminary arrangement.

TESTING
possible, two tests of the be made, one after the wiring itself is

Where

electric

wiring equipment should

entirely completed,

and switches,

cut-out panels, etc., are connected; and the second one after the The reason for this is that if a ground fixtures have all been installed.
or short circuit
is

discovered before the fixtures are installed,

is

it

is

more

easily remedied; and secondly, because there

no division

oi

KLECrUIC WIUING
the
re.sjM)nsil)ility,

37

as there might

lie if

the

first test

after the fixtures

were

installe<l.

If the test

were made only sliows no gnninds or

short c-ireuits l)efore the fixtures are installetl, and one does develop after tliey are installetl, the troulde, of course, is that the short circuit

or i:n)un(l

is

one or more of the

fixtures.

As a matter

of fact,

it is
it

a
is

wise plan always to make a separate test of each fixture after deliverctl at the huilding and l>efore it is installnl.
at liest a cruile

While a magneto is largely used for the pur|)ose of testing, it is and unreliable niethcxl. In the first place, it does

not give an indication, even approximately, of the total insulation resistance, but merely indicates whether there is a ground or sliort
circuit, or not.
let!

In

some

instances, moreover, a

magneto
-

test
If,

has
is

to serious errors, for reasons that will he cxplainetl.

as

nearly always the case, the magneto

ment,

it

may sometimes happen

is

an alteniating-current instruparticularly in long cables, and

is

especially where there

a lead sheathing on the cable that the will ring, indicating to the uninitiated that there isa gn)unti magneto or short circuit on the cable. This may l)C, and usually is, far fn)m

being the case; and the cause of the ringing of the magneto is not a ground or short circuit, but is due to the capacity of the cal)le, which acts as a condenser under certain conditions, since the magneto pnxlucing an alternating current repeatetlly charges and discharges the cable in opjKtsite directions, this changing of the current caiising the magneto Of course, this defect in a magneto could be lemedietl by to ring.

using a commutator and changing it to a dirc(t-<urrent machine; but as the metluKl is faulty in itself, it is hardly worth while to ilo this
portable (jalvanomeicr with a resistance Ih)X and \\heat.stone bridge, is .sometimes employnl; lii;( this nictluxl is objectionable Ix'cau.se it requires a sju^cial instniment which cannot U> useil for

nmnv
to

othtT |)uqH).ses.

Furthermore,

it

rc<|uin's

more

skill

and time

use than the voltmeter meth(Kl, which will

now U*
is

descrilHsl.
it

merely other puiixises, and which all engineers or contractors should |k>ss<'ss, together with The vlta l)ox of cells having a {K)tential of preferably oxer 'M volts.
rtHpiires

The advantage

of the voltmeter

method

that

H dircct-iurrcnt voltmeter,

which can U-

ustil for

many

meter shot dd have n scale of not over

the scah"
1,()(H)

l.V) volts, for

the reason that

if

whicli the battery

is u.se|
Ik> .so

covers

t<H

wide a nmge

(sjiy

volts) the n*adings

might

small as to

make

the

te.st

inac-

38

ELECTRIC WIRING

curate.

two

scales

good one of 60
say,

arrangement would be to have a voltmeter having and one of 600 which would make the

voltmeter available for

all practical potentials

that are likely to be

used inside of a building. If desired, a voltmeter could be obtained with three connections having three scales, the lowest scale of which

would be used for testing insulation

resistances.

Before starting a test, all of the fuses should be inserted and switches turned on, so that the complete test of the entire installation can be made. When this has been done, the voltmeter and battery
should be connected, so as to obtain on the lowest scale of the volt-

connection

meter the electromotive force of the entire group of cells. This is shown in Fig. 3.3. Immediately after this has been done, the insulation resistance to be tested
is

placed

in

circuit,

whether the
is

insulation to be tested

a switchor
the

board,

slate

panel-board,

entire wiring installation;

and the

connections are
Fig.
34.

made

as

shown

in

reading should then again be taken of the voltmeter;

and the leakage

Fig.
33.

is

in

proportion
first

Connections of Voltmeter and Battery for Testing Insulation

Resistance.

to the difference

between the

and second readings of the

meter.

volt-

The

will

show how

this resistance
first

may be

calculated

explanation given below It Is evident that

:

the resistance in the

case

was merely the

resistance of the volt-

meter and the internal resistance of the battery.

As a rub,
x^^ith
it

the internal

resistance of the battery is so small in comparison of the voltmeter and the external resistance, that

the resistance
entirely

may be
is

neglected,

and

this will

be done

in the following calculation.

In the

second case, however, the total resistance in circuits

of the voltmeter

the resistance

on

all

and the batter}-, plus the entire insulation resistance the wues, etc., connected in circuit.

To put this in mathematical form, the voltage of the cells may be indicated by the letter E; and the reading of the voltmeter when the Insulation resistance is connected by the circuit, by the letter E'.
Let
represent the resistance of the voltmeter and Rx represent the insulation resistance of the installation which we wish to measure.

Ei.Kr'Tiac wiiiixG
It is

'.')

a fact

wliicli

the nnuler

uiul(Jiil)te<lly

knows, that the K. M.

F. as

proportional to the resistance: that is, the greater the resistance, the lower will l>e the reatling on the voltmeter, as this reading indicates the leakage or current passing thn>ugh the resistance. Putting this in the shape of a formula, we have from ilie theor}* of proportion:
/:
:

indicatetl

hy the voltmeter

in Fifj. 3-4 is inversely

K'
li

::

li

+ U,

W
R.

or,

E'

K' lix
li

-- i:

Transposing,
E' lix an<l

- E

E'

n=

li

{E-E'),

Rx
Or, expres.sed ance of the

= R{E-E')
E'

in wortls, the in.sulation resistance is ecjual to the resist-

volt-

meter 7nultipllcd hy
the
(lifTerence
l->e-

tween the

first rea<l-

ing (or the voltage

in

the

cells)

and
Bu3
>-Bua
Fig.
34.

the .second reading

(or the

reading of
lu.sulatlou
Ut.-!.l.-.t;iuco

the voltmeter with

the
insulation
re-

I'laceU lu Circuit, l{o;iJy

|.

Testing.

sistance in series with the voltmeter), divided by this last reading of the voltmeter.

Example. A.s.sume a resistance of a voltmeter (/?) of 2(1.(HK) ohms, and a voltage of the cells (E) of 30 volts; and suppo.sc that the insulation

rcsistatue test of a wiring installation, including switchlM>ard,

feetlcrs,

hramch

ciniiils, j)ancl-l)oarils, etc.,

is

to

he mailc, the insula/i

j.
.

tion resistance U-ing reprcst'iited l>y the letter

in the forniiila
,,

Hy

suhstituting

R (E -

E')

and

a.vsuining

tiiat

tin-

n'sistjince conne<'te<l is o,
A'

reading of we have:
,

tin-

voltmcttr with

tlic

insidation

"

JO,(KMI

".)

l(K),(M)OolilllK.

ll

tin

ic.sl .-allows

an

excc'.ssive ainoui>l of h'akag**,

or a groinul or

40

ELECTRIC WIRING

short circuit, the location of the trouble

process of elimination that is, by cutting out the various feeders until the ground or leakage disappears, and, when the feeder on which the trouble exists has been located, by following the same process

may be determined by

the

with the branch

circuits.

Of
will

numerous the
for leakage.

course, the larger the installation and the longer and more circuits, the greater the leakage will be; and the lower

be the insulation resistance, as there is a greater surface exposed The Rules of the National Electric Code give a sliding
of current carried

scale for the requirements as to insulation resistance,

the
etc.

amount

The
is

rule

depending upon by the various feeders, branch circuits, of the National Electric Code (No. 66) covering this

point,

as follows:

plete installation
all

in any building must test free from grounds; i. e., the commust have an insulation between conductors and between conductors and the ground (not including attachments, sockets, recepta-

"The wiring

cles, etc.)

Up

not less than that given in the following table: 5 amperes 4,000,000 " 10 2,000,000 " 25 800,000 " 50 400,000 " 100 200,000 " 200 100,000 " 400 50,000 " " 800 25,000 " " 12,500 1,600
to

uhms
" " " "

"

" " "

test must be made with all cut-outs and safety devices in place. If sockets, receptacles, electroliers, etc., are also connected, only onehalf of the resistances specified in the table Avill be required."

"The

the

lamp

ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
It is

alternating-current

not within the province of this chapter to treat the various phenomena, but simply to outline the modifications
in designing

which should be made

wiring, in order to

and calculating
for these

electric

light

phenomena. The most marked difference between alternating and direct curwiring
is
is

make proper allowance

concerned,
is

rent, so far as

the effect produced by self-

induction, which

This

characteristic of all alternating-current circuits. self-induction varies greatly with conditions depending

upon

the arrangement of the circuit, the medium surrounding the circuit, the devices or apparatus supplied by or connected in the circuit, etc.

ELErnur WIRING
For
exainpli",
if

41

ti)il liii\ iiig

a resistant-e of KM)

ohms

is

iiuludetl in

tlie circuit,

a current of

with an electric
it

ampere can Ix? passotl through the c-oil of KM) vohs, if direct current is usel; wliile pressure
)iie

might

of several luuulretl volts to re<|uire a jK)tential

if

pass a current

of Mie

altenuiting-<urrent were usi-d, dejR'nding u|)on the ampere numluT of turns in tlie coil, whether it is wound on iron or some otiier

non-magnetic material, etc. It will l)e seen from this example, that greater allowance shouKl be made for self-inducti(ii in laying out and calculating alteniatingcurrent wiring,
if

the conditions arc such that the self-induction will

be

aj)precialle.
(

)n

current circuit must never

duits, for the reason that

accovmt of self-induction, the two wires of an alteniatingIk? installed in separate inn or stivl consuch a circuit would
l)e

virtually a choLr coil

consistini: of a sinirlc tuni of wire

wound on an

iron core,

and the

self-

induction would not only reduce the current passing through the cirIt is for this cuit, but also might prinlucc iieating of the iron pijx-*.

reasfm that

t\\e

National

/'^/cc/r/cCw/p rc(|uircs conductors constitut-

ing a given circuit to be placed in the same conduit, if tluit conduit is iron or steel, whenever the said circuit is intended to carrA', or is
liable to carry at

some

futur? time, an r.lternating current.

This dmvs

not mean, in the case of a two-phase circuit, that all four conductors nec<l Ik; placed in the same conduit, but that the two conductors of a
If, however, the given pha.se nuist be placed in the same conduit. u.se<l for a two-nha.se sv.stem, all three conductors three-wire svstem Ik*

should be placed

in the

siime conduit, as .should also

(

Ik-

the ca.sc in a

three-wire three-phase system. three-wire .system, the conductors should

)f

cniirM', in a single-pha.se
all

two- or

be placnl

in

the .sjune

ti^ndiiit.

In calculating circuits carrAiiig alternating cnrrciit, no alltiwance

u.->uallv

should

Ik

made

for s'lf-induction

when

the conductors of the

.same circuit are place<l clo.se together in an iron conduit. When, or are .sepanitetl fnun each the conductors aire however, exposnl,

nm

other, calculation should

In-

made

to

determine

if

the elTects

)f

.self-

induction are great enough to ause an appre<iabK' inductive tlrop. There are s<>vend metlnnls of calculating this droj lue to .self-induction
Ix'

one bv formula, an<! one by a

mathematical metluMl which

will

de.scrilK'd.

42

ELECTRIC WIRING
Skin Effect.

Skin efFect in alternating-current circuits

is

caused

by an incorrect distribution of the current

in the wire, the current

of the wire, it being a welltending to flow through the outer portion the current density decreases known fact that in alternating currents,

toward the center of the conductor, and that in large wires, the current small. density at the center of the conductoris relatively quite

The

skin effect increases in proportion to the square of the diam-

eter, and also in direct ratio to the frequency of the alternating current. S. Gauge, and smaller, and for For conductors of No. 0000 B.

&

or less, the skin effect frequencies of 60 cycles per second, and is less than one-half of one per cent.

is

negligible

For very large cables and

second, the skin effect

ance for

it

for frequencies above 60 cycles per be appreciable; and in certain cases, allowmay should be made in making the calculation. In ordinary
it

practice, however,

may be

neglected.

Table IX, taken from

Alter-

nating-Current Wiri7ig and Distribution, by W. R. Emmet, gives the

data necessary for calculating the skin effect. The figures given in the first and third columns are obtained by multiplying the size of the conductor (in circular mils) by the frequency (number of cycles per
second); and the figures in the second and fourth columns show the factor to be used in multiplying the ohmic resistance, in order to
obtain the combined resistance and skin
effect.

TABLE

IX

Data for Calculating Skin Effect

Product of Circular
Mils

X Cycles per

Sec.

ELECTRIC WIRIXG

43

nuitual iiitluction takes place. The amount of tliis iiulucetl K. M. F. ill one circuit set by a parallel current, is dejH-nilent u|K)n the cur-

up

rent, the fre<|uency, the leiij,'ths of the circuits runniiifj; parallel to

each
tlje

other,

and

the ri-lative positions of the conductors constituting

s;iid circuits.

onlinary conditions, and except for long circuits carrying high jMttentials, the elYect of nuitual induction is .so slight as to be In onlcr negligible, unless the conductors are iinj)ro[)erly arninged.
I

iider

to

a given prevent nuitual induction, the conductors constituting

Tigs.
.3.j

circuit should l)e groupeil together.

to 31), inclusive,

show

l)00O Att.

.035 Volts,

o o

o o

7200
Fig.
35.

Alt.

.016 Volts.

16,000 Alt.

.015 Volts.

7200
Fig.
36.

Alt.

.0065Vo1ts.

O
Fig.
37.

16,000

Alt. Alt.

.070 Volts.
.032 Volts.

7200

o
Fig.
38.

le^ooo Alt. 7200 Alt.

.006 Volts.
.0027 Volts,

o
five

o
Fig.
39.

lepoo

Alt.

MS

Volts.

7^00 Alt

.CSO Volts,
(ilvliig

Various Groupings of Conduciors In Two Two-Wlro Circuits, KtlecU of Uiiluotioii.

Vurlous

arrangements of two two-wire

first

circuits;

and show how

relatively

small the effect of

induction

is

when

the conductors are j)n)iHTly

arrangc<l. as in Fig.

im.'{S, and how relatively large it may Ik- when as in Fig. '^*^. Thcs' diagrams are taken from j)ri>perlv arninged, a piil)lication of Mr. Charles F, Scott, enfitletl Pohiphasf Trausi.ssue<l

miiitum,

by the Westinghou.se
t

I'lectric

&

Manufacturing

Companv.

The clTc< of capacity is usually negligible, tnmsmi.ssion lines where high |M)tcntials art* u.s\l; no long except calculations or allowance need Im- made for capat'itv, for ortlinar>'
Line Capacity.
in
circuit.H

<t4

ELECTRIC WIRING
Calculation of Alternating=Current Circuits.

In the instruction

paper on "Power Stations and Transmission," a method is given for calculating alternating-current lines by means of formulse, and data are given regarding power factor and the calculation of both single-phase

and polyphase
ever,
it is

For short lines, secondary' wiring, etc., howmore convenient to use the chart method devised probably by Mr. Ralph D. Mershon, described in the American Electrician of June, 1897, and partially reproduced as follows:
circuits.

DROP

IN

ALTERNAT1NQ=CURRENT LINES

When alternating currents first came into use, when transmission distances were short and the only loads carried were lamps, the question of dro'p or loss of voltage in the transmitting line was a simple one,
and the same methods as
error be
for direct current could without serious

employed
practice

in dealing with

partly or wholly of induction motors render this question less simple; and direct-current methods applied to it do not lead to satisfactory' results. Any treatment of this or of

alternating and loads

to-day

longer

it.

The

conditions existing in

distances,

polyphase

made up

circuits,

any engineering subject, if it is to benefit the majority of engineers, must not involve groping through long equations or complex diagrams The results, if any, must be in availin search of practical results.
able and convenient form.

In what follows, the endeavor has b?en

made
if
it

drop in alternating-current lines that the reader be grounded in the theor}' the brief space devoted to will suffice; but if he do not comprehend or care to follow the

to so treat the subject of

simple theory involved, he

practical advantage. Calculation of Drop.

may
Most

nevertheless turn the results to his

of the Hiatfer heretofore published

on the subject of drop

treats only of the inter-relation of the E.

M.

F.'s

involved, and, so far as the writer knows, there have not appeared in convenient form the data necessarj' for accurately calculating this
c(uantity.

Table

(page 47) and the chart (page 46) include, in a

lines.

form suitable for the engineer's pocketbook, everj'thing necessary

for calculating the

drop of alternating-current

simply an extension of the vector diagram (Fig. 40). giving the relations of the E. M. F.'s of line, load and generatoi. In
chart
is

The

KI.K("ri:it' \V!i;!\T,

45

Fif;. -10, A'

is c,

the gfru-ratur K.

M.

1'.;

e,

the E.

M.

F, iinpresstil
1*2.

upon

that conijM)neiit of /' (Uie to the impeilance of the Uiic.

the lu;ul
;

which overcomes the hack

M.

F.

The

coni|xjnent c is

made up of two

components at rijjht aiif^les to eacli other. One is a, tlie comjKJuent overcoming the III or hack !'. M. 1'. ihic to resistance of the Hue,
Tlie other
is h,

the

component overcoming the reactance E. M.

aUernating
"^I'he

F. or

hack E. M. F.

(hie to the

field set

the current in the wire.

e.

drop

is

the

up anjund the wire hy ilill'crcnce iK-tween K ami

It is

(/,

the ratlial ilistance l)etween two circular arcs, one of which a radius
c,

is

drawn with

and the other with a radius E.

The
as a

cliart is

maile by striking a succession of circular arcs with

r.

ce n

The

radius of

the

smallest circle corres|K)nds to e, the E. M. F. of the

load,

which

is

taken
cent.

as

100

per

The radiiof the succeeding circles increase by 1 per cent

of that of the smallest circle;

and, as
the

the
last

radius of

or largest circle is 110 j)er cent

--d --J
Fig.
iO.

Vector Diagram.

of that of the smallest, the chart answers for drops uj) to 10 jxr cent of the E. M. V. delivere<l.

The

tenns

rcsittaiicv rolls, rr.si.stanrr

/'.,

K.

M.

/'.,

mirtanci' ivlts,

and uarlancc K. M.
ing the back
1',.

refer, of course, to ihc voltages for

oven-om-

M.

I'.'s

due

lo resistance

and reactance

respectively.

The

figures given in the table

under the heatling "Hesistaiice-Volts

tin*

for Onir .\m[M're, etc." are

simply

resistances of 2,0(K)

fe-t

of the

values given under the heading "Keatance-\'olts, etc.," are, a part of ihem, calculatnl-fntm tables ]iublished simw time agr) by Messrs. Houston and Keimelly. The remainder
various sizes of wire.

The

were obtained by using Maxwell's fonnula.

The

explanation given

in

the

taltle

ai-companying the chart

46

ELECTRIC WIRING

LOAD POWER FACTORS

,8

.9

O
DROP
IN

lO PERCENT OF

20
E.tt.F.

30

OEUVEREO

Chart for Calculating Drop in Alternating-Current Lines.

ELECTRIC WIRING
TABLE X
Data for Calculating Drop
To
be
u-.<xl 111

47

In Altcrnatinjj-Currcnt
put;<?.

Lines

iiiDjumtl.iii Willi I'liart i>u ojjjx.iUt!

i> ''' 'tbie, palculat the /?'J<<an^<- I'o?^* un.l tinr crnt finh 1h uf tho K. M. Ijnr 111 oil tfi'- '-^'irt wli.T'- tht* VHrc.' Stjir ' ''^ 1" i>..wirtat.i..r ..r 11.. 1...1.1 111'.t tluis K. M. K. h<>rl/...m;illv iiiid

/.'.i fjri.

I'.f'i

In the

'

1.

...

...

.,,..,
:ii
It

lli

l;k ..

....

^.

...o

M. K.

ili'llvi.rfil

ttu< t-inl

uf ihe line,

fcvery tvniti circto

lit ilr.ii) <>

whlih

(<irr'>i)>iiiiW.

48

ELECTRIC WIRING
is

(Table X)

thought to be a sufficient guide to

of value.
to be delivered, 250

its

use, but a

few

examples

may be

Problem.

Power

K.W.; E. M. F.

to be delivered,

2,000 volts; distance of transmission, 10,000 feet; size of wire. No. 0; distance between wires, 18 inches; power factor of load, .8; frequency, 7,200 alternaFind the line loss and drop. tions per minute.

Remembering

that the

power

factor

is

that fraction by which

the apparent power of volt-amperes must be multiplied to give the true power, the apparent power to be delivered is

^^^^^^- =312.5 apparent .o

KW.

The

current, therefore, at 2,000 volts will be

2,000

=^ -^6 .25 amperes.

From

the table of reactances under the heading "18 inches," and wire, is obtained the constant .228. Bearing corresponding to No.
the instructions of the table in mind, the reactance-volts of this line

are,

which
to

156.25 (amperes) X 10 (thousands of feet) X .228 = 356.3 is 17.8 per cent of the 2,000 volts to be delivered.
the
wire,
is

volts,

From
No.

column headed "Resistance-Volts" and corresponding

obtained the constant .197.

The

resistance-volts

of the line are, therefore, 156.25 (amperes) 10 (thousands of feet) .197=307.8 volts, which is 15.4 per cent of the 2,000 volts to be

delivered.
Starting, in accordance with the instructions of the table, from the point where the vertical line (which at the bottom of the chart is marked "Load Power Factor" .8) intersects the inner or smallest
circle, lay off horizontally
;

and

to the right the resistance-E.

M.

F.

in.

per cent (15 .4) and jrom the point thus obtained, lay off vertically the reactance-E. M. F. in per cent (17.8). The last point falls at about

23 per cent, as given by the circular arcs. This, then, is the drop, in per cent, of the E. M. F. delivered. The drop, in per cent, of the genera^ tor E. M. F. is, of course,

23

100+23

18.7 per cent.

current, the

percentage loss of power in the line has not, as with direct same value as the percentage drop. This is due to the fact that the line has reactance, and also that the apparent power

The

<
H.

a z < 3
:.

J ^ 5 - - ; s "l * *
> <
fr-

1
fi

^ P S > ^

|4
-J
;;

I
%-

'r

J*

X B
o
o
o: (J

Ill

<

I'UiC

WIRING
with
tlu*

49

(IfliviTttl

to

(111-

IojmI

is is

nut

iilctilical

tnu- |Ki\ver

tlmt

Ls,

the Imul

powtT

factor

K-ss tliaii unity.

'I'lie

loss

must

Ik- ul)taiia'(i

by

calculatinfi; / li for tlic llnr, or,

what amounts

to the sjime thing,

by muhiplyinj^ the resistance-voUs by the current. The r'sistanee-vohs in this case are 307. S, an<l
l')("..2r)

the current

amperes.
losti is

The

lo.ss

ij

307. S

l'j<i.2.j= IS.

K,

W.

The

{HTcentagc

48.

...

, Kj.I

250+4K.1

per cent.
'

Therefore, for the j)rol>lem taken, tlie drop is IS. 7 per cent, an<l llie If the j)roblem Ik.- to find the size wire for a pvcn losn is 10.1 percent.
tlrop,
it

must

l)e solvetl l)y trial.

A.ssume a size of wire anil calculate

the (ln)p; the result in coiujection with the table will show the direction an<l extent of the chanf^e necess;irA' in the size of wire to pve the
re<|uire<l droj).

The
notel.

etVect of the line reactance in increasinj; the

drop

.should

l)e

If there
l>e

were no reactance, the drop

in

the al)ove

example

given by the point obtained in laying off on the chart the M. F. (15.4) only. This point falls at 12.4 per (rnt, and the drop in terms of the generator K. M. F. would be

would

resistance-E.

12 4

112.4

11 per cent, instead ot IS. 7 percent. * '

is

Anvthini: therefore which will reduce reactance

desirable.

Reactance can be reduced

in

two ways.

One

of the.se

is

to

diminish the distance l)etween wires.

Ih'

The

extent to which this can

lea.st

carrinl

is

limited, in the case of a pole line, to the

di.^tance at

which the wires are snU' from swinging together in the middle of the span; in irisidi* wiring, liy the danger from lire. The other way of
into a greater mimU'r t)f is to split the copj)cr up and arrange the.se circuits so that there is no inductive intercircuits, arlion. Vnr instance, supjM)se that in the example workl out alnAe, wire, two No. 3 wires were u.setl in.stead <if one No. 'i'he :vsislanee-

reilncing reactance

volts
le.ss

would

Im-

pnictically " 211

tlu' .sjim-,

but the reactan<e-vilts wotdd

Ik*

in the nitio J

^ .03'), since

each circuit would U-ar half the

for

current the No.

instead of
i.s

circuit ihx's,

and the constant

0.

No. 3 wire

!.>

.241,

L'L'S that for

if

No.

The

elT<'cl
it

al.so

shown

in tin'

example given

is

of .suUlividing the eop|H'r desinxl to retime the drop

50

ELECTRIC WIRING

to No. 0000 will Increasing the copper from No. not produce the required result, for, although the resistance-volts will be reduced one-half, the reactance-volts will be reduced only in the
to, say, one-half.

ratio .212^

If,

however, two inductively independent circuits of No.

.228*

wire be used, the resistance- and reactance-volts will both be reduced

one-half,

and the drop

will

therefore be diminished the required

amount.

The component of drop due to reactance is best diminished by subdividing the copper or by bringing the conductors closer together. It
is little affected

by change in

size of conductors.

An
drop
is

idea of the
best gotten

manner

in

which changes of power factor

affect

by an example.

Assume

distance of transmission,

distance between conductors E.

M. F., and frequency, the same as in the previous example. Assume the apparent power delivered the same as before, and let it be constant, but let the power factor be given
several different values; the true

power will therefore be a variable depending upon the value of the power factor. Let the size of wire be No. 0000. As the apparent power, and hence the current, is the

same as
E.

before,

and the

line resistance is one-half, the resistance-

M.

F. will in this case be

15.4
Li

^, or 7

7 per cent of the E. F. will be

M.

F. delivered.

Also, the reactance-E.

M.

.212X17.8
228

,.

P^^

'

Combining these on the chart

for a

power factor

of .4,

and deducing

the drop, in per cent, of the generator E. M. F., the value obtained is 15.3 per cent; with a power factor of .8, the drop is 14 per cent;

with a power factor of unity,

it is

8 per cenl.

If in this

example the

true power, instead of the apparent power, had been taken as constant, it is evident that the values of drop w'ould have differed more widely,

the current, and hence the resistance- and reactance-volts, would have increased as the power factor diminished. The condition taken more nearly represents that of practice.
since
If the line

of drop, instead of 15.3, 14,

had resistance and no reactance, the several values and 8, would be 3.2, 5.7, and 7.2 per

cent respectively, showing that for a load of lamps the drop will not

ELEmUC
l>i>

WmiN'G
that with a
k-.ss
liati,

51

imicli iiKTrasiil l>y reactaiiii-;

l)iit

.siuh a.s iiithu--

tion inoturs, whosi'

taki'ii to kr<'|)

powrr

factor

is

than miity,

niw
In

.should
it

U
is

the rcactaiici' as low as practicahlt*.

all casivs

ailvisiihle to

place conductors as close

to<,'ether as gtKxl practice will

permit.

When

there

is

a transformer in circuit, and

it

is

desire<l to obtain

the conihine<l tlrop of transformer

and

line,

it

is

necessarj' to

know

the resistance-

ance-volts of

and reactance-volts of the transformer. The resistthe combination of line and transfcjnner are the .sum of and the resistance-volts of the
trans-

the resistance-volts of the line

Similarly, the reactance-volts of the line and transfonner are the sum of their respective reactance-volts. The resistance- and

fonner.

usually be obtaiiu'*! fn)m The.M^- \htper cent.* centages expre-ss the values of the resi.stance- and reactance-E. M. F.'s when the transformer delivers its normal ///-/oaJ current; and they

reactance-E.
the makers,

M.

F.s of transformers

may

and are ordinarily given

in

express these values in terms of the normal no-luad E. transformer.

M.

V. of the

Consider a transformer

l)uilt for

trans-formation

Wtween

1,(KX)

and KK)

volts.

Suj)pose

tlie

resistance-

and reactance-E. M.

E.'s given

are 2 per cent and 7 per cent respectively. Then the corresjx)nding voltages when the tninsformer delivers full-load current, are 2 and 7
volts or
is

20 and 70 volts according as the

connecte<l

values, 2

7 and 20 70, hold,

.McoMurt) tlir

to

line whose droj) is re|uireil the low-voltage or high-voltage terminals. These

no matter

at

what voltage the transfrom tho makers, thry

Ih<
i

Whcn
iMf^oHurc*!.

the ro<iuirPl vnliios cannot

1)0 olttaincvl
nill.s.

may

Ihj

n^isiunccof

Iwith

If
.

the linoto

rnlcuhiutl
.^
'
'

uitachMf

to th lilKh-voltaKe tiTniinuls of thu traiisforiiicr, the hieh-viiHaKO roil. ;'/uj th)< rotlHtancc olxaineil l>y !
'

that of thi

Ihenitloof

I:

'Ion the

tri
III" r<

|o-M>U.4Kt' ri.il Moil JH 10. ihe ctiulvalent r<'sisian(t> rrfcrrf"! to the li r the hli;h-voltaKe roil, jtlut 100 tinieN that of (he
mra.Hiir<"<l r<iislaii<'<' iif
till'
I

of
It

liy the Mkti mi1Iii(; current the hlKh-vo|l;i nvUI.Similarly, the .ni'c of Iho low-volt.i. low-volluKe ein'iilt In 1.< .../xjlhal of lhi< hlKh voltak'i' eoll rtducrd in the w|uareof (he ratio uf (raiwformndon It follown. '' tw< rirrulla of i-ourwv fnitn ttilx. (hat the valiH>Hof the r(U(ane>-vo|lH referr'-' hear to eaeh other the ratio of (ran.tformatlon volla. itluirtTo obtain the rlrriili oni- roll of thi< tranAfonuer aii'I lhi< other roil ilN normal ciim'nl at i.

e'liiU
r<

-.taiice

niiiltlplUol
t<i

si-.';nnf-volt(i

n-frrnxl

<

aii>

' rfferrol to

tlii<

'

'

tln> n-iii iaiiii>Mi|i<i

iililalni'<l In 'iin'
I

li

In il,i-N

II..

nauUa
i

.,

iiM... ,r

I..

If
(if

rliMx valiiT9*\tar\(t
\

<<

iiH

52

ELECTRIC WIRING
is

former

the strength of curoperated, since they depend only upon If any other than the rent, providing it is of the normal frequency. full-load current is drawn from the transformer, the reactance- and
resistance-volts will

passing, former are

be such a proportion of the values given above as the current flowing is of the full-load current. It may be noted, in that when the resistance- and reactance-volts of a trans-

known,

its

regulation

may be determined by making

for

use

of the chart in the

same way as

a line having resistance and

reactance.

line

As an illustration of the method of calculating the drop in a and transformer, and also of the use of table and chart m calculatis

ing low-voltage mains, the following example

Problem.

given

single-phase induction

motor

is

to be supplied with 20

am-

peres at 200 volts; alternations, 7,200 per minute; power factor, .78. The distance from transformer to motor is 150 feet, and the line is No. 5 wire, 6 inches between centers of conductors. The transformer reduces in the ratio

has a capacity of 25 amperes at 200 volts, and,

is

when

delivering this

current and voltage, its resi?tance-E. M. F. E. M. F. 5 per cent. Find the drop.

2.5 per cent, its reactance-

The

wires, 6 inches apart,

reactance of 1,000 feet of circuit consisting of two No. 5 The reactance-volts therefore are is .204.
.204

Y^ X 20 =
20

'lO

.01 volts.

The

resistance-volts are

.627

X -i^ X
1,000

1.88 volts.

At 25 amperes, the resistance-volts of the transformer are 2.5 per 20 of this, or 4 volts. cent of 200, or 5 volts. At 20 amperes, they are

Similarly,

and

at 20

the transformer reactance-volts at 25 amperes are 10, amperes are 8 volts. The combined reactance-volts of

transformer and line are 8

the 200 volts to be delivered.

.61

8.61, w-hich

is

4.3 per cent of

The combined

resistance-volts are 1.88

+4, or

5.88,

which

is

2.94 per cent of the E.

M.

F. to be delivered.

Combining
the drop
is

these quantities on the chart with a power factor of .78, 5 per cent of the delivered E. M. F.,

or
of the impressed E.

=
The

4.8 per cent

M.

F.

transformer must be supplied with

ELECTRIC >VIRING
^^^^ =
.952
in

r,3

2,100 volts,

onler that 200 volts shall he

h'liverel to the inotr.

Tahle
answer
for
in direct

(page 47)

is

made out

for 7,200 alteriuitions,

hut

will

any other nun>l)er if the values for n-aetanee be changed For instanc-e, to the change in alternations. j)nij)ortion
.

.
,

for
i'lir

Ifi.iMM)

alternations,

multiply the

reactances given

10,000
^

by

uiher distances hetween centers of conductors, interpolate the As the reactance values for diliVreiit sizes values triven in the tahlc.
of wire change by a constant amount, the tahle can, for larger or smaller conductors. rea<lily extendetl
if

desired, be

E.

The table is M. r.'s. The

basetl
Ix^st

on the assumption of sine currents and which practice of to-day produces machines

so closely approximate this condition that results obtaine<l by the alxne metluHls ore well within the limits of practical re(|uirements.

have far, single-phase circuits only extension of the metluHls given al)ove simple A four-wire adapts them to the calculation of polyphase circuits. transmission may, so far as loss and regida(two-phase)
Polyphase Circuits.
dealt witii.

So

Int'ti

quarUr-phase

tion are concenietl,

(as to size of wire, distance

be replaced by two single-phase circuits identical between wires, current, and E. M. F.)

with the two circuits of the quarter-pha.se transmission, providt^l that Therein lK)th cases there is no inductive interaction Iwtween circuits.
fore, to calculate

a four-wire, quarter-phase transmission, compute

the single-phase circuit recpiirt^l to tr.msmit one-half the jM)wer at The <|Uar((T-j)hase transmission will require two the same voltage.

such

circuits.

are synnnetrically relalnl, may,

three-wire, thrvc-phasc transmi.ssion, of which the conductors .so far as lo.ss and n-gulation are

concernnl, be replace<l by two single-pha.se cin-uits having lU) inductive interaction, and ihMitical with (he three-phase line as to Thert-fore, to calculate a size, wire, and distance In-tween wires.
three-|)hase
Inmsini.ssion, calculate a
single-phase- circuit
to
caiTj*

one-half the load at the s;iine vnliage.

sion will rc(iiiire three wiii-s of the
si/'

The

thn'c-pha.se transmis-

and distance U-tween centers

U-

as obtainel for the singl--|)hase.

.\

three-wire.

iw()-pha.sc

transmi.ssion

may

caliIaU\J

54

ELECTRIC WIRING

exactly as regards loss, and approximately as regards drop, in the same way as for three-phase. It is possible to exactly calculate the drop, but this involves a more complicated method than the

approximate one.

The

error

by

this

approximate method

is

gen-

It is possible, also, to get a- somewhat less erally small. drop and loss with the same copper by proportioning the cross-section of

the middle and outside wires of a three-wire, quarter-phase circuit to the currents they carry, instead of using three wires of the same
size.

The

advantage, of course,

is

not great, and

it

will not

be con-

sidered here.

WIRING AN OFFICE BUILDING

The
is

that of

an

building selected as a typical sample of a wiring installation office building located in Washington, D. C. The figures
of the plans actually used in installing the

shown are reproductions

work.

building consists of a basement and ten stories. It is of fireproof construction, having steel beams with terra-cotta flat arches. The main walls are of brick and the partition walls of terra-cotta
blocks, finished with plaster. There is a space of approxnnately five inches between the top of the iron beams and the top of the finished
floor, of

The

which space about three inches was available for running

the electric conduits.

concrete,
etc.

The
tile

flooring
in

is

of

wood

in the offices,
halls,

but of

mosaic, or

the

basement,

toilet-rooms,

The

electric current

supply

illuminating company,

the

is derived from the mains of the local mains being brought into the front of the

building and extending to a switchboard located near the center of the

basement.

As the building is a veiy substantial fireproof structure, the only method of wiring considered was that in which the circuits would be
installed in iron conduits.

Electric Current Supply.

The

electric current

sapply

is

direct

current, two-wire for power, and three-wire for lighting, having a potential of 236 volts between the outside conductors, and 118 volts,

between the neutral and either outside conductor.

ELECTRIC \VIRL\G
SwitcliboarJ.
(

65

)ii

tlu-

.switch hoanl in tlie

hasement are mounted

wuttmottTs, pnividttl by
switches
fetnlers.

tlie local t-lfctric

connmiiy, aiul Ue various

re(|uire(l for tlic control

ami

iijHTatioii of the lighting

and

power ing, and eighteen

There
for

ari- a total of ten

power.
iti

An

tri[jlc-j)ole switches for lightindicating voltmeter and ann)ere

.\

meter are also placeil

the .switchlxianl.

voltmeter

is

prcjvidtil

with a tlouhle-throw switch, and so arrangeil as to measure the jxjtential acro.ss the two outside conductcjrs, or l>etween the neutnil con-

ductor and

eitlier of

the outside conduct(jrs.

The ampere meter

is

arningetl with two shunts, one being placeil in each outside leg; the shunts are coimected with a double-pole, double-throw switch, so
that the

ampere meter can be coimected

to either

shunt and thus

measure the current supplied on

Character of Load.

eac-h sitle of the system.

is

The

building

occupie<l partly as a newsin atldition to the

paper

office,

and there are several large presses

usual

There are linotype machines, trinuners, .shavers, cutters, saws, etc. also electrically-driven e.\hau.st fans, house pumps, air-compressors,
etc.

The upper

portion of the liuilding

to outside

is

almost
total

entirt^lv devoteil

to

offices renteil

parties.

The

mnnU-r

of motors

su[)plit-<l

was 55; and the

iMains.

total

number

of outlets, 1,100, sujiplving

2,4(M)

incandescent lamps and 4 arc lamps.

Feeders and

The arrangement

of the various feelers

centers, mains, etc., which they supplv, are. .shown diagranunatically in Fig. 41, which also gives in scluHlule the
sizes of fee<lers, mains,

und mains, the cut-out

and motor

circuits,

and the data relating

to the

cut-out panels.

.source, yet,

Although the current su|)ply was to be taken from an outside inasmuch as there was a pn)bal)ility of a j)l;int l)eing in-

stidled in the building itself at

some

future time, the three-wiresv.stem

of feetlers
to

and mains was

designetl. with a

neutnd conductor

txjual

the

combined

capa<'ity of the two outside conductors,

b-

.so

that
in

lL'0-volt
tlie

two-wire generators could

utili/ed

without any change

feeder^.

r>a.scmcnt.

Tlie plan of the lisemcnt, Fig. 42,

shows the branch

ircuit

wiring for the outlets in the Iwi.sement,

It
al.st)

and the hn-ation of the

main switchlnianl.
cotmection
.sy.stem

.shows the trunk cables for the intir-

.vning

to

provide the

nec'.s.sar}'

wires for lelephone.s.

FCEDCRS

X ALL CONDUCTORS IN ONt CONDUIT. KX SEPARATE CONDUIT FOR EACH CONDUCTOR THIS FEEOEIR IS TO BE DIVIDED INTO FOUR (-*) ~ CONDUCTORS OFt 2000000 C-M. EACH. - EACH CONDUCTOR IS TO BE INSTALLED IN A SEP* - ABATE 3" (Inside oiam) conduit LS^LIGHTING SUPPLY " P-S.= POWER XKXX SEPARATE s'tTMSIDE DIAK^CONDUiT FOR EACH
M X X

CONDUCTOR

in

<

KLECTRIC WIUIXG
c^/~i-<F ni

57

rt<^

u i

^
-a-'

i7

P
SWITCH BOA F^C

* nn
-Q

-6"

58

ELECTRIC WIRING
messenger calls, etc., be described later.
in all the

tickers,

rooms throughout the building,

as will

To

avoid confusion, the feeders were not shown on the basement

in detail in the specification, and installed plan, but were described The in accordance with directions issued at the time of installation.
electric current

supply enters the building at the front, and a service switch and cut-out are placed on the front wall. From this point, a two-wire feeder for power and a three-wire feeder for lighting, are

nm

to the

main switchboard located near the center

of the basement.

Owing

to the size of the conduits required for these supply feeders, as

well as the

main feeders extending

ceiling.

to the

upper

floors of the building,

the said conduits are run exposed on substantial hangers suspended

from the basement

First Floor.

The

through the between the

only,
is

first floor. first

rear portion of the building from the basement Fig. 43, and including the mezzanine floor,
floors, at the rear portion of the

and second

building

a press room for several large and heavy, modern newspaper presses. The motors and controllers for these presses are A separate feeder for each of these press located on the first floor.
utilized as

motors
troller

run directly from the main switchboard to the motor conin each case. Empty conduits were provided, extending from
is

the controllers to the motor in each case, intended for the various
control wires installed by the contractor for the press equipments. One-half of the front portion of the first floor is utilized as a news-

paper office; the remaining half, as a bank. Second Floor. The rear portion of the second

floor. Fig. 44, is

occupied as a composing and linotype room, and is illuminated chiefly by means of drop-cords from outlets located over the linotype machines

and over the compositors'

cases.

Separate ^-horse-power motors

are provided for each linotype machine, the circuits for the run underneath the floor.

same being

Upper Floors.
floors,

typical plan (Fig. 45)

all

is

shown

of the upper

respects with the exception of certain in partitions, which are not material for the purpose of illuschanges The circuit work is sufficiently tration or for practical example.

as they are similar in

from the plan to require no further explanation. Interconnection System. Fig. 46 is a diagram of the interconnection system, showing the main interconnection box located in the
intelligible

ELF.CTRIC WIHIN'G

59

T:^:

C
II

c_j^

j_

NO POINT X
,

L'^'

?i%--^

^-.^V*:

SCHEDULE. " CIRCUITS

d
z

^
p

JL-s:
i^.i..

._

^n-ai-i

fe-^^-^

tr~Tj

mJ v%

ELECTRIC

WTRIN'C;
r-^uLC

61

oFORCurra
1

r^^r
I

^
^..

r-T"

'

z^^

^ ^
4

"I

<

Q-.-.-.-.-.j

r*

*--='

?v0'

r
OCR

i^l?^v
J;-n
c.-:

?-ir^^-

-;-i

mi

A
r
.SHI
I'-::

'"I

Is

>
I

,;

rt.-.-.-.-.-.-ri

In

^
V

:-^'

J
Tyj)lral IMiiii of
ll<

Wlrlnu of nil fpiMTFIoorH. Showing cinuli \s

1

11^'.

4.1.

(>'

.<tc.
.

All th<< FliHini

nbore

Scfouil ucn SliuUiir to oiiK Aiiiithcr In

I';..,..

..i

t.

mly

lii(uiii|>.ira(tv<<ly

t'liliiiiMtruutt LHiiiillMuf I'uriliUmit.

FIXTURES.

ELK(n^i{i(: wiRiN'r;

03

lia.sfimiit; .idjuiiiiii;^ tliis inain Imjx is liicatttl tin- ti-riiiiiial Ihjx of llje

liwal tflt'jdioiif (-niii|)aiiy.

ftr tilt'

.si'j>arato sysU'iii

of

fit-dc-rs is

pmviiUil

tickt-r systcin,
it

as

tlii-se

insiiIatiDii, aii<l

was

tlioii^lit

coiKluctDrs nijuire .vjiiiewluit liravier iiiadvisalile to plare them in the same

coiuluits with the telephone wires,

ticker circuits.

owing to tlie higher potential of separate intcreonnection cahle nnis to each flK)r, for telephone anil messenger call pui-jx)ses; and a central Ih)X i.s place<l near the rising jK)int at each floor, from which nni subsidiarj' cables

to several i)<)ints

svmmetricallv

locatetl

on the various

flo<jrs.

From

these sui)sidiar}' l)oxes, wires can he

telej)hone or other service.

nm

to the various ofHces ret|uiring

ways from
out

ofiice to ofKce, so as to proviiletl

Small pipes are provitled to ser\e as raceavoid cutting partitions. In this

for

way, wires can he c|uickly

any

office in the

damaging

the Iniilding in any

way whatever; and,

building withas provision is

wooden moukling near the ceiling to accommodate Ix* run around the room without disfiguring the All the main cables and subsidiary- wires are connected with walls. special interconnection blocks numbered serially; and a schedule is in the main interconnection box in the basement, which y)r(tvideil
for a special

made

these wires, they can

enables anv wire originating thereat, to be readilv and convenientlv

traced throughout the Iniikling.
All the

main cables and

subsidiarj*

cables are run in iron conduits.

OUTLET=BOXF:S, CUT-OUT PANELS, AND

OTHER ACCESSORIES
Outlct-Uoxcs.
l)oxes

lU'fore the intr(xluction of iron conduits, outlet-

unnecess;int', and with a few extrptions were not usiil, the conduits l>eing brought to the outlet and cut olT after the walls and ceilings were plastered. With the intnKluction of iron con-

were considercnl

duits, however, the necessity for outlet-boxes

llulc.s

was

realizetl;

and the

so as to re<|uin' their use. The Riiltn of the Xatlifiial KUriric CrnU- lutw rt'|uin' outlet-lx)Xes to Im- ust-d with rigid irmi and flexible steel conduits, and with annontl
nuHlilit>tl

of the Fire I'nderwri'ers were

cables.
All
iijllot

the p<jrtion interior roiuluitH

of

nml

rule reijuiring their use is as follows: iiniion'<l calili'.s "ruust 1k> <>(|uip|M>ii nt every
it

with !in iipprnvi'M oullot-l)ox nr pinlf. "Oiitlft-pliitcN iiiUHt not l>o uw(l \vlicn>

in |)ritcli(-l>lo

to

itiHtall uiitlet-

I1UXC8.

64

ELECTRIC WIRING

"In buildings already constructed, where the conditions are such that neither outlet-box nor plate can be installed, these appUancesmay be omitted by special permission of the inspection department having jurisdiction, pro
viding the conduit ends are bushed and secured."

Fig. 47

shows a

t}^ical

form of outlet-box
\^Tien
it is

for bracket or ceiling

outlets of the universal ti/pe.

desired to

for the conduits, a blow from

will

make an opening a hammer

remove any

of the

of the wall of the outlet-box, as

weakened portion may be reis

quired.

This form of outlet-box

fre-

quently referred to as the knock-out type. Other forms of outlet-boxes are made with

WO OPT
Pig.
47. Universal and Knocl^-Out Type of Outlet Box.

the openings cast in the box at

the

re-

quired

points,

this

class

stronger
sal tj'pe.

and

better made The advantages

being usually than the univerof the universal

box will serv^e for any ordinary type of outlet-box are that one form of conditions, the openings being made according to the number of
conduits and the directions in which they enter the box. form of outlet-box used out of doors, Fig. 48 shows a waterproof
or in other places where the conditions require the use of a watertight

and waterproof
be

outlet-box.

It will

seen in this case, that the

box

is

threaded for the con-

T
Fig. 48. VVater-Tight Outlet Box. Courtesy of E. Krantz Manufacturing Co., Brooklyn, N. 1
.

duits,

and that the cover

is

screwed on

tightly

and a flange provided

for

a rubber gasket.

'IT/A.^DONCOUUMNA
.

R^.^

AHOtTTBCXJOOO- IT" 3T- WMMUCTOM DC:...

N'DCI XKna

-)_4-4-j4''-1'M-'M''t- i^^'*"
FIRST-FLOOH PLAN OF HOUSK FOR
I'rlni-llnl K""ln'i i;i MnrtllllK K<">lll." I.O' Tliriiwii I >jH'ri. I'rr>vlili'
'

tllAS. A. UUUULA.S. tsy..

.11
I

W AMI INu
I

U.N.
t!

LI,

L.

i'li-I

:.f

'i-

i;

li

;r-

1*;\'!

'

^r:l^^

Iv'v.-

(It)

Ihr

ELFXTUIC WUilNf;
Figs. 49
IiKiiteti in

65

and 50

sh(i\v water-tij;ht llt^r lx)xes

which are for outlets

the Hikjf.

N\ hile the nile.s<h)

it

Ik)X shall l>e \vater-tij,'ht,

titrht

is

not reijnire that the HiH*r outletstron^'ly reetmiinentUil that a water-

outlet

l)e usel

in all
is

rases for floor coiuieetions.

In this ejise

threadeil, as well as the stem et)ver throujjh also, the coiuluit ojR'niiif^ ^^ hen the extension is made in the conduit to the desk or table. which

the

tl(M)r

outlet cDiuiection
flat,

is

not re(|uired, the stem cover

use<l to replace the

may

In;

removed ami a

blank cover be

same.

form of

(jutlet-l)ox useil

for flexible steel cables anl steel ar-

mored cable, has already l>een shown (see Fi^. o). There is hardly any limit to the numlx'r and variety
outlet-lK>xes

of

makes of

on the market,

ada|)tel

f<jr

onlinary and

for sjH'cial con-

Klg.

4.

FlK. 50.

Types of Floor Outlet- Boxes.

ditions; l)ut the t^-pes illustrate<l in these pages are char.ideristic

typical forms.

and

lUishiuKS.

The

Rules of the Xatitmal Electric Cixlc rejuire that

conduits entering jimction-lM)xes, outlet-lK)xes, or cut-out cabinets., fitttil to .shall be j)ntect the wire providel with apj)ruvcd hu.shing.f,

from abnisittn.

is

This bushing Fig. ol shows a ty|)ical form of cuuduit bushing. screwjtl on the v\u\ of the conduit after the latter has Ui-n introinto the outlct-l)ox. cut-out cabinet, etc., tluTeby
jirolcc
t

ducnl

forming an
it

insulated orilice to
ciiud\iits,
lo<

liic

win- at

(Ih-

point where

leaves the

and
(

to

etc. |>nvcii( .ibnision, grounds, slu)rt cin-uits,

A
this

k-mit

Fig. 52) is .scn-wj-tl

is

on the threadtxl end of

tin-

conduit U-fore

ihr (i)iiduit
l(Mk-niil
iiiid

placetl

in

llic

outlet-lMix or cut-out cabinet,

and

bu.shing clamp the conduit

>ccuiily in jxisition.

Fig.

66

ELECTRIC WIRING
flexible steei

53 shows a terminal bushing for panel-boxes used for

conduit or armored cable.

The

Rides of the National Electric Code require that the metal

of conduits shall be permanently

and

effectually

grounded, so as

to

insure a positive connection for

grounds or leaking currents, and

order to provide a path of
in

least

resistance

to
Pig.
51.

prevent

the
path

Conduit Bushing.

current from
finding

through any source which might cause a fire. At outlet-boxes, the conduits and gaspipes must be fastened in such a manner as to
insure good
electrical

connection; and

at centers of distribution,

the conduits should be joined by suitable bond wires, preferably of copper, the said bond wires

Fig.

52.

Lock-Nut.

being connected to the metal structure of the building, or, in case of a building not having an iron or steel structure, being grounded in a

permanent manner
Fuse-Boxes, Cut-Out Panels,
necessity
etc.

to

water or gas piping.

the ver}' outset, the

From

was apparent

of having a protective device in circuit with

it

the conductor to protect this purpose, a fusible

from overload, short

circuits, etc.

For

metal

having a low

melting point was

ployed. this fuse

emof

The form
has

varied
Fig. 53. Panel-Box Terminal Bushing. Courtesy of Sprague Electric Co., New York, iV. J.

greatly. Fig.

54 shows

a characteristic form
of

what

is

known

as

the link fuse with copper terminals, on which are stamped the capacity of the fuse.

The form
although
it

is

of fuse used probably to a greater extent than any other, now being superseded by other more modem forms.

ELECnaC
Is tliat

WIUIN'G
Fi^.
'>'>.

Ch

known

as

t\\v luli.son fiij<c-j)lu(/, .sliown in

|>or(fhiin

cut-out bliK-k

usi-il witli tlu'

I'Mison fuse

is

sliuwn

in Fij^.

'>().

Within the

last

four or five vears, a

new form

of fuse,

known as

the cnclustd juse, has U't-n intrinhicetl anil used to a

consitiemltle

Mg. M. Copper-TlppeU Fuse Lluk.

Fig. 55. EUlHOn Fuse-Plug, Courttsy oftlenfralEUftricVo. .Sehtntetadi). S. Y.

e.xteiit.

fu.se

of this tyj)e
fu.se,

is

shown
tlie

in Fij;.

".7.

Fig.

oS

jcrives

sec--

tional

view of this

showing
ileviee
is
it

jjorous tilling

.snrrouiKling the

fu.se-strijjs,

and

al.so

the

for indicating

when

the

fuse has

Mown.

This form of fuse

made with
can he

various kinds of terminals:

use<l

with s|)ring clips

in

small

sizes,

.,^4^^ ^4 I ^ft^ftl ' (^^^F^P* ^SF^^ e

Flg.5. Porcelain Cut-Out Block.

mm
in

and with a jKJst screw contact in For oniinarA' low jH)tentials larger sizes. desirahlc tor currents up to '''''^ ^^''^^'
'"^

aiiiiMifs;
tioii

hut
it

it

is

a dchatahle

(|ues-

whether

is

desiralile to use

an enFig.
''.>

CourtttyufiitnfralKUctricCo., Hchtntctady, .V. }'.

closed fuse for heavier currents.

shows
fusc-hlocks usetl
there
is

cut-out ho.r

with

F^li.s)n

j)lug

with knoh and tuU' wiring.

It will l>e .seen

that

no cfninection compartment

in this fuse-l>ox, as the circuits

enter diR-ctly opj)osite the terminals with which they connect. for enclo-sinl fu.ses. and Fig. ()() .shows a cut-nut panel adaptinl
installetl

a cal)<iiii-

inet

having a

nection t()m|)artineiit. As will l>r Men frr)m the <iil.

the tal.let itself
.surrounde|
is

Klg. 57.

yJ
KuiioMHl
iir
1,11'

on the
11*;. ^-

four .sides by

.slate,

which
Imfpf

is .securetl

in the

corners

l>y

aIlgle-iI^>n^.
i>r
it

The
In-

outer

Ihx

may
(!

woimI hned with sln'et

imn,

may
ty|M-.

of in>n.

Fig.

sliows u door and trim fur a caliiinl nf this

It will

U- Mfii that

68

ELECTRIC WIRING

the door opens only on the center panel, and that the trim covers and conceals the connection compartment. The inner side of the door

should be lined with

lined with sheet iron.

slate,

and the inner

Fig. 62

side of the trim should be shows a sectional view of the cabinet

and panel.

In this type of cabinet, the conduits

point,

may
the

enter at

any

wires being run to the proper con-

nectors in the connection

compartment. Figs. 63 and 64

trate

illus-

type of panelboard and cabinet having a push-button switch connected with each

branch

circuit

and so
the cut-

arranged that

out panel itself may be enclosed bv locked doors,

and access to the switches

Fig. 59. Porcelaiu Cut-Outs in Wooden Box. Courtesy of II. T. Paisle Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

may be obtained through

two separate doors provided with latches only.
this

This type of panel was arranged and designed by the author of

instruction paper.

OVERHEAD LINEWORK
advantages of overhead linework as compared with underlinework are that it is much less expensive; it is more readily ground and more quickly installed and it can be more readily inspected and
;

The

repaired.
Its principal

disadvantages are that

it

it

is

not so permanent as

underground linework;
unsightly.

is

more

easily deranged;

and

it

is

more

For large

cities,

and

in congested

districts,

overhead

linework

the question of permanence, and the regulations, are usually the factors municipal which determine whether o^'erhead or underground linework shall
first cost,

should not be used.

However, the question of

be used.

ELECTRIC
Tlu' principal factors to
\h:

mnixG

m
linework will

\)v foiisi<lcn'<l in (ivt'rlica<l

hriefly

oiitliiutl.

Placing

ot I'olcs.

As a

^jt'neral rule, the jxilcs

is

should
12

l>c

set fnjin

1(K) to 12') feet

apart, which

-(|uivaleiit

to

'I'A

to

)M)les |>er

mile.

I'luler certain conilitions, these spaciiij^s given will

have

to Ije niolifieil;

hut

if

a strain on the |mi1cs themselves,

'

the |)oles are spacetl too far apart, there is danger of Uhj great jinil on the eross-arnis, pins, and

iL "^^^ "^ -*

70
Poles.

ELECTRIC WIRING

Poles should be of selected quality of chestnut or cedar, and should be sound and free from cracks, knots, or other flaws.

Experience has proven that chestnut and cedar poles are the most durable and best fitted for linework. If neither chestnut nor cedar
timber
even other poles can be obtained, northern pine may be used, and in localities where these poles cannot be obtained; but it is
last so long as those

found that the other woods do not

mentionedj

Pig. 63.

Cnt-Ont Pane! with Pnsb-Bntton Switches.

Cover Removed.

and some
to rot

of the other

apt above and below the surface of the ground. The proper height of pole to be used depends upon conditions. In countn," and suburban districts, a pole of 25 to 30 feet is usually
of sufficient height, unless there are
required.

much

woods are not only less strong initially, but are that is, just quicker at the "wind and water line"

more than two or

three cross-arms

In more densely populated districts and in cities where a great number of cross-arms are required, the poles may have to be

KLECTRIC WIllING
40
to

71

00

fet't,

or even

Ioii<:er.

Of

course,

tlie

loiij^er

the

|>ole,

the

greater

tlu-

|M)il>ility

of

its lireakiiij;;

or

lH-ii<liii<;;

and as the

lenfi;:th

increases, the diameter of the butt end of jxile sliould also increase.

Tiil.lcXI
iM>les,

-^ives

the averajje diameters re<|uirel for various heif^hts of

and

tlie U'l)th

the poles should

1m-

placeil in

thegntund.

Thes*

data have heen conipilnl from a numlier of standanl s|>ecili(a<ions.

TABLI-. XI
Pole Data

72

ELECTRIC WIRING

Before any poles are erected, they should be closely inspected for flaws and for crookedness or too great departure from a straight line.

Where appearance

is

of considerable importance, octagonal poles

may be used, although these cost considerably more than round poles. Gains or notches for the cross-arms should be cut in the poles before
be cut square with the axis of the pole, they are erected, and should and so that the cross-arms will fit snugly and tightly within the space thus provided. These gains should be not less than 4| inches wide,

m*i*rM!^'

Fig.

64.

Cul-Out Panel with Push-Button Switcties.

With Cover.

nor

than ^ inch deep. Gains should not be placed closer than 24 inches between centers, and the top gains should be at least 9 inches
less

from the apex of the

pole.

Pole Guying. Where poles are subject to peculiar strains due to unusual stress of the wires, such as at corners, etc., guys should be employed to counteract the strain and to prevent the pole from being
bent and finally broken, or from being pulled from
its

proper ppsition.

EILRCTklC BliLL WIRING.

Ill

wiriiit^

fur flec-tric

Itells

to

In-

ojxrnti'd

liy

Imtteiies, the

ilanger of causing tires from short circuits or poor contacts does not exist as in tbe case of wiring for light and power, Ix'cause the current strengtli is so small. Neither is the bell-titter reB[K)n6ible
to

On this account, Ixdl inspectors or lire underwriters. too often done in a careless and slovenly manner, causfitting ing the a|i[aratU3 to give unsatisfactory results and to require
city
is

frtMjUeiit rejairs, so that the e.\{)ense

and inconvenience

in the

end

far

more than

offset

any time saved by doing an inferior grade of

work.

should be taken

Hence, at the outset it is well to state that as much care in the matter of joints and insulation of bell

wiring as
If

in wiring for light or power. properly installed, the electric bell forms a reliable and yet

inexjtensive
<

means

of signaling, and

is

far

superior to any other.

is

>n

this

account practically every new building

titted

through-

nut with electric bells.

In addition to the necessity of tliorouirhness

ahvatly men-

tioned, care should be taken to use only reliable ap])aratus must be installed in accordance with the fundamental

which

j)rinciples

on which

its

satisfactory operation ilejuMids.

\MRi:.

The common
Is, 20,

sizes of

wire

in

use for bell

wor^

are

Xos.
satis-

and 22.

In general,

however. No, 20 will be ound

22

factory as it is usually sutliciently large, while in miny cases No. is not mechanical standpoint. strong enough from
.-i

It is

impcrtant that the wires should be well insulateu to

_r

jire

.m^m%m^^w. ^^w. iiw.

<

i.m.m..m.

vent accidental contacts with

all

Kirst of staples or other wires. this the coj)|ht from |)revents It also facilJM'ing aefini U|M>n by 'he sulphur in the insulation. ilate.4 Hol I. The iuuer coating of insulutiou should bo of Ting.
tlu<

the wire slinuld

!<

tinne<|, as

74

ELECTRIC BELL WIRING

India rubber, surrounded by several longitudinal strands of cotton, outside of which are wound several strands of colored cotton laid

on spirally.
polished by
is

This

is

next immersed in melted paraffin

wax and

friction.

A short
wire,
it is

length of approved electric bell wire

well to have
it

shown in Fig. 1. "When ordering

furnished in several

different colors as this greatly facilitates both the original installation and later repairs, because in this way one line may be dis-

Moreover, a tinguished from another, taps from main lines, etc. wire having been found, it is possible to identify it at any faulty desired section of its length.

METHODS OF WIRING.
In running wires, the shortest and most direct route should, of course, be taken between the battery, bells, and bell pushes. There are two cases to be considered. The better method is that
in

which the wires are run before the building

is

completed, and

the wiring should be done as soon as the roof is on and the walls In this case the wires are usually run in zinc tubes are up.

secured to the walls with nails.

The tubes should be from inch

to

^
1
Fig.
2.

^ inch

the latter.

in diameter, preferably It is better to place

the wires and tubes simultane-

ously, but the tubes may be put in place first and the wires drawn

in afterward, although this latter has the objection that the insulation is liable to become plan abraded when the wires are drawn in. In joining up two lengths of tube, the end of one piece should be opened up with the pliers

so that

it

may

receive the end of the other tube,

which should

also

be opened up, but to a less extent, to prevent wear upon the tubes are sometimes substiinsulation. Specially prepared paper
tuted for the zinc.
If the building is completed before the wiring is done, the concealed method described above cannot be used, and it is neces-

sary to run the wires along the walls supported by staples, where Fig. 2 shows ordinary doublethey will be least conspicuous. pointed tacks, Fig. 3 shows an insulating saddle staple which

F.LECriilC liKLL
to
\)e

W IKING

iii

is

recoiniueiidftl.

Two

wires ehould nevtT he secured under

the
of

same
short
it is

staple

if it

circuits.

ean jKissihly la* avoided, owing to the danger "With ii littUi

care

ceal tile

usually po.ssihle to conwiring l)i>hind the picture mouldini', al(n<f the skirting-iniard,
iK'side the

and
it is

door

j)Osts

hut whi-rc
it,

1
k
Fig.
3.

iinpossihh'

to conceal to

a light

ornamental
tinish
It
is

casing

match the
ho used.
to

of the room,

may

sometimes advisahle
In

use

in the same outer covering. some cases it is well to run the wires under the iKtors, laving them in notches in the tops of the joists or in holfs hored

twin wires or two insulated win-s run

ahout two inclu'S helow the

toj)3

of the joists.

JOtNTS.
AVlien
(If.iii

making

a joint,

cari'

should he taken to have a firm,

connection, lioth mechanically and electrically, and this must

always he soldered to j)reveMt corrosion. The insulation should off the ends (tf llie wires to he joined, for a distance of Ih* strijped ahout 2 inches, and the wires made hright hy scraping oi sandpa-

E
nering.
iifl

^^zz^z^^y
Vv'.
1.

They should
in Fi*'. 4.

tlu-n Im-

twisted

tiirlitly

and evenly

toir^tlier

shown
Me.xt

comes the
if

ojieration of soldcriiiR, wliieh

is

ahsolutely

a jK-rmanent joint froni an 'leetrical necessary stand|H)int is to Iri ohtained. A jdint made without st)liler may he electrically
soun<l at
tirst,

hut

its

resistance rajiiilly iiiereas<'s, din< to deteri-

onition of the joint. As has already het-n stated, the wires should Immad(4 hright and clean hefore they are twisted together.

Soldering (luids HJiould never he used, he<-ause

of the wire.

tlH'V

cause corrosiiMi

The
oi

hest

llux to tise is resin

Im'

The soldering should always

with a ljIowpijM<

or com|Msite candle. done with a eiip|K'r hit rather than

wirenuin's torch.

76

ELECTRIC BELL WIRING

A convenient form of soldering tool consists of a small copper having a semicircular notch near the end. This bit should, of It is then heated over a course, be well tinned. spirit lamp, or
bit

wireman's torch, and the notch filled with soft solder. Lay the which has previously been treated with the flux, in this joint,
notch and turn
it

so that the solder runs completely

around among

the spirals of the joint. The loose solder should be shaken off or removed with a bit of rag. When the joint is set, it should be insulated with rubber tape, so that it will be protected as perfectly
as the other portions. It is often possible to save a considerable length of wire a amount of labor by return, which, if

and

using ground properly arranged, will give very satisfactory results, although a complete metallic circuit is always to be preferred. Where water or gas

mains are
tained

good ground may be obby connecting to them, being sure to have a good connection. This may be seavailable, a

cured by scraping a portion of the pipe perfectly bright and clean and then winding
this

soldered.

with bare wire; the whole is then well An end should be left to which

the wire

from the
If such

bell circuit is twisted

and

/'--^ J

r-h

soldered.
/|-|

mains are not

available,

1/

good ground can be obtained by connecting

-nny^nr^
Fig.
5.

the wire from the bell circuit, as described In the absence of above, to a pump pipe.

water and gas mains, and of a pump pipe, a ground may be obtained by burying beneath

permanent moisture
or lead, having
is

level a sheet of copper

at least five

square feet of siirface, to

which the

connected. return wire plate should be covered with coke nearly to the surface; the hole should then be filled in with ordinary soil well rammed.

The ground

OUTFIT.

The

piish, at will, the battery,

three essential parts of the electric bell outfit are the bell which furnishes a means of opening and closing the circuit

which furnishes the current

for operating the

ELECTIilC BELL WIHING

l>ell,

77

ami the

bell

itself.

Before discussing the combiimtion of

these pieces of ap|iratU3 in thu complete circuit, let us take the individual parts in order.

up

A
this
is

bell

push

is

illustration

is

shown diafrrannnatically the j)ush button; when

in

Fi{^.

ij.

In this

it brincrs the point contact with the nietul of the sprincr S in thus closintr the circuit with wiiich strip K,

presided

uj)on

it

is

connected in

series.

Normally the

as shown, and the springs are separated

circuit
is

accordingly open.

Bell pushes are

made

in various de-

Fig. 6.

signs and styles, from the simple wooden Ttush shown in Fig. (> to very elaborate and expensive articles. of neat apj>earance and modFig. 7 shows four cast bronze pushes
enite j)rife. Batteries.

circuit plan, ojK-n

Klectric bells are nearly always operated on the and hence the battery used is generally of the

Fig.

7.

op<Mi

circuit tyjH', such as the I^'danche cell, which in use<l very cell in which for heavy work. Tliis is n zinc-carlK)n largely except rolarinition ia water, the excitant is sal-aminoniiic di.ssolved in

of its by jMToxid** of munganese, which gives up part the hydrogen set free and fornuiig water. with oxygen, combining
preventtnl

78

ELECTRIC BELL WIRING

Dry Batteries
are also frequently used for bell work, their being cleanliness, as they cannot spill. Dry

principal advantage cells are really a modification of the Leclanche type, as they use zinc and carbon plates and sal-ammoniac as the exciting agent. The cell, which is one of the principal types of dry cell,

Burnley

plaster,

has an electrolyte composed of sal-ammoniac, chloride of zinc, This compound when mixed is a semiflour, and water.
stiffens after being poured into the cup. liquid mass which quickly The depolarizing agent is peroxide of manganese, the same as is

used in the Leclanche

cell, this

being packed around the carbon

cylinder.

The top of the cell is sealed with bitumen or some similar substance.
For very heavy work the Edison Lalande and the Fuller types of cell are best suited, while for closed circuit work
-

the gravity cell

Bell.
if

is

most

It is a

well-known

satisfactory. fact that

a coil of wire

a current of electricity flows through wound on an iron core,

is

the core becomes matrnetized and

ca-

subpable of attracting any magnetic

stances to
itself.

The operation

of the

electric bell, like that of so

many

other

pieces of electrical apparatus, depends this fact. diagrammatic repre-

upon

sentation of an electric bell

Fig.
8.

is

shown

in

composed
wire.

is an electromagnet Fig. 8, in which of soft-iron cores on which are wound coils of insulated

mer

end for striking the gong. On the back of the armature is a which makes contact at D with the back stop T. The spring action of the bell is as follows: "When the circuit is closed through the bell a current flows from terminal 1, around the coils of the
its

H at

The armature is mounted upon a spring K, and

carries a

ham-

and contact point D, through the magnet, through the spring back stop T, to terminal 2. In flowing around the electromagnet the current magnetizes its core, which consequently attracts the armaWhile in to strike the gong. ture. This causes the hammer tliis the contact at D is broken, the current ceases to flow position

ELECTKIC iJKLL WIKIMI

the electroiiia^iu't ami the cort'S constHjuently lose their Tht* armature is then carrie<l hack to its original attractive force.
arouiil

position hv
retH^atftl.

tlie

8j)rini^

The

hammer

K, niakinj^ contact at I), and the process is will thus vihrate and the hell continue to

is closed. ring as long as the circuit The tvp' of hell descrihed ahove

il

fho one most

commonly

used.

Such

hells are

made

in a

great variety of shajR-s and styles,

It is the prices varying accordingly. imjortant that platinum le furnished at the contact point I), Fig. S, to prevent cortips

rosioii.

The
ill

hells

hox

hell

and the wooden hox

I'ii'.
'.),

on the market today are of two classes, the iron A hell of the wocnlen hox tyjR' is Indl.
<rnidt hi-ll

shown
tyjK^
u-.

and a hiidier
Kig. 10.

of the iron frame skeleton

is

shown

in

I'ells

without

cttvers

should never U'

use*!,

du~t will sfttlo on the contacts and interfere with their action."

CIRCUITS.

The

possihli"
.m,

coiiiliinatiiUis of tinit

ciriMiit4 !iir

varied that

would

Ik'

various parts into complete to descriU? iheu*

iinpossihh'

80
all; in

ELECTRIC BELL WIRING

fact,

almost every one is to a certain extent a special circuits the is, however, possible to give typical problem. of which can be applied successfully to any underlying principles
It

particular case.

in which P Fig. 11 shows a bell circuit in its simplest form, the push, B the bell, and C the battery; all connected represents at P, and hence no curThe circuit is in series.

normally open

rent flows to exhaust the batteries.

When P

is

pressed,

the circuit,

otherwise complete, is closed and current passes through the bell

causing
^=^G
Fig. 11.

it

to ring, as already ex-

^G

plained.

For instance, the push

might be located beside the front door, the bell in the kitchen and the

the location depending on the results desired battery in the cellar; The wire between P and C may, if be met. and conditions to

with and connection necessary, be dispensed the dotted lines. and G, as shown by

made
of

to

ground

at

G
B

an arrangement Fig. 12 shows

by means

which one

bell

HI
P"

-^
Fig. 13.

Fig. 12.

may be may be

This system controlled by either of the pushes P or P'. extended to any number of pushes similarly connected, method for ringing two bells simultaneously from one push
in Fig. 13,

is

shown

where both

bells

P.

Bells, if connected in this

B and B' will ring from push manner, should have as nearly as

the bell of lower resistance possible the same resistance, otherwise will take so much current that there will not be a sufficient amount
left for

Also, the batteries of current taken capacity as the amount

the other.

system can be extended to any

of greater current of course, doubled. This is, number of bells connected in this

must be

them. way, up to the limit of capacity of the battery to ring

Figs.

v-s*t**"^

SIMPLE COMBINATION GAS AND ELECTRIC FIXTURE

IN

A DINING ROOM

<

<
3

-z.

^"

<
-J 00
^

<
^-

O o
^.

KLKCl
12 and
ruiit^

Kl(

tUAA, W

HUNG
may
or

81
Ih>

13 inay

Ih<

foiubined bo that two or more hells

from any one of two or more pushes. In \ir. 14 is shown a scheme for ringin^
anil

eitlier Ih'II, li

li',

from one push

one hattery

ly

means of the two-point switch

re
I'iK.
II.

wi
jiush will

S.

riniT Ih'II li,

"When the arm (jf the switch is on contact 1, the and when on contact 2 it will riiij^ hell W.
In
Fii;.

15

is

shown

method

of connectini; hells in series so

If all the

that

li unci li'

may

be runn from J\

bells so coniiecteU

were of the vihrating type, they would not work satisfactorily, as it would he impossihle to time them so that the vihrations would
keep
l)e

step,

hence only one

hell

should

of the vihrating type, and the others should have the circuit hreakers shortcircuited,

the vihratiuii hell servinir as

interrujter for the

whole

series.

Ohvi-

ouslv this system re<juire3 a hii^her volt-

age
cells

than

parallel
111-

connection, ami
sullicient
ll.M.l'.

tlic

must
the

of

to

ring
Ik'IIs

hells

satisfactorily.
in

Several

may
up

he connecleil
Id the limii

this

way,

if

<
"

desired,
hattery.

(f

voltage of the

^
l"lk'>'

Oftentimes a
For
iiistanee, the

Iwll is to UIm-II

in

rung from several dilTen-nt places, an e'evator nuiy ht* rung from any one uf

S2

ELECTRIC BELL WIRING

may
be rung from

several floors, or the bell in the office of a hotel

any one of several different rooms. In this case it is neoessary to have some device to indicate from which push the bell was rung. The annunciator furnishes this information very well. A threestation annunciator
is

shown
in

in

Fig. 16.

The connections

for an

annunciator are shown

(iator,
I

li

the bell,

Fig. 17 where tV represents the anunthd battery, and P', P", and P^ the pushes.
pressed, the current passes through the

or instance,

when P'

is

electromagnet controlling point 1 on the annunciator which causes

I

13
tlie

pfe
i

Fig. 17.

the arrow to be turned and at

tlie

same time the

tlie

bell rings.
is

After
its

attendant has noted

iiiul

tlie

siu;iial,

arrow

restored to

no

position
electric
is

by

pressing a lever on

tlie

bottom of the annun-

ciator box.

The
tion

and

burglar alarm furnishes a very efficient protecan application of the principles already described. Tlie
of being completed

circuit, instead

by

push,

is

completed by

contacts placed on the doors or windows so that the opening of The same device may be used either will cause the bell to ring.

on money-drawers,

safes, etc.

fire alarm, the signal may be given the temperature reaches a certain degree, or pushes may be placed in convenient' locations to be operated should be protected by glass so that they The

In the case of the electric

either automatically

when

manually.

will not be

pushes tampered with,

it

being necessary to break the glass

to give the alarm.

LIVING ROOM IN RESIDENCE OF J. R. CRAVATH, CHICAGO. ILL. A good Arrangement for Reading and General Lighting in a Small Hoom.

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
HISTORN AM) I)11\HL()I>M1:M
Tlu- liistorv of (Icitric
^villl
li^'litint;

as a coniincrfial proposition In^gins

the invfiitinii of the (inimiiic dyiiaino, liv Z. J. (irainiiif, in 1n7U, tuiiftluT with thi- iiitrothictioii of thi* Jaltlochkoir caiuilf or

li^'ht,

which was

first

aniiouiict'd to

tlif

ptil)nc-

in 1870,

and which

formed a feature of

tlie

International Exposition at Paris in 1S7S,

rp
the
arc,

to this time, the eh-ctric hjjht

tlie

was known
It

to hut

few investipitors,
in

one of

earliest l)ein<j Sir

Iluinphrev

Daw who,
was then

IMO, pnHluctd

first

and trtnles and

arc of any jjreat maj^nitudc. resulted from the use of two

called the voltaic

wood charcoal pencils as elecof voltaic cells as a source of current. a powerful battery
to 1S.")9,

were taken out on arc lamps, hut these were not successful, most of them oj)erated hy clockwork, due chiefly to the lack of a suitahle source of current, since all de-

From IMO

many

j)atents

The interest in this form their ])ower. jH-nded on i)rimary cells for died down about 1S')0, and nothing; further was attempted of lij,'ht
advent of the (iramme dynamo. The incandescent lanij) was but a piece of laboratory apparatus to 1S7S, at which time Kdison produced a lamp usinfr a platiinim up as a source of Iij,'ht, the platinum beinj,' rendered spiral in a vacuum, The the passage of an electric current through it. incandescent by
until the
first

successful carbon hlament

form'd from strips of

bamboo.

was made in 1S70, this filament being The names of Kdison and Swan are

intimately coimecfcd with these early experiments. From this time on, the dcvrlopmciit of electric lighting has Ihh-u and tin- consumption of incandescent lamps alone has Verv
r<ii(
ill

rapid, d several

amount
uiih

When we compare the small millions t-ach year. done by means of i-lectricity tw'nty-five years ago the enormmis extent of lighting systems and the numerous
of lighting

illumination as they an* to-^lay, the growth a|>pli<afions of electric and t|evelopm-nt of the art is se'n to Iw very great, and the valu- of

a *tuly of this subject

may

Im-

readily appreciattl.

While

in

many

Coj/f right, imto, b^

Amtrican ScAool qf CorruponJtnct.

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
cases electricity
its
is not the cheapest source of power for ilhimination, admirable qualities and convenience of operation make it by far

the most desirable.

CLASSIFICATION

The
1.

subject of electric lighting

may

be

classified as follows:

2.
3. 4.

The type of lamps used. The methods of distributing power to the lamps. The use made of the light, or its application. Photometry and lamp testing.
types of lamps used

The
1.

may be

subdivided into:

Incandescent lamps: Carbon, metallic filament, Nernst. 2. Special lamps: Exhausted bulb without filament, such as the CooperHewitt lamp and Moore tube lamp. 3. Arc lamps: Ordinary carbon, flaming arc.

INCANDESCENT LAMPS
The
used,
If

incandescent

lamp

is

by

far the

most common type

of

lamp
is

and the

principle of
is

a current /
/,

operation is as follows: sent through a conductor whose resistance

its
is

R, for a time

PR

heated, and the heat generated = t t, representing joules or watt-seconds. If the current, material, and conditions are so chosen that the
the conductor

PR

substance

may

be heated in

this

way

until

it

gives out light,

becomes

incandescent, and does not deteriorate too rapidly, we have an incandescent lamp. Carbon was the first successful material to be

chosen for

this

conductor and for ordinary lamps

it is

formed into a

small tlu-ead or filament.

Very recently metallic filament lamps

have been introduced commercially with great success but the carbon incandescent lamp will continue to be used for some time, especially in the low candle-power units operated at commercial voltages. Car-

bon

is

a successful material for two reasons:

material must be capable of standing a very high temC, or even higher.
of electricity with a fairly high re-

L The
2.

perature, 1,280 to 1,330

It

must be a conductor

sistance.

as

we

Platinum was used in an early stage of the development, but, shall see, its temperature cannot be maintained at a value high
to

enough

make

the

lamp as

efficient as

when

carbon, or a metal

FM^' Tinr T.KJHTIXG

a

liii\

in;;

iiifltiii>; |)>iiit liij^lirr

t

than that

if

{tiatiiiuiii,

is us-(|.

Nearly

all

attempts

sulistitutr aiiotlifr siihstaiK-e In

phuv

of <-arlMJH have
c>r

faih'tl until

rrcently,

and the few

lainj>.s

which are entirely

|)artia)ly

.successful will Im- treal'<l later.

in

The

nature of the earhon eniployi-il

lei-n

incandescent lamps has, however,

forms, and owinj; to the
still

much improved

()Ver the

first

very j^reat imj>ortance of this lamp,

cuiisidcred.

the nielliiid of niannfactiirc will

l>e

A\anufacturc of Carbon Incandescent Lamps. J'n pardlitm vf the rHiiiiuiit. (illidosc, a chemical compouml rich in carlM^n, is
cotton with zinc chloride in pnper prepared hy treating ahsorltent It is customary projjortions to form a uniform, <,a'latinc-like mass. to stir this under a partial vacuum in order to remove huhhles of air

which mi^ht he contained

material
is

in

it

and destroy
"

its

uniformity.

This

then forced, "stjuirtetl,

through

steel dies into alcohol, the

Fit;.

1.

Fiirni.s

of Filuniriit.s

now

in I'.so.

Thi'sc threads in^' lu harden the soft, transparent thread>. are then tiioroughly washed to remove all trace of the zinc chloride, dried, cut to the desired lengths, wound on forms, and carbonized by

alcohol >cr\

heating to a high temperature

the cellulo.se
is

away from

air.

)uring carbonization,

transformed into pure carbon, the volatile mattT being flriven off by the high temperature to which the Hlaments an- subjectitl. The material becomes hard and stilV, assuming a permanent frm,
shrinking in both length and diam'tcr the form being s|M'eially constructed so as to allow for this shrinkage. The forms an- made of

carbon blocks which are placed

with j)owden-d
l(Msely

in

carbon.

The

crucibles,

|)luinbago crucibles and packed which are covjtimI with

to a

fitting

carbon covers, are gradually brought

is

white heat,

at

which tem|H-ratiire the cellulose

iim>|.

allowed to

ehangeil to carlH)n, and then .Xficr cooling, the filaments are removeil, lueasund,
the few jlcfcctive ones di.scardinl.

and

insjM'cted,

and

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
In the early days, these filaments were made of cardboard or

bamboo, and

later, of

thread treated with sulphuric acid.

1,

few of the shapes of filaments now in use are shown in Fig.

the different shapes giving a slightly different distribution of light. As here shown they are designated as follows: A, U-shaped; B,
single-curl; C,
single-curl

anchored; D,

double-loop; E,

double-

curl; F, double-curl anchored.

are

After carbonization, the filaments Mounting the Filament. mounted or joined to wires leading into the globe or bulb. These

wires are
far as

made

known,

of platinum that expands

platinum being the only substance, so

and contracts the same as
glass,

with

change in temperature and which, at the same time,

will not

be melted

by the heat developed

air-tight, a

in the carbon.

Since the bulb must remain

substance expanding at a different rate from the glass cannot be used. Several methods of fastening the filament to the

leading in wires have been used, such as forming a socket in the end of the wire, inserting the filament, and then squeezing the socket the use of tiny bolts when cardboard tightly against the carbon; and
filaments were used; but the pasted joint
is

now used almost

exclu-

Finely powdered carbon is mixed with some adhesive comsively. such as molasses, and this mixture is used as a paste for fastenpound, Later, when current is sent through ing the carbon to the platinum.
the joint, the volatile matter
is

driven

off

and only the carbon remains.

This makes a cheap and, at the same time, a very efficient joint. Filaments, prepared and mounted in the manner Flashing.
uniform in resistance, but it has been found just described, are fairly that their quality may be much improved and their resistance very
a layer of carbon closely regulated by depositing filament by the process of fashing. By flashing
filament to a high temperature

on the outside of the

is

meant heating

the

when immersed

in a

such as gasoline vapor, under partial vacuum.

is

hydrocarbon gas, Current is passed

through the filament in this process to accomplish the heating. Gas used, rather than a liquid, to prevent too heavy a deposit of the carbon. Coal gas Is not recommended because the carbon, when black appearance. The effects of deposited from this, has a dull
flashing are as follows:
1.

The diameter
its

of die filament

is

increased by the deposited

carbon and hence

resistance

is

decreased.

The

process must be

FI.Kr'rUK
u

I.KiHTING
is

(liscoiitimiftl

lii'ii tlit-

cK-siri'il

resistance

reueljed.

Any

little

irrepi-

iarities in the filament will

We eliminated since the smaller sections, l>ecome hotter than the remain<ler
(Jeposited

having the

j;reater resistance, will

of the filament anil the carlion

points.
2.

is

more

rapitJIy

at these

The

character of the surface

is

changed from a

dull
is

and

c<)mj)arativcly soft

nature to a Kright gray coating which

life

Mack much

harder and which increases the

and

efficiency of the filament.

After flashing, the filament is sealed in the bulb Kxhauisi'uKj. and the air exhausted through the tube .1 in Fig. 2, which shows the

lamp
is

in ditTereiit stages of its

manufacture.

The

exhaustion

accomplished by means of mechanical air pumps, supj)lementcd by Sprenglc or mercury j)umps and chemicals.

Since the degree of exhaustion

must be high, the bulb should

be heated during the process so as to drive off any gas which may cling to the glass. When
chemicals are used, as
is

now

almost universally the case, the chemical is |)laccd in the tube

-1

and,

to take

when heated, serves up much of the remainFin.

DIIToreiit

Kxhaustion is necesing gas. sary for several reasons:

1.

StuKCx

III

I'Uiiip Muiiufu<'iur(<.

2.

3.

To avoitl oxidization of thi- tilniiipnt. To rcililcc the heat Cdiivcyi'il to tin- jtIoIm-. To prevent wt-iir on tlir filament iliu- to ciirn-nts
.1 is

or ciMics in the
(lie

cart.

After exhausting, the tubi-

sealed olT

and

lamp lom-

means of plaster of I'jiri.s. pIcUil for testing by attaching the base by < shows some of the forms of completed incandescvnt lamps. FJL'.
\

oltage anil Canillc-I'owcr.

in size finni the

Incandescent lamps of the earlH)n

ty|M'

vary

miniature l>attry and candelabra lamps to

those of .several humlrcd caiidlc-jiower. though flic lallcr are very The more common vjdues for the canillc-power are seldom used.

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
8, 16, 25, 32,

and

50, the choice of candle-power

depending on the

use to be

made

of the lamp.

The voltage will vary depending on the method of distribution of the power. For what is known as parallel distribution, 110 or 220 volts are generally used. For the higher values of the voltage,
long and slender filaments must be used, if the candle-power is to be low; and lamps of less than 16 candle-power for 220-volt circuits are
not practical, owing to difficulty in manufacture. For series distribution, a low voltage and higher current is used, hence the filaments may be quite heavy. Battery lamps operate on from 4 to 24

but the vast majority of lamps for general illumination are operated at or about 110 volts.
volts,

Fig. 3.

Several

Forms

of Completed I^amps.

Efficiency. By the efficiency of an incandescent lamp is meant power required at the lamp terminals per candle-power of light Thus, if a lamp giving an average horizontal candle-power given. of 16 consumes \ an ampere at 112 volts, the total number of watts consumed will be 112 X \ = 56, and the watts per candle-power

the

will

be 56

16

3.5.

The

efficiency of such a

lamp

is

said to be

3.5

watts per candle-power, or simply watts per candle.

is

Watts

economy

sometimes used for

run.

efficiency.

lamp depends on the temperature at which In the ordinary lamp this temperature is between 1,280 and 1,330 C, and the curve in Fig. 4 shows the increase of efficiency with the increase of temperature. The temperature attained
efficiency of a
is

The

the filament

TivTRir
on
tin-

i.I(;htin(;
nKHatt-d and the
is

l)V

lilaiii.

..i

...

jM-iitls

rati-

at wliicli

lii-at

is

amount

of

powir

suj)|)li(il.

Tlu- ratt- of ratliation of lu-at

tin* tltvaticjii in

pn)[Mjr-

tioual to

tlu- art'a

of the filaint-nt,

tinnHratiire,

and
from

the emissivity of the surface.

Bv

einis-sivity is

meant the nuinlur of heat

units <-mitte(l

unit surface per (U'jree rise in tcm[)<Tature al)ove that of surroundiiifj The hri<,'lit surface of a flaslied fihiment has a h)\ver emisIxxlies.
sivitv

than

tlie

(hill

surface of

an unhcatcd fihiment, hence

tin-

U'ss
is

enerjjy

is lost

in licat railialioii

and

cllicicncy of the filament

increased.

As soon

much more
1400

is reached, the illumination increases than the emission of heat, iience the increase in rapidly

as incandescence

ELECTRIC IJGHTING
neighborhood of 800 hours. To obtain the most economical results, such lamps should always be replaced at the end of their useful life. In Table I are given values of efficiency and life of a 3.5-watt,
110- volt carbon

lamp

for various voltages impressed

on the lamp.
that a

These

values are plotted in Fig. 5.

The

curves
life

show

3%
an

increase of voltage
increase of
value.

on the lamp reduces the

by

one-half, while

6%

causes the useful

life to fall

to one-third its

normal

The

effect is

even greater when 3.1-watt lamps are used, but

not so great with 4-watt lamps.

of the voltage used

From

this

we

see that the regulation

efficiency
efficiency

lamps are
of the

to

on the system must be very good if high be used, and this regulation will determine the
be
installed.

lamp

to

Selection of Lamps. Ordinary Carbon Type. Lamps taking 3.1 watts per candle-power will give satisfaction only when the regulation of voltage is the best practically a constant voltage maintained at the

normal voltage of the lamp.

TABLE
3. 5-

Effects of Change in Voltage

Standard
Vo'.TAQE

Watt Lamp

Per Cent, of Normal

FTF< lUIC

LUiUriNG

17C

Ic
151.

14C
13C-

ISO

IK
IOC

9C

8c
70-

6c

1-itr.

Curves of Eniclciiry nnd

I^ife

o( Carlton Filunient Ihiiuph.

Lamps
rt 1^1

latioii is
|>

of 4 walls per canclle-powiT should \>c installed wlu-n the 22()-volt Tlu-se valiU'S are for llO-volt lamps. poor.

I'lMI

sjiuuld

have u lower efheiency

to give a long

life.

This

is

on

FIk.

fi.

I.lfc Ciirvif)

of Iiican(l<>wMit

Ij>iii|m<.

account of the fait that, for the same candle-power, the 2'JO-volt lamp must he eoiistruete<l with a filament whi( h is long and shnder com1()-vult lamp, and if such a filament is run at ti to that of the
pare<l
iiigh
1

tc-mperature

its life is

short.
it

The
is

consi<|erall' extent

ahroad hut

22()-volt lam|> is use<l to some not em|)loy-<l exti-nsively in the

United Stales.
of alMinl
I

It is ciistonmry to oprrate such lamps at an eflieieney watts |mt candle-power.

10

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
Lamps
should always be renewed at the end of their useful
life,

being termed the smashing-point, as it is cheaper to replace Some recomthe lamp than to run it at the reduced candle-power. mend running these lamps at a higher voltage, but that means at a
this point

reduced

life,

and

it is

not good practice to do

this.

Fig.

7.

Horizontal Distribution Curve for Single-Loop

ril..n-.ei.t.

of incandescent lamps. Fig. 6 shows the life curves of a series These curves show that there is an increase in the candle-power of some of the lamps during the first 100 hours, followed by a period during which the value is fairly constant, after which the light given

by the lamp
power.

is

gradually reduced to about

80%

of the initial candle-

FT

rrTRir lighting
In
Vi}^.
1

11

Distributiun
filamriit.s iisi-d in

u\

lA^hl.

arc .sliown various forins of

iiuaiMK-scrnt lamps, and Figs. 7 and 8 show the distribution of lij,'lit from a sin|,'N'-l<M)[) filament of cylindrical crossFij,'.

section.

shows the distribution

)flij,'lit

in a horizontal plane, the

lamp l)cing mountetl

in a vertical position,

and

Fig. 8

shows the

dis-

o N
(VI

FIr. S.

Vcrllcul DiHlrllmtInn

Purvc

for SIiikIp-Ixhip Fllimirnt.

triljulion in a vertical pljin'.

the light distrihution

till-

horizontal |)lane

By chaiipng the shape of the iilament .\ mean of the reatlings taken in forms the iiiftiii horizontal raiidli-jMnnr, and
is

varied.

this (andle-pt)Wer rating

.\

is

the )ne generally assume<l

f(r tlu*

)nlinary

of the readings tak'n in a verti<l plane itnandesceiit lamp. us tin- mean vertical candle-power, init this value is of little use. gives

mean

12

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
Mean
Spherical CandIe=Power.

When comparing lamps

which

give an entirely different light distribution, the mean horizontal candle-power does not form a proper basis for such comparison, and the mean spherical or the mean hemispherical candle-power is used
instead.

By mean

the light taken in

will

be taken

is meant a mean value of The methods for determining this up under photometry. The mean hemispherical candle-

spherical candle-power
directions.

all

power has
tal

reference, usually, to the light given out below the horizon-

plane.

The Gem Metallized Filament Lamp. When the incandescent lamp was first well established commercially, the useful life of a unit, when operated at 3.1 watts per candle, was about 200 hours. The
improvements in the process of manufacture have been continuous from that time until now, and the useful life of a lamp operated at that efficiency to-day is in the neighborhood of 500 hours. Experiments
in the treatment of the

carbon filament have led

to the intro-

gem metallized filament lamp. This lamp should not be confused with the metallic filament lamps, to be described later,
duction of the

because the material used

is

carbon, not a metal.

As a

result of

special treatment the carbon filament assumes many of the characteristics of a metallic conductor, hence the term metallized filament.

The word

graphitized has been proposed in place of metallized.

TABLE
*

II

Data on the

Qem

Metallized Filament

Lamp

Watts

< " ^ <

CO

<

O Q < 2 O
o = < o
rt

-a
S,
flj

Q
IS

as

o
bh

OS

bl
(/}

o X

1=)

o o
K Z
C3

a
a

:3

<

tt

J-7.

<
c'_

3 - =c e a E ^
i I--

s s
cs

r "
-r

<

5
:^
-i

=
it"?

111
K

1
it

EI.KCTUir T.KillTIW;
\Micii a tilaim-iit, as
tn-ali-il in tlie
tlii-re
i.s

13

onlinary iiiuniKr,

is

run at a
iilaincnt,

hi^li tfinpcratiiri- in a lani|)

hut

it

was

Jiscoveretl that,

if

thi-

no iinpruveinent uf tn-atccl tihiiuents were

tlie

suhj<-ctetl

thr extrt-inily hiijh tfnijRTatnrc of tlie eh-etric resistanee furnatr at atmospheric pressure, the 3,IMM) to .S,7(K) (lefj^rees C. physical nature of the carlK)n was chanjjed and the n-suUinj; fihiinent coull Ije

to

operatcil at a higher tcinjH'ratiin- in the

to

lamp ami

a hi^'hcr efficiency,

i4

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

The for the decrease in candle-power of the incandescent lamp. metallized filament lamp is operated at an efficiency of 2 5 watts pei
candle with a useful
life

of

about 500 hours.

The change

in candle-

in voltage is less than in the ordinary lamp on power with change account of the positive temperature coefficient of the filament. These low candle-powers, owing to the lamps are not manufactured for very
difficulty

of

treating

very slender

fila-

ments, but they are

made

in sizes con-

suming from 40 to 250 watts. gives some useful information

filaments are

Table
in

II

connec-

tion with metallized filament lamps.

The

made

in a variety of

shapes

and the distribution curves are usually

modified in practice by the use of shades

and

of the

The general appearance does not differ from that of lamp the ordinary carbon lamp. Fig. 9 shows
reflectors.

the metallized typical distribution curves of filament lamp as it is installed in practice.

Fig. 10.

Round Bulb Tantalum Lamp.

Metallic Filament

Lamps.
first

The Tan-

talum Lamp.

The

of the metallic

filament lamps to be introduced to any considerable extent comDr. Bolton of the Siemens mercially was the tantalum lamp.

&

Halske Company
metal
tantalum.
slender filaments

first

discovered the methods of obtaining the pure This metal is rendered ductile and drawn into
for

incandes-

cent lamps.

Tantalum has a high

and high melting

tensile strength

point,

and tantalum filaments are

operated at temperatures much higher than those used with the

carbon filament lamp. On account of the comparatively low

specific resistance of this material

Fig. 11.

Tantalum Filament Before and After 1,000 Hours' Use.

110-volt lamps must be long and slender, and a special form of support. Figs. 10, 11, and 12 show some interesting views of the tantalum lamp and the fila-

the filaments for

this necessitates

ment.

This lamp

is

operated

at

the

efficiency

of

watts per

ELFXTniC T.UillTINC
(aii(llr-|Mt\Vfr,
witli

15

lift-

(-iiiii|>aral)l<-

l<i

(hat of

tiit*

urditiary Iam|>.

Hy

sjH'cial

trratiiu-iit

it

is

hhiiiH'iits

so

tliat tht'V iiiav

possiMc Iw shortt-r and heavier than those used

to iiHTt-asf tin* r-sistaiicf of the

in

^
J
i

H
Knuiu' Sliowini;
Klluiiiont.

FiB. 12.

AppciiniiK-c of Kiluinent After lIuviiiK IJWMi L'sl.

Filanioiit

Ur>ki'ii

the
this

first

of

tlie

taiitahini

lamps.

It

should he noted that the

life

of

lamp on alternatin<;-eurrent eireuits is somewhat uncertain; it is mueh more satisfactory for operation on direct-<urreiit 'I'ahles III and 1\' ^ive some "general data on the tantalum circuits. lamp, an<l Ki;:s. !.'{ and 14 show typical distrihution curves for the
type of
units as installed at |)resent.

TAiu.i;

111

Data

III)

lai)t;iliirn
Ci

l.nmp
i
,

(iKNKUM- KI.KITIUC

MKTKS.

Sick or IIui.h

RrniTi.Aii

Ui>rM>

16

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
T/vBLE IV
Data on the Life
of a

25 =C. P. Unit

No. OF Hours Burned

IN TUIC I-KHITING

17

to OIK' of
tuiig-sti'ii

tiiii<jstt

II.

srcoiid iiiftlKxl

foii'sist.s

of the

list-

of

jMi\vtli-rfl

and

.somt- hiiuliiij; niatcrial, sonietiim-.s

cases metallic.
iiiatiTJal,

The

powderctl

tiiiijjsten

is

orpmit- and mixed with the

in otln-r

hindinj^

the paste stjuirtetl into fihiiiieiits, and the hindinjj material is then expelled, usually \>y the aid of heat. Another metluxl <)f manuconsist.s of securinj.; tunijsten

facturt

in colloiilal

form,

s(|uirtinf,'

it

so"

A^c'i

*0'

JO

^PO"

10'

O*

/O*

PO^

JO

riK.

U.

Dl-Htriluitioii

Curves

for Tiuituliim

I.i

nip

N".

I. -lO

Wuttji:

No

2. sii

Wniin

iiitii

lilainents,

and

(ln'ii

chan^'iii^ tlicni to the metallic

form

Ity

passinj^

electric current tlinni^'h the filaments.

The

tungsten

laiiip

lias the

highest eflicieiicy of any of the

comwatts

mercial forms of nu'tallic filament lamps so as to |M'r candh'-|)ower when oju-rated

for llO-volt service

now
ijive
l((

in um-,

ahout
life,

1.2.')

a normal

and lamps

and consiiminj; hut

.\ 2.'-watt

watts have re>enlly Im-ch

put on the market.

Im-

lamp
i>f

for this

same

volta^je ap|M'ars to
hi;;h

a |ossil)ility.

The

units intr<Hhiccd at

first

were of

candle-

power

iH-caiise of the difliculty

manufacturing the slender

lilanient."

required for the low candle-pow<-r lamps.

18

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

The advantages of these metals, tantakim and tungsten, for incandescent lamps are in the improved efficiency of the lamps and of the light, white or nearly white in both cases. the
good quality
In either case the change in candle-power with change in voltage is The less than the corresponding change in an ordinary carbon lamp. lies in the fact that the filaments must be made long and disadvantage
slender,

and hence are

fragile, for

low candle-power units

to

be used

Fig.

15.

Multiple Tiingsten

Lamp.

Fig.

6.

Series

Tungsten Lamp.

on commercial voltages.

In some cases tungsten lamps are con-

structed for lower voltages and are used on commercial circuits through the agency of small step-down transformers. Improvements in the

process of manufacture of filaments and of the method of their supcandleport have resulted in the construction of 110-volt lamps for

powers lower than was once thought possible. Figs. 15 and 16 show the appearance of the tungsten lamp, and Figs. 17 and 18 give some

rilT'I-KK

LK.IITINC;
and

10

tvpic-al
a-s it is

(listriliiitioii iir-.s.

TaMfs
(

\'

\'I

pve

daUi on this lamp

nianufaclurfil at

prt'sriit.

)ne very fonsicJeraMe applicatiuri

40'

FIk. 17.

f.

l".

Distrilnition
I'liils

IncandetK-ent

with

CurveR of 10()-Watt fien. Klecv Tungsten 11-3, r-3, and I)-3 Holophanew.

of

tlie

cuits, in
its

tungsten lamp is to incandescent street lif,'liting on series cirwhich case the himp may l>e maile for a low voltajje across

terminals and the filament

mav

l)e

made comparativelv
I

short

and

90*

BO'

70'

60'

^'^

In.

1'i.mllf riiHor DlMrlluitloii (ilviMi

SitIi-x

wllh 10

r.

(ion.

KIw.

TiinRrtcii

Uiiiipiind Kiillal

Wuvo

1{<>11><

lor.

heavy.
I'.iitiry

The

tungsten lamp

is

also Ixiiig introduced as a low v<>l(age

lamp. The .lust

tlu'

laiMji,

tin-

laiuji.

ihe

)sram lan>p, the Ziri->n-Wlfram

Osmin lamp, etc.. are all tungsten lamps, the filamenls laiMp, heing prepand lv sonjc of the gt'tieral methiMls alreatly ilescrilxd or
nKxIilicalions
<>f

iln-m.

20

ELECTRIC EIGHTING
TABLE V
Tungsten Lamps

MULTIPLE
Watts

KLEfTHir LKJIITIXG
TABLt
McltinK Point of
VII

21

Some Metals

Mir*

1.

22

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

ing process forming the filament or glower material of the lamp as represented by the lower white line in Fig. 23. The more recent

glowers are

made hollow

instead of solid.

The

glowers are cut to

the desired length

and platinum

ter-

minals attached.

The attachment
is

of these terminals to the glowers

an important process
facture
of

in the

manurecent

the lamp.

The

discovery of additional oxides has led to the construction of glowers which show a considerable gain in
efficiency over those previously used.

The

glowers are heated to incandescence in open air, a vacuum not

being required.

when

As the glower is a non-conductor cold, some form of heater is

it it

necessary to bring
perature at

up

to a

tem-

which
of of

will conduct.

Two
used.

forms

heater

have been

them consists of a tube shown just above porcelain the glower, Fig. 23, about which a
platinum wire
is is

One

fine

wound;

the

wire

in turn coated with a cement.

Two

or

more

of these tubes

are

directly over the glower, or glowers, and serve as a reflector as well as a heater. The second

mounted

form of heater consists of a slender

Fig. 20.

View of Multiple Glower Westinghouse Nernst Lamp.

Sectional

rod

of

refractory

material
is

about

which a platinum wire

wound,

a cement.

This rod

is

the wire again being covered with then formed into a spiral which surrounds the
is

glower in the vertical glower type, or

Fig. 24,

formed into the

icafer heater,

universally employed in the Westinghouse Nernst lamp with horizontal glowers. The wafer heater is bent so that it can be

now

mounted with

several sections parallel to the glower or glowers.

F.I.KrTlUr I.KiirilNr,

23

Thf
is first

lu'atiiij;

(levicf

i.s

c-unnf<tc<l ut-ross

tlit*

circuit

when

the laiiip

tunu'(| on,

and
in

it

must he cut out of

circuit after the j;hjwt'rs

become

con(luct<rs

order to save the

enerj;_v

consuraetl

l)V

the

Fig. 21.

Sectional Views of Single-iiluwer Wi-stlim'house Nenist

Lamp.
cul-out

heater ai.d to prolong the

is

life

of ihr licater.

The automatic

(jnerated hv means of an eh'ctroma;;net so arranfjcd that current

flows throujih this ma<,Miet as .soon as the j,'lower l)ecomes a conductor, ami contacts in the heater circuit

are oi)cne(I
<-ontacts
in

ly

this

ma<;nct.

The

the

heater circuit are

the kept normally closed, usually hy

fupic uf gravity.

The
increa.se.s

conduclivily of the gjoucr with the increase of (ciiimaterial has a nega-

perature
tive
if
it

the

hence temperature coedicienlwere used on a constant potencircuit

tlircctly,

tial

the

current

and
to

rise

lem|)erature until the

woiihl

contimic

glower wa.s iU(he

.stroyL'l.

T"

prevent

current

llunifT.

24

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

from increasing beyond the desired value, a ballast resistance is series with the glower. As is well known, the resistance of iron wire increases quite rapidly M^ith increase in temperature, and
used in
is

the resistance of a fine pure iron wire so adjusted that the resistance of the
circuit of the

combined
ballast

glower and the

at the desired

becomes constant

temperature of the glower. The iron wire must be protected from the air
to

prevent oxidization and too rapid

changes,

temperature
reason,
filled
it

and,

for

this

is

mounted
for
tliis

in a glass

bulb

with hydrogen.
inert gas

Hydrogen has
purpose because
xi

been selected
Fig. 23.

Westinghouse Nemst Screw Burner with Globe Removed, Showing Glower and Tubular Heater.

it is
e

an

and conducts the heat

j.

u ii ^^"^ j.u ^^^ ^^^11^^*

to

the Walls of the

ii

^i

bulb better than other gases which might be used.

ballast, are

All of the parts enumerated, namely, glower, heater, cut-out, and mounted in a suitable manner; the smaller lamps have but
to
fit

one glower and are arranged

in

an incandescent lamp socket,

while the larger types are constructed at present with four glowers

i:

r.ECTRIC LIGHTING

25

Tlu- injvantatjfs

laiiiHMl
li^'lit;

fur

tlu-

N'rn>t

lamp

an-:

Ili^'li

tfli-

ciiiicv; a jjchmI color of

iisi-

<,'o(k|

distrihiitioii of

li-;ljt

without the

of rdifitoi
series
its

a
i.f

loll-;

life

with low cost of

units,
j)ra(-

iiiaiiitciiaiicf;

ami a

eoiiij)li'te

sizes

of
to

thus aliowiui;

a(la[ttioii

tically all classes of illumination.

The

lamj)

is

constructi'il

for

Ixith tlirect-

and

alternatin;,'-curniit

service anil for 110

and 220

volts,

^^hcn the alternatinjj-currcnt lamp is used on a 110-volt circuit a small

transformer,

commonly

called

converter coil, Fig. 2o, is utilizi-d to raise the volta<,'e at the lamp ter-

Fig. J5.

CoiivertCT Coil.

minals to ahout 220

volts.

Data on the Xernst lamp in its present form are piven in Table ^I1I, and Fif;s. 2() and 27 show the form of dislrihution curves.

TABLn Mil
General Data on the Nernst
Lauil.s

lamp

K .ITINO Wattb

26

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

given, approximately 3.1, 2.5, 2, L25, and L2 watts per candle respecThe figure of L2 watts per candle for the Nernst lamp is tively.

based upon the mean hemispherical candle-power and it should not be compared directly with the other efficiencies. The color of the light in all of the above cases is suitable for the majority of classes of
illumination, the light from the higher efficiency units being somewhat whiter than that from the carbon lamp. All of these lamps are
current.

constructed for commercial voltages and for either direct or alternating The use of the tantalum lamp on alternating current is not

60'
Pig. 26.

75'

SO'

75

60'

Distribution Curve of 132- Watt Type Westinghouse Nernst Single Glower.

Lamp.

cases.

always to be recommended as the service is unsatisfactory in some The minimum size of units for 110 volts is about 4 candle-

for the carbon lamp, 20 candle-power for the metallic filament lamp, and 50 candle-power (mean hemispherical) for the Nernst lamp. Some of the metallic filament lamps are constructed for a consumption of as high as 250 watts, while the largest size of the

power

Nernst lamp uses 528 watts.

units
is

The
is

light distribution of

any of the

subject to considerable variation

flectors,

but the Nernst lamp

through the agency of reordinarily installed without a reflec-

i:t.I"(

I'l:!*'

iK.iiriN^;

_:

tor.

Tnu

ti(

allv all of tin- ullur miit-t

(f

lii^li

caiulli'-jxjwiT use-

n-

Jlrctors aii<l oiilv a ft-w of tlu- typical

curves of

li^lit ilistrilMilioii <Mirv-.s

with reflectors have

of the lamps.
consiilere*!
')(H)

Int'ii
life

shown
all

in
tin-

connection with the

coniinercial
life

ile.scri|>tion

The

of

of

a.s

.satisfactory.

The

mitiimitm

lamps i|escrilH*l is is seldom less than

and
I

hours and the

iis<'ful lif' is f,'enerally

iHtween

.'(M)

.(KKI

hours.

On

account of the slemlcr tilanunt.s einploynl

in the metallic

filament

60*
FIk'.

7p

9p

7p

60'
.'!,

-7.

I>isirii>iitii)n

8' (.'lear

of LiKht fnuu Multiple-Glower West In kIiou.sc Nornst I.anip!i lih 4 Glower. No. 1, 2 Glower: N'o. J, :5 Glower: No. Globes.

lamj)s thev are not

made

for

low canille-j>owcrs

at

commercial

vol-

introduction of transformers for the purpose of chaiij^in^ ta;,'-s. the circuit voltafjc to one suitaMe for low candU'-power units has not

The

hecome

at all general as yet in this country.

SPIXIAL LAMPS
The
country
is

.Mcrcur_\
|iiit

\apor
llic

I.

amp.

Tlic

nnrcuiy va|>or lamp

in

this

and

it

is lieiuf^'

the Cooper-Ilewitt l-'.lcctric Company Ity used to a considcralile extent for industrial illumination.

on

market

In this

lamp mercury vapor, rendered

il. is

of an electric curn-iit lhrouj,'h

the soun-e of light.

iiicande.Mcnt hy the pas-sapIn its stiindani

form
l>een

consists of a long glass iul>c from which the air ha.s exhausted, and which contains a sniall ain>unt of carefully The mercury is held in u large lull> at one end of inelidlic UKTcury.
lhi>.

lamp

28

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

The

and forms the negative electrode in the direct-current lamp. is formed by an iron cup and the connections between the lamp terminals and the electrodes are of platinum where
the tube

other electrode

this connection passes through the glass. Fig. 28 gives the general appearance of a standard lamp having the following specifications: Total watts (110 volts, 3. .5 amperes) = 385

Candle-power (M. H. with Watts per candle = 0.55

reflector)

= 700

Length of tube,

total

= 55

in.

Length of light-giving section Diameter of tube = 1 in.

45

in.

Height from lowest point of lamp to ceiling plate = 22 in. For 220-volt service two lamps are connected in series.

The
First, the

mercui-y vapor, at the start, may be formed in two ways: lamp may be tipped so that a stream of mercury makes

contact between
trodes

the
is

two

elec-

and mercury

vaporized

when the stream breaks. Second, by means of a high inductance and a quick break switch^ a very
i\igh voltage sufficient to
Fig. 28.

pass a current from one electrode to the

j.i

Cooper-Hewitt Mercury Vapor

Lamp
is

other through the vacuum, is mduced and the conducting vapor

i

ii

xi

'

formed.

The

tilting

method

of starting

is

preferred

and

this

tilting is

lamp
lamps
as

brought about automatically in the more recent types of for automatically starting two Fig. 29 shows the connections

in series.

A steadying

resistance

and reactance are connected

shown

in this figure.
is

constructed in rather large units, The the 55-volt, 3.5-ampere lamp being the smallest standard size. is objectionable for some purposes as there color of the light emitted
is

The mercury vapor lamp

an

entire absence of red rays

and

the light

is

practically monochro-

illumination from this type of lamp is excellent where contrast or minute detail is to be brought out, and this fact sharp has led to its introduction for such classes of lighting as silk mills and
matic.

The

cotton mills.'

On

account of

its

limited to the lighting of shops_, offices,

color the application of this lamp is and drafting rooms, or to dis-

LIBFniY KNl-IGHTKNINC. TMK WORI

.f I!

ELFXTRIC T.ICIITINC
wlit-re play windows 1)V tlii" color of
tlu* j;<km1s tin- li^jlit.

29

shown
It

will not
t

U-

clian^if*! in a|i|M'arc-xtt-nt in

anrc

is ust'l

a ronsidiTaMc

work on ut-connt of tlu- artinir proix-rlirs of llir li^'lit. pliotoj^rapliif SiK-iial reactanir-s must Ik* providt-tl for a nu-rc-ury arc laujp opiTdting
on
circuits. sin^'K--pliasr, aiti'rnatiii^'-ciirrcnt

The Moore Tube

Lijjht.

The Moore

familiar (Icissler tul>c ilischarije

vacuum

tulx"

as a source

iijiht
(f

makes use

of the

discharjje

electricity

through a

of illumination.

The

jiractical application

of this dischar'^e to a system of lighting has involverl a larjje

amount

FIk. 29.

wiring DIuctuih.

Two

11

AuUmiutii-

Laiii|f> l" S<'ri'!*.

of consistent research on the part of the inventor and it has now heen that several installations have lM>tn made. lroUf,'ht to such a staj,'e

The svstem
dianutiT
is

has

manv

interestiii'' features.
^'lass

In the normal methotl of installation, a

nuidi-

tuhe

inches in

up hy

connectiii},'

standard lengths of
is

^las-s tuhinjj

lop-ther until the total desired lenj^th tniM-, which forms the .source of lij,'ht

reachel,
in

and

this

continuous

o|Kration, is mounte<i In in the desired j)osition with rcs|)ect to the jilane of illumination. manv ca-scs the tuhe forms a lar^'e rcctan^jle mounted ju>t U-nealh
the ceilinjj of the rooni to
id>h- len^'lh. acdijil
Im- li^dited.
'I'll*'

when

tidx*

may

Ik'

of

any

reasin-

values running' from 10 to

"J'JO feel.

In onler to

30

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

provide an electrical discharge through this tube it is customary to lead both ends of the tube to the high tension terminals of a transformer, the low tension side of which may be connected to the alternating-current lighting mains. This transformer is constructed so that the high tension terminals are not exposed and the current is
led into the tube
electrodes.

by means

of platinum wires attached to carbon

electrodes are about eight inches in length. The ends of the tube and the high tension terminals are enclosed in a steel

The

casing so as to effectually prevent anything from coming in contact with the high potential of the system. As stated, the low tension side

of the trans-

former nected
Tube dtatributed in
ccny

is

conthe

to

usual

60-cycle
mains.

form clcsiT0c^ to lertyhts ofsoo/eet

lighting

If direct current
is

used for distribution, a motor-

generator set for furnishing alternating current to the primary of

the transformer
is

required.

Any
is

frequency from 60 cycles up

suitable for the operation of these tubes. At lower frequencies there

Fig.
30. Diagram Showing Essential Features of the IMoore Light. 1 Ligliting Tube; 2. Transformer Case; 3. Lamp Terminals; 4. Transformer; 5, 6, 7, 8, Regulators.
.

is

some appreciable variation

of

One other dethe light emitted. vice is necessary for the suitable

operation of this form of light and In order to maintain a constant presas the regulator. sure inside the tube, and such a constant pressure is necessary for its satisfactory operation, there must be some automatic device which
this
is

known

will
it is

allow a small amount of gas to enter the tube at intervals while

in operation. The regulator accomplishes this purpose. Fig. 30 shows a diagram of the very simple connections of the system and

gives the relative positions occupied

lator.

Fig. 31 gives
its

of

which and

by the transformer, tube, and reguan enlarged view of the regulator, a description method of operation is given as follows:
and its bottom end main lighting tube.

is

piece of |-inch glass tubing is supported vertically contracted into a f-inch glass tube which extends to the

Ill

i:<

ruu iJianiNO

-^1

At the {Hiitit of contraction ut tht- huttoin of tin- {-inch tube tlu-rv U M-aliil by means of ccnu-nt a J -inch crliun j>hij;, tin* |K>rc>fiity of which in nol nn-iii enuugli to allow mercury to jiercolalc throuf;h it Lul which will (NTniit gmnsa ea-sily to pasD, due to the hi);h vacuunt of the lif^hting tube connected to the lower end of tin{)liii:, and approximately atmospheric jjressure ubnve it. This carbon I'luK normally completely covered with what wouM correspond to
i-s

a thimbleful of mercury which 8imi)ly seals the pores of the carbon \>\ug, and therefore haa

nothing whatever to do with the conducting pri)j)erties of the gas in the main tube which Partly immers<'d in the pri)duces the light. mercury and concentric with the carbon plug, is another smaller and movable glas.s tube, the upi>er end of which is filled w ith soft iron wire, which acts as the core of a small solenoid connected in series with the transformer. The
action of the solenoid
is

to

lift

the concentric

glass tube partly out of the mercury, the surface of which falls and thereby causes the

minute

tip of the conical

shaped carbon plug

.suflicii-iit

to be slightly exposed for a second or two.

This expo-sure

is

to

allow

n .small amount of gas to i-ntiT the tube, the current fleereases .slif^htly, and the

earhon

pluj^ is attain sealed.

The

process

above de.serihed takes

of about one minute
ojM-ration.

j)laee at

intervals
is

when

the tube

in

The

eolor of the

lij^ht eniitteil

by the

tube dej)ends Uj)on the pas u.sed in it. The re^ilator is fitted with .some chtnii<al
is

arrangement whereby the proj)er gas

it

adinittrd to

when
is

the lube

is

in oj)era-

tion.

Nitrof^en

employi-d when

(he

(iilu-

gives the highest ellieieney

and the

light
KiVuI.ttliiK Vnlx-o.

emitted
in color.

when

this gas is u.sed is yellowish Air gives a pink appearance (o

the tuU-

and carbon

Tabli'

dio.xiile is employed when a white light is desirttl. IX gives gem-ral data nii tin- MMre tuU' light. The
(xilor,

advatitagcs cljiimcd for this light arc: High ellicient-y, gmxl

and

low intrinsic brilliancy.

32

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
TABLE
IX

Data on the Moore Tube Light

Length of Tube

i:ij:(

TKic LK.nTixr.

33

Hire tla- turri'iit is a.ssuined u.s pus-sing from tlit- tp mrlxm to \\f (iiid, in the thf bottom oiu* as iiulicati-d by the arrow ami sigius. direct-iurniit arc, tliat the most of (Ik- li},'ht issues from the tip of the

and this portion is known as the cralrr positive carl)on, or electnxle. This erater lias a temperature of from .'i,(KJ(J to3,o()() C'., of the are.

ho%

the temperature at whieh tlie carbon vaporizes, and gives fully S() to The negative carlnin In-comes of the light furnished by the arc.

one is hollowed out to form pointed at the same time thai the positive the crater, and it is also incandescent but not to as great a degn-e as
the positive carl)on.
light, the arc proper,
is

Hctwci-n the electrodes there

r^^^
|

and this surrounded bv a luminous

is

band of
-

violet
r-i

rrr

The
nish

zone of a golden yellow cohjr. arc proper does not fur-

200

more than

5%

of the light
carl)on

30O

emitted

when

pure
arc

electrodes are used.

The carbons
away
or

worn
the
"^

consumed
of

l)y

passage
positive

the

current,

the

carbon

being

con-

y\

<ina

sumed about

twice as rapidly

as the negative.

The light distribution curve of a dlrtvt-CUrrnit arc,

taken
in

^lK 33.

Distribution Curve f..r D. Ijunu' (Vertical lliiiio)

.\rr

vertical

plane,
it is

is

shown

in Kig. 33.

Here

seen that the

maximum amount

of light

the vertical, is given olT at an angle of about alP from carbon .shutting oil' ilie rays of light ihai :irc thrown directly liownward from (he latir. current is usel, the upper carbon U'comcs positive If
(

the negative

alternating

and

n<-galive alternately,

and there
rate.

is

<haine

for a cniter to

U*

forme.l. l)oth carbons giving olV the

same amount

of light

aii.l

consumed
an

at

about the same

The

light distril)Ution

Ining curve of

nltrnuitiiiff-riirrrnt nrr is

slu)wn in

l"'ig.

31.

Arc-Lamp Mechanisms,

in a praclital

lamp we must have not

the arc. Iut also nieans for su|>only a |)air of carbons for producing suitable arrangements for leading these carl)ons, together with |M)rting

34
the current to
apart.

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
them and for maintaining them at the proper distance carbons are kept separated the proper distance by the
into contact, to start
to

The

operating mechanisms which must perform the following functions:

the arc

The carbons must be in contact, or be brought when the current first flows. 2. They must be separated at the right distance
1.

form a proper arc

immediately afterward.

Fig. 34.

Distribution Curve for A. C. Arc

Lamp

(Vertical Plane).

The carbons must be fed to the arc as they are consumed. The circuit should be open or closed when the carbons are consumed, depending on the method of power distribution.
3.
4.

entirely

The feeding of the carbons may be done by hand, as is the case some stereopticons using an arc, but for ordinary illumination the It is made striking and maintaining of the arc must be automatic.
in

so in

all

cases

or against springs.

by means of solenoids acting against the force of gravity There are an endless number of such mechanisms,

ELl-XTUU: Ll(.illlN(j
liiit

35

a ftw only will

cla.s.ses:

\n-

ilfscrilKtJ jierr.

'riity

may

Ix,-

roughly divided

into throt'
1.

Sliiiiit

riiochani8inH.

2.
3.

Si-rics mi'diaiiisiii.t.

DifTerential

iiiL'chuiii.sni8.

Shunt

Mrrli(nii.iin,H.
is

bt'forr tlu' curn-nt

In shunt lamps, the oarlMias an- h.ld apart turned on, and tlw cirfiiit is closed through a

solenoid conneitt'd in across the

-V

gap so formed. All (jf the current must pass through this coil at first, and the plunger of the
is arranged to draw the carhons together, thus starting

^AyWwUvWWW

solenoid

the arc.

The

j)ull

of the solenoid

and

that of th

springs are adits

justed U)

maintain the arc at

proper length.

Such lamps have the disadvantage of a high resistance at

the start

laO

ohms

or

more

and are

difhcult to start on series

circuits, ilue to the

re(|uire<l.

They

high voltage tend to maintain

a constant voltage at the arc, hut

do not aid the <lynamo

in

it:j

regulation, so that the arcs are

liahle to Im- a little unsteady.

Serici

Mtch(nil.sm.s.

With

FIk. 35.

SorUlM Mvhaiiljn for

D C

An-

the

.series-lamp

mechanisin, the
is first

I^iiiip.

carbons are together when the himp

started aiu' the current,

flowing in the series coil, sej)arati's th' electrodes, striking the arc. When the arc is too long, the resistance is increased and the <urrent
Inweretl so that the pull of the solenoiil is weakened and the carlH)ns This type of lamp can Ih" nsetl only on constantfeed together.
potetitial systems.
I'ig. 3')

diagnim
factured

is

.shows a diagram of the conni-ction of such a lamp. This illustrative of tin- eoiuiecliun of one of the lamps maiuithe

l>y

Western KIcctric ('<mpany,

for use

on a

dirvct-currerit,

36

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

The symbols + and refer to the termiconstant-potential system. of the lamp, and the lamp must be so connected that the current nals
flows from the top carbon to the adjustable for different voltages

R is a series resistance, F and D B and are the controlling solenoids connected in series with the arc. C are the positive and negative carbons respectively, while A is the
bottom one.

by means

of the shunt G.

switch for turning the current on and off. // is the plunger of the solenoids and / the carbon clutch,
this

being what

is

carbon-feed lamp. are together when

known as a The carbons

is first

closed,

KJ

the

current
is

is

excessive,

and the

plunger

drawn up

into the so-

lenoids, lifting the

carbon

until

the resistance of the arc lowers the

current to such a value that the

pull of the solenoid just counter-

balances the weight of the plunger

and carbon.

G must be so adjusted

that this point is reached when the arc is at its normal length.

Mechanisms. In Differential the differential lamp, the series and shunt mechanisms are combined,
start,
Fig. 36.

the carbons being together at the and the series coil arranged

Differential
1).

Mechanism

for

C.

Arc Lamp.

so as to separate

them while

the

shunt

coil is

connected across the

arc, as before, to prevent the carbons from being drawn too far apart. This lamp operates only over a low-current range, but it tends to aid

the generator in
Fig. 36

its

regulation.

shows a lamp having a differential control, this also being the diagram of a Western Electric Company arc lamp for a direct-

Here S represents the shunt coil current, constant-potential system. and the series coil, the armature of the two magnets and A'

A being attached to a bell-crank, pivoted at B, and attached to the carbon clutch C. The pull of coil S tends to lower the carbon while that of

M raises the carbon, and the two are so adjusted that equilibrium

is

ELECTRii ij(;irnN(;
n'aclinl wlu-n
lit(f<l
tlit-

arc

is

with an air

tla.sli|)ut,

of the All tf the projxT li-n^'tli. lamps are or some datiiping di'vice, to prevent too
j)art.s.

rapitl nioveiiK'iits of the workiiij;

the

The rnetiuMJ.s of supporting,' tin- carl)oijs and arc mav he divided into two classeij:
1.

feeding them to

Roil-fcotl mocliatiiRtn.

Curboii-fecil

tnuclmnUm.

Rod-Feed Mech a n ism.

Lamps
the

usin<; a rtxl
carl)oiis

feed have
supj)orte<l

upper hy a eonductinfj
re<,'ulating

rixl,

and the
acts on

mechanism

this rotl, the

t(t

current bein<j fed

the rod

contact.

by means of a slidinj; Fig. 37 shows the arthis type of feed.

is

rangement of

The

rod

shown

at R, the

sliding contact at R,

and the

carbon
at C.

is

attached to the rod

These lamps have the advantage that carbons, which tlo not luivc a uniform crosssection or

smooth

exterior,

may

be used, but they possess the

disadvantage of being very long in order to accommodate
till-

rod.

The

hmI imist
to

als)

be
a
Fli;. :^7.

k<

|)f

clean so as

make

Koil-Fco.1

MivhaiiUwi.

good contact with the brush. Cnrlioti-Fccd Merliani.'nii.

In carlM)n-feed lam|)s

tin*

contntlling

me<'hanism acts on the carbons diredly through some fortn of eluleh such as is shown at (' in Fig. .'{S. This damp grips the carlMni when
it

is lifted,

but allows the carbon to slip through

I*'or

it

when

(he tensitm

type of feed llu- carlton nuist U- stniight have a uniform eross-scrtion as well as a smcM>th ext'rior.
is

relea.sed.

this

and

The

curn-nt
.short

mav

be h d

lo the

carbun bv means of a

ilexible leal anl n

carbon holder.

38

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
TYPES OF ARC LAMPS
8

Arc lamps are constructed to operate on direct-current or alternating-current systems when connected in series or in multiple. They are also made in both the open and the enclosed forms.

By an open

arc

is

meant an arc lamp

in

which the arc

is

exposed

to the atmosphere, while in the enclosed arc

an inner or enclosing

Fig.

:iS.

Enclosed Arc

Lamp

with CiirbonFeed Mechanism.

globe surrounds the arc, and this globe is covered with a cap which renders it nearly air-tight. Fig. 38 is a good example of an enclosed arc as manufactured l)y the General Electric Company.

Open Types of Arcs for direct-current were the first to be used to any great extent. Wlien used systems thev are always connected in series, and are run from some form of
Direct=Current Arcs.

KLKCTRIC LIGHTING
sjx'cial

39
found

arc niiichiiu', a tli-scription of which ma}'

l>c

iti

*'Tvpe3

of l)viianio Elfftric

MachiiuTV."
in the

nei<,'hl)orh(>o<l of 50 volts for its operancjiiirt's ami, since the lamps are connected in series, the voltajje of tlje svstein will depend on the nuniher of lamps; therefore, the numlnrr

Kach himp

tion,

of lam|)s that

may l>e etjnnected to one machine is limite<l hv the maximum allowahle volta^jc on that machine. Hy sjxH-ial construction
many
as
12'>
is

as

lamps are run from one machine, hut even

tiiis

si/e

not so eflicient as one of i;reater capacity. Such j^nerators are usually wound for ().() or 0.() amperes. Since the carlHjns
of [generator

are exposed to the air at the arc, they are rapidly consumed, rajuiring that they Ik> renewed daily for this type of lamp.
Duiibh'-carboii
arcs.

In order to increase the

life

of the early

form of arc lamp without usinfj; too long a carbon, the douhle-carbtjn This type uses two sets of carhons, Ixjth si-ts ty[>e was introduced.
licing fed l)y

trodes
all

one mechanism so arranged that when one pair of the elecconsumed the other is put into service. At present nearly forms of the open arc lamp have disappeared on account of the
is

better service rendered

by the enclosed

arc.

Enclosed arcs for series systems are constructed much the same as the open lamp, and are controlled l)y either shunt or dilferential

They require a voltage from OS to 7') at the arc, and are constructed for from o to (i.S amj)eres. They also rerpiire a usually constant-<urrent generator or a rectider outfit if used on alternatingcurrent circuits.
Coti.ffanl-potcniial arcs
series with

mechanism.

must have some resistance connecttni

in

them
is

to

This resistance

keep the voltage at the arc at its pro[>er value. made adjustable so that the lamj)S may be used on

any

circuit.

Its lo<-ation is clearly

shown

in Fig. 3K,

one

coil

U-ing

{(Mated alK)Ve, the other below the operating solenoids. Alternating-Current Arcs. These do not dilfer greatly in eonstriKliiiii
fniiii

(hr din(t-<urrent arcs.

When

iron or other ujetal

parts are used in the controlling mechanism, they must Ik> laminated or so constnu'ted jis to keej) down induced or e<ldy eurnnts which For this reason the metal s|mhIs, on which might lie s't up in them.
the solenoids are

wound, are

slotted a(

some

point to prevc-nt

them

from funning n
oid winding.

closel .se<'onilary to the

On

primary forme| by the solenconstant-|)otenlial circuits a n-active coil is used

40

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
down
the

in place of a part of the resistance for cutting

arc.

voUage

at the

Interchangeable Arc. Interchangeable arcs are manufactured which may be readily adjusted so as to operate on either direct or alternating current, and on voltages from 110 to 220. Two lamps may be run in series on 220-volt circuits.

The
different

distribution of light,

and

the resulting illumination for the

lamps just considered, will be taken up later. Aside from the distribution and quality of light, the enclosed arc has the advantage that the carbons are not

consumed so rapidly as

in the

open lamp

because the oxygen is soon exhausted from the inner globe and the combustion of the carbon is greatly decreased. They will burn

from 80

to

100 hours without retrimming.

TABLE X
Rating of Enclosed Arcs

ELECTRIC LKillTING

41

Full Arcs, 2.(XX) cniHlle-jKiwer taking 9 5 to 10 uinjxi. or 450- ISO watt*. Half Area, 1,200 caiulle-power taking Co to 7 ainiM. or 325-350 watu.

These

fanIK--[K)\vor ratings arc iiukIi Um}

lii^li,

atul

run more

point of inaxiiiuiin intensitv ami Ifss than this if tht> mean sphrrical candlf-powt-r Ik* taken. For tliis reason, the ampere or watt rating is now use] to indicate the
iR-arly 1,2U()
7lM, resjK'ftivfly, f<r tlic

ami

fM)Wcr

c)f

the hinip.

It

is

now

rc<(nnmen(Je(l that sfM'cifications

f()r

street lighting should he hased upon the illumination pnxluced. This point is considered later under the toj)ic of street lighting. Enclosed

arcs use from 3 to 6.o amperes, hut the voltage at the arc is higher than for the open lanij). Tahle X gives some data on enclosed arcs

on coastant-potential
Efficiency.

circuits.

The

efliciency o* arc

lamps

is

given as follows:

Direct-Current Arc (enclosed) 2.9 watts per candle-power. .Mternating-Current .\rc (enclosed) 2.95 watts fier candle-power.
Direct-f'urrent .Arc fojwn) .G-1.25 watts
jx-'r

candle-power.

Carbons for
from a
j)roluct

.Arc

Lamps.

Carbons are

either

moulded or forced

as petroleum coke or from similar materials such as lampblack. The material is thoroughly dried by heating to a high temj)erature, then ground to a find powder, and combined with some substance such as pitch which binds the fine particles of carbon
together.

known

After this mi.xture

is

The

j)owiler put of a paste, when the necessary pressure is a|)plied to the moulds. Kor the forced carbons, the powder is formed into c-yliiiders which nrv

in steel

is again ground it is ready for moulding. moulds and heated until it takes the form

as to give the desire*! diameter.

placed in machines which force the material through a die .so arrange*! 'I'iie force*! carl)ons are *)fti'n made
with a core of .some special
niat*'rial, this

core b*-ing added after the

carbon proper has been

or forced, niu>t
I'he
force*!
Im-

(inl^lnij.

Tlic carbons, whetln-r tnouldetl

to drive olF all
in

can-fully
is

baked

volatile matter.
;iiid
*"n>s.s-

carbon
is tin-

always more uniform

i|uali(v

.se<'tion,
f*'e<|

and

lamp.

ty|M> of carlxxi which nuist Ik* us*'*! in the *'arlHmTh*- a<l*ling of a *i)re of a lin'*'r*-nt mat*>rial seems t*'

ehang*' the
the are

|UJility

of light,

and being more

is

reatlily volulilizcxl, keepv;

from wandering.
of arb*)ns with
*'*>p|MT

I'laling
ni*>uld*-*l

.sometimes

n'.sort*"*!

t*>

for

forms for (he

purjMts*- of in*rea.sing llu- *-on*lu(ivi(v, un*l,

tlu- life.

by protecting the carb*>n near the are. prol*>nging

42

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

The Flaming Arc. In the carbon are the arc proper gives out but a small percentage of the total amount of light emitted. In order to obtain a light in which more of the source of luminosity is in the
arc
itself,

experiments have been

salts,

made with

the use of electrodes im-

pregnated with certain different than carbon.

as well as with electrodes of a material

result of these experiments has

The

been

to

market the flaming arc lamps and the luminous arc place upon of high candle-power, good efficiency, and giving varilamps lamps ous colors of light. These lamps may be put in two classes One class

the

uses carbon electrodes, these electrodes being impregnated with certain salts which add luminosity to the
arc, or else fitted with cores

which

contain

the

required

material;

the other class

lamps which do not employ carbon, the most notable example being the
covering
PorceZairt
Afeial

magnetite arc which uses a copper segment as one electrode and a magnetite
stick

as

the

other

Economize f

electrode.

Fig. 39.

Diagram

of

Bremer Fiaming Arc.

are

Flaming arcs of the first class made in two general types:

in

One

which the electrodes are

placed at an angle, and the other in which the carbons are placed one above the other as in the ordinary arc lamp. The term lumi-

nous arc is usually applied to arcs of the flaming t}^e in which the electrodes are placed one above the other. The minor modifications as introduced by the various manufacturers are numerous and include
such features as a magazine supply of electrodes by which a new pair may be automatically introduced when one pair is consumed; feed
etc. The flaming arc presents a special since the vapors given off by the lamp may condense on the problem glassware and form a partially opaque coating, or they may interfere with the control mechanism.

and control mechanisms;

Bremer Arc. The Bremer flaming arc lamp was introduced commercially in 1899, and since some of its principles are incorporated in many of the lamps on the market to-day, it will be briefly described
here.

The diagram shown

in Fig.

39

illustrates the

main

features of

Kl.lXTUK LKillTING
this laiii|).
I'lii'

13

fU'ftrtxN's an- iuoiiiitf<| at

an angle and an

fltftrt>-

nuignt't

is

plac*'*!

creeping up

alnivf the are for the pnr|)4is4> of keeping the arc from anil injuring the economizer, an<l also for the pur|M*se of

spreading the are out and increasing its surface. The vajxir from the arc is condensed on the economizer and this coating acts as a reflector,

throwing the

light

limit the air sup|)lied to the arc

downward. The economizer senes to and thus increases the life of the elecwas suggested hv the

tHMles.

The

inclined jjosition of the carhons

impregnated carbons a slag was formed which gave trouble when the electrodes were mounted in the usual maimer. By
fart that in the

using

the

electrotles

in

this position there is little

any obstruction to the dilight which passes

if

rectly

downward

from

\
o'
/o'

the arc.

Bremer's original electrodes contained

compounds
strontium,
etc.,

of

calcium,

magnesium,
as boracic

so'
j(

as

well

acid.

Electro<les as
in
tile

em-

ployed

various

lamps
Some
teri.ils,

to-day
u.se

ditfer
FIr. 40.

eo'~9o*' BO'
Dlstrll)iitlr)ii

greatly in their

make-u|).

Ciirvi-sof a I.iimlnous Arc.

impregnated
witii

carbons, others use carbons

a core containing the flaming

in

maof

and metallic wires arc aihlrd

some

ca.ses.

The

life

electnxles for flaming lamps is not great, (lej)ending ujioii their length and somewhat upon the ty|tc of lam|). The maximum life t)f the
treateil

carbons

is

in the

neigliborhood of

l2l)

hours.
is

The
cium

<'o|or of the light

from

th'

flaming an-

yellow

when

cal-

salts

are used as the main impregnating compound, and the

njajority of (he lamj)s installed us(> electrtnles giving a yellow light. more strontium, a wA or pink light is pnMluceil, while By

employing
eflicieiit

if

:i

white light

is

wanted, bariunt

salts are iiscd.

most

service

and strontium onH's In'tween

l-'ig.

Calcium gives the this and Itarium.

The

distrilmtion curves in

Id illustrate the relative e<.n)nuiuivs

44

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
Modern
it is

of the different materials.

electrodes contain not

more than

15%

of

added material and

customary

to find the salts applied

as a core to the pure carbon sticks. The electrodes are made of a small diameter in order to maintain a steady light and this partially accounts for their short life.

The
anisms.

feeding mechanisms employed differ greatly.

41
illustrates

They may be
This
in
is

classified as: Clock, gravity-feed, clutch,

motor, and hot-wire mecha dif-

Fig.

a clock mechanism.
ferential

mechanism

which the

sluint coils act to release a detent

which allows the electrodes down and when they come

tact

to feed

in con-

the series coils separate them to the proper extent for maintaining

a suitable arc.

In the gravity feed

an electromagnet is used to operate one carbon in springing the arc and

the other carbon
it

is

fed

by

gravity,

being prevented from dropping too far by means of a special rib

formed on the electrode which comes

in contact with a part of the

structure.

Gravity feed

ployed in the here the carbons are held in one

position by an electrically operated clutch which releases them only when
the current
is

lamp emclutch mechanism but

is

also

Fig. 41.

Clock Feeding Mechanism Luminous Arc Lamp.

for

sufficiently

the lengthening of the arc.

reduced by In the

hot-wire lamp, the wire

tion

is

usually in series with the arc; the contrac-

and expansion of this wire is balanced against a spring and the arc is regulated by such contraction or expansion of the wire. Such a lamp is suitable for either direct or alternating current. In the motor mechanism, as applied to alternating-current lamps, a metallic disk is actuated by differential magnets and its motion is transmitted
to the electrodes to

lengthen or shorten the arc accordingly as the

force exerted

by the series or shunt coils predominates. Magnetite Arc. The magnetite arc employs a copper disk as

'^

V.HH

m 3 O X
I/)
I

ee

< X U
0.

(is

o
< J
in
.
.

z " "-

a i

-3

< ^
c

is Ou
>
::

_3 >J zz ee o Ku
""
tid

,::

>-

K U
Id

a z <

KLKC rUK
one elcctnKlf, and a
t

LKiirriNO

45

inaffru'titr stick

fornittl
is

by forcing

ma^jiietitc,

whicli titanium salLs are usually

a<ltlc<l,

into a thin sheet steel tub*'

j:^vi-s

is

used as

tin-

other eleetrtMh-.

This lamp

a luminous are of

not corLsumitl as rapidly the treate*! carlions with the result that magnetite latn[>s do not as Tin- life of the magnetite electro<Jc require trimming as frc<jurntly. A diagram of as at present manufactured is from 170 to L'(M) lujurs. the connections of this lamp as manufactured hy the General Klectric
ij(Kxl

eUifieticv anil the magnetite electrode

Starling /

'

Magnet

tV

^^^
Pig. 42.
ItlaKrniii f C^mnertloiiK for

Magiietlto Arc I.nip

Tornpanv

The magnetite electnnle is phuvd U'has just the prop<T dimensions to prevent low. The coppiT electrode its luing destroy<l hy the arc and yet i( is not large enougli to cau.se Direct curn-nt must U> u.sjti undue conden.sation of the arc
is

shown

in Fig. 42.

vajxir.

with this lamp, the current |)a.ssing from the copper to the magnetite. Tahle XI gives some general data on (lu- (laming arc, while Figs.

Tin- alvaintages of the 14 give typieal dislrihulion (ur\es. arc over lamps tising pure earhon ileclriKles an-: Miglj eflillaming heller color of lighl for some eiency; Utter light distril)Ution; and
I.',

and

46

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

purposes, unit than

A
is

greater

amount

of light

can be obtained from a single

practical with the carbon arc.

The

disadvantages

lie

in the frequent trimming required and the expense of electrodes. Flaming arcs have been introduced abroad, especially in Germany,
to a

much

greater extent than in the United States.

TABLE

XI

General Data on Flaming Arcs

Volts

ELF.rTRIC LIGHTINn
any iuhiiIht of fircuits can Ik- run from om? machine or ami apparatus can Ik* l)uilt for any voltage aiul cjf any
customary, however,
to build transformers of this tyjx* set of
size.

bus bars,
It Is

not

having a capac-

43

60'
Fig. 43.

75'

90'

75'

ec

Distribution Curve for FlaniiiiKArc

Lamp.

greater than one hundred (l.Ci-anipere lamps tx'cause of the high voltage which would have to be induced in the secondary for a larger number of lamps.
ity

Fig. 4') gives a dia-

gram
of a

of the

connection
traas-

Luminous Arc Lamp

Direct current series circuit. LiQht ["tstrihuttcn \ \

singleH'oil
in

fonner

service.

The
tran.s-

constant-<'urrent

o' 10*
so'

former most

in

u.sc

for

lighting purposes is the one tnanufactured by the

(leiieral

20'
30'

Flictric

Com40'
I''ir.

pany and commonly known as a tub traii.sfiirmrr.

I''ig.

50' 60'
DlHtrii'MM

50'
:rM
.

^O'

4'l.

.1

4-

Aiiiivnv

T.'V-Nolt. .Muk'ii*-lil<< l.uMiliioiiN .\n- l.aiii|>

Mi

shows such
cas**.

a transformer (tlouble-<-iil

ty|>')

when

rtinovrd

frniii

(he

Referring to Fig.
are comiecteil
acro.s.s

Hi,

the fixed coils

.1

form the primaries which

coils li are the .secondaries

the line; the

movable

48

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
There is a repulsion of the coils B by the the current flows in both circuits and this force is bal-

connected to the lamps.

coils

A when

anced by means of the weights at W, so that the coils B take a position On light such that the normal current will flow in the secondary. loads, a low voltage is sufficient, hence the secondary coils are close

SECONDARY x-xxXXX LAMPS

LIGHTNING ARRESTER

together near the middle of the machine and there is a

(^
ARC AMMETER

heavy \Mien

magnetic
all

leakage.

of the

lamps are

CURRENT TRANSFORMER
OMIT FOR

on, the coils take the position shown when the leak-

25 LIGHTS

age
first

is

voltage a

minimum and the maximum. When

^ OPEN CIRCUTING PLUG SWITCHES

SHORT CIRCUITING
PLUG SWITCH

starting up, the trans-

former is short-circuited and

the secondary coils brought The short

close together.

CONSTANT CURRENT TRANSFORMER

circuit is

then removed and

take

the

coils

a position

corresponding to the load

RESISTANCE
FUSE

on the

line.

These transformers regulate from full load to J rated

load within ^V ampere of

POTENTIAL

TRANSFORMER CFUSE

normal current, and can be run on short circuit for

CPRIMARY PLUG SWITCH several hours without over-

BACK VIEW
Fig. 45.

PRIMARY

heating.
Diagram
for Single-Coil

The

efficiency

is

AViring

Transformer.

given as 9G% for 100-light transformers and 94.6% for

load.

The power

load, and,
full

the effect of leakage being the same as the effect of an inductance in the primary the power factor is greatly reduced, falling

load

owing

50-light transformers at full factor of the system is from 76 to 78% on full to the great amount of magnetic leakage at less than

to

62%

at I load,

44%
arcs,

at ^ load,

and

24%
also

at i load.

Standard

sizes are for capacities of 25-, 35-, 50-, 75-,

and 100-6.6

ampere enclosed

and they are

made

for lower currents in

KLia ruic LK.iniNd

\'.)

I
t c
s

50

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

the neighborhood of 3.3 amperes for incandescent lamps. The low factor of such a system on light loads shows that a transformer power should be selected of such a capacity that it will be fully or nearly
fully

loaded at

all

times.

The primary winding can

be constructed

for

any voltage and the open

circuit voltages of the secondaries are

as follows:
25 light transformer, 2,300 volts. 35 3,200 50 4,600 75 light transformer, 6,900 volts. " " 100 " 9,200

The

50-, 75-,

and

100-light transformers are arranged for multiple

circuit operation,

used in

series,

two circuits and the vol-

tages at full load reach 4,100

for each circuit

on the 100-light
system,

machine.

The second

used

for series distribution on

circuits alternating-current consists of a constant-potential

transformer, stepping down the line voltage to that required for the total number of lamps

on

the
for

system, allowing

83

volts
series

each lamp, and in with the lamps is a

is

reactive coil, the reactance of

which

automatically regu-

lated, as the load is increased

Fig. 47.

Current Regulator for A. C. Series Distribution Systems.

or decreased, in order to keep the current in the line conthis reguvaried by the moveor less iron in the magnetic
is

stant.

Fig. 47

shows such a regulator and Fig. 48 shows

lator connected in circuit.

The

inductance

ment

of the coil so as to include

more

Since the inductance in series with the lamps is high on light loads, the power factor is greatly reduced as in the constant-current transformer; and the circuits should, preferably, be run fully loaded.
circuit.

60

to

65 lamps on a circuit

is

the usual

maximum

limit.

WTiile used primarily for arc-light circuits, the

same systems,

Ki.Kc-niic LKMITlXr;
for

51

<K-.si,'mtl

lower currents, are very readily applied to series incan-

descent systems.

The
ricHjur

iiitHKluction of certain (laming or

luminous arcs rwjuiring

mercury arc

direct current for their operation has led to the use of the
in

connection

with

series

circuits
is

on alternating-c-urrent
used to regulate for the

A constant-c-urrent transformer systems. constant current in its secondproper

ary winding, and this secondary current is rectified by means of the mercury arc
rectifier for

the

lamp
for
first

circuit.

In the

recent

outfits
in

the rectifier
oil

tubes are

immersed

cooling.

While
C.P. STEP UP OR STt-PCXDWN TRANSFORMER

this rectifier

was

introduced for

the operation of luminous arc lamps, there is no reason why it should not

he used with anv series lamp

re(|uiriiig
is

kicking

direct current, provided the .system

designed for the current taken by su( h

lamj)s.
cial

CI RCCU

system any commerfrequency may be used. Sets are

With

this

LATOR

constructed for
circuits.

2.')-,

50-,

and

To-light
effi-

~ll-'\ riif\

UCHTNINC
arrester:

jj^

[MJ

They have a combined

and

ciency, transformer
of
S')'^l to

rectifier tube,

009^, and operate at a power

factor of from ().j% to

70%.

Fig. 40

gives
.

diagram of the
,f.

circuit

and
fir. .is. wiring niain^m .siiowIhr intnxluctloii of tlio Current Utvulator.

rectifier

connections used with a singleor

tunc

ollttlt.

A\uhiplc-Sc'rics

Series-Multiple
tlu-.se .scries

Systems.

These combine

.several lanij)s in .series,

and

groups

in mulliple, or .several
.scri-s,

Iam[>s in nuiltiple and these multiple groups in Thcv li.ivc bill ;i limited a|>|>lir,iti()ii.

rcsp'ctively.

numlM-r of lamps
tribulioii.

Multiple or Parallel Systems of I)istril)uti>n. Uy far the largest in .service are connectel to parallel .systems of tli.sIn this .system, the units are conncct-<l acros,s the lines bars at the station, or to the .secondaries of ctnFig.
'>()

leading to (he l)us

staiit-potcntial transformers.

shows a <liagram of ten lamps

connected

in

parallel.

The

current di-liviTcd by the machine de-

52

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
in service, the vol-

pends directly on the number of lamps connected

tage of the system being kept constant. Inasmuch as the flow of current in a conductor
\//o-^zS AC Bt/sses

is

always accompanied by a fall

of potential equal to the product of

Tube Tanff

the current flowTrcfns

Jf^'^>\Load

ing into the resistance of the con(hictor, the

lamps
of the

Arreslir/^?Tiynefe-r corl-

necied ioATTim case

STafzc -Z>7SC

r^

maIa^t^wv^

@ ShoT^ Circtyii
^myrteier-

, SwiJcnes

Load

at the

end

system shown
will not

:^M
tV
V
v>

have as
voltage

high

impressed
a-nd
foT- &0% 7zor?.

upon
those

them
Load Con yicc*
nearer

as

the

ma-

chine.
Fi/sts

This

Ifiaaliififl

5i^7ic?3 'e%

drop in potential is the most serious obstacle that

Fig. 49.

weiring

Diagram for A. C. System Showing tion of Mercury -Vrc Rectifier.

Iiitrixluc-

we have to overcome in multiple

systems,

various schemes have been adopted to aid in this regulation.

and The

systems
1.

may

be classified as

2.
'.i.

4.

Cylindrical conductors, parallel feeding. Conical " Cylindrical anti-parallel feeding. " " " Conical

ductors,

In the cylindrical conductor, parallel-feeding system, the conA, B,C, D, Fig. 50, are of the same size throughout and are

fed at the
at the

same end by the generator. The voltage is a minimum lamps E and a maximum at the lamps F; the value of the

voltage at any lamp being readily calculated. By a conical or tapering conductor is meant a conductor whose

diameter

is so proportioned throughout its length that the current, divided by the cross-section, or the current density, is a constant

II

< I

I'HIC F.KMI'IMNC

Xi

Miiaiitilv.
^IIlalI^^

Swell a

oiuliHiur

i-.

appnixiiuatctl in praclitt' bv using

the lumps from

.sizt'.s

of win- as

tlir ciirrtMit in tlu* liiirs Ix'i-onu'S |fs.s.

In

un anti-paralUI

to systi-ni, ilu- currftit is fed

shi\vii in
Ki;,'.
.'!.

n|i|)<)site

ends of the .system, as

Multiple

W ire

S\stcms.

In order to take advantajje of a hi<;her

voltage for distrilmlion of

five-wire svstenis
iis'd

power to the li;:htinf; einuits, three- and have been intriMJueed, the three-wire .system U-ing
In this .system,
thri'c-

to a

verv

lar^'e extent.

eonduetors are

used, the voltaj^e from each outside conductor to the

miildle
hcini:

neutral
the

conductor
as
for
a
Fig. 50.

.same

simple parallel .system. of .')2 gives a dia<jram

Fi{^.

ParallW Kcctling Sytftfin.

this.

Bv
en
fi

this

system the amount

j,'iv-

of copper recjuired for a

number

)f

lamps
the

is

from
KIg. 51.
.Viitl-pan-llel Ki-cilInK

ve-si.\tcenths to three-

System.

eighths of
required
tribution,

amount

for a two-wire dis-

depending on the
t

size of the neu ral con-

riint -

iri-

S: <v\i

ductor.

The saving

of
is

with the disadvantages of the .system copjH-r together treatcfl in the paper on "Tower Transmi.ssion."

more

fully

ILLUMIN.ATION
Illumination

may

l'

dc(ine<l as the (pialily

which
color.

aiils

in

the <liscriinination of t>utline

<iuantity.

and

Not only the

r)f

bnl

ilie

ipuility

of light (|Uanlily the |)erccption of of the light, as well as

and

the

arrangement

the units,

must be

eonsidere<l in a complete study

of the subject of illumination. Init of Illumination. TIk-

unit

of

illumination

is

the

/<<>/-

ramlli

and

it-

value

is

the

amount

of light falling

on a

.surfatv at

distance of one foot from a soun e of light one candle-iMwer in value. frtun a of inverse I'll.- law namely, that the illumination

given

^urct,

.sourcj-

.sf|uan's varis inversely as the scpnire of the distinuv fnun the shows thai the illumination at a distanc- of two feet fn>m a

54

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
candle-power
unit
is

single

.25

foot-candles.

For further con-

sideration of the law of inverse squares, see "Photometry." Illumination may be classified as useful when used for the

ordinary purposes of furnishing light for carrying on work, taking when used for decorative lighting the place of daylight; and scenic

such as stage lighting, etc. The two divisions are not, as a rule, distinct, but the one is combined with the other.
Intrinsic

Brightness.

By

intrinsic

amount of light emitted per unit XII gives the intrinsic brightness
Intrinsic Brilliancies in

brightness is meant the surface of the light source. Table

of several light sources.

TABLE

XII

Candle-Power per Square Inch

Source

ELECTRIC LICIITING
I

55

)itl'iis((l

rifltiiii)M

is

virv importaiit
li|;lit

in

tin-

.>tulv

of illuniinatidn

inasniiK'h as diirusttl
interiors.
'I'liis

plavs an

in tlu* lighting of iin|)(jrtaiit part

form of

Light

is

also tlitTused

rcflettion is seen in many photometer sereens. when passing through semi-transparent shades

or screens. In considering reflected light, we find that, if the surface on light falls is coloreil, the reHe<ted light may l)c change<i in nature l>y the absorption of some of the colors. Since, as has Ixt-n

which the
its

said, in interior lighting the reflected light

source of illumination, this illumination

will

forms a large part of the depend upon the nature

and

the color of the reflecting surfaces.

Whenever

light

is

reflected

from a surface, either by direct or

difTused reflection, a certain

Table XIII gives the

materials.

amount of light is absorbed by the surface. amount of white light reflected from different

TABLE

XIII

Relative Reflectia}; Power

Matkiiial

Whito hlottinu

puiH-r

s-j

pajKr Chniiiie yellow paper ( )raiip(' paiKT

Vclliiw wall pai)f'r

^\'l^itl cartri(,lj;c

pink pajHT Yellow eanlhoard Light l)lue cardboard I'riH-rald preen paper
Lifjhl

so G2 50 40 36
.U)

Jo

Dark brown

pafjer.
.

IS 13
1_'

Verrnili<jii paf>or

IMin-preen paper. Hlack pa|er

IJ
r
,)
1

IMaek cloth
l?l!i(k

-'

velvet

I-'rom this laliie

i(

is

setii that the light-colored

papers

reflect the

light well, but of the darker colors only y'llow has a companilivelv Black velvet has the lowest value, but high c(M-fIicient of reflection.
this

only holds

when

the material

is

free

fnm dust.

H(H>ms with
In-

dark walls
seen hiter.
Usi'ful

re|uire a greatT

amount
be

of illuminating power, as will

illumination

may

considered

under the following

heads:

5G

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
1.

2.
3.

Residence Lighting. Lighting of Public Halls,

Street Lighting.

Offices,

Drafting Rooms, Shops,

etc.

RESIDENCE LIGHTING
Type
of

Lamps.

The lamps used

incandescent or Nernst lamps varying in candle-power from S to 50 per unit. These should always be shaded so as to keep the intrinsic brightness low. The
intrinsic brilliancy

limited to the less powerful units

namely,

for this class of lighting are

square inch, and

its

should seldom exceed 2 to 3 candle-power per reduction is usually accomplished by appropriate

Arc lights are so powerful as to be uneconomical for shading. small rooms, while the color of the mercury-vapor light is an additional
objection to
its

use.

Plan of Illumination.
as to give a brilliant
is

Lamps may be

selected
in a

and

fairly

uniform illumination

and so located room but this

;

an uneconomical scheme, and the one more commonly employed is to furnish a uniform, though comparatively weak, ground illumiand to reinforce this at points where it is necessary or desirable. nation,

The

latter plan is satisfactory in almost nomical of the two.

all

cases

and

the

more eco-

While the use

where desirable, the same room.

of units of different

power

is

to

be recommended,

should not be used for lighting As an exaggerated case, the use of arc with incandescent lamps might be mentioned. The arcs being so much whiter than the incandescent lamps, the latter appear distinctly yellow when
lights differing in color

the two are viewed at the

same

time.

Calculation of Illumination.

In determining the value of illumi-

tlie amount of remust be considered for the given location of the lamps. Following is a formula based on the coefficient of reflection of the walls of the room, which serves for preliminary calculations:

nation, not only the candle-power of the units, but

flected light

c.p.

=
I

=
= =

Illumination in foot-candles.

c.p.
/;;

Candle-power of the

unit.

Coefficient of reflection of the walls.

distance from the unit in

feet.

rr.ECTRIC LKJIITING
WluTf
fiiiiiiiila

57

st'Vcral
:

units of

tin-

Naiiir

aiiilir-jMiwrr art-

iisitl

lhi.s

lM'(()mt-<

III
1
1
1
1

or,

r.p.

=
^

"

"^
^/=,

iP

^
rf^,

"^
1

it

where

rf, (/j, d.,, ttc, e(|ual tlic (Jistanc-es from the point consiih-red to the various li^ht sources. If the lamps are of dilFereiit eaiulU'-|>o\ver, the ilhiniinatioii inav be detenniiicd hv eoinbiiiiii'' the ilhiiniiiation

from
is

eacli

source as calculated separately.

An

e.\anij)Ie of calculation

given

uiitler

"Arrangement
metluxl
is

of

Lamps."

The above

take account of the

ande

not strictly accurate because it does not at whicji the li<rht from each one of the
If

sources strikes the assumed plane of illumination.

light
is

the ray of
cor-

perpendicular to the plane, the fornuda

If

= -^givcs

rect values.

drawn from
then
the

(/ is the angle which the ray of light makes with a line the light source perpendicular to the assumed plane,

fornmla becomes

'''^'

^^'2'^^^"

'

1'''refore.

by

multiplying the candle-power value of each light source in the dire(tion of the illuminated jioint l)y the cosine of each angle a, a more

accurate result will be obtained.

It is
is

readily .seen that the elTcct of reflecteil light from the ceilings
that

of
/;.

more importance than

in the al)ove

from the

floor of a

room.
,

The

value

of

formula, will ^ary from ^\{Yy^ to \{)^[ but for riHtms with a fairly light finish ')()^l may be taken as a goinl average value. The amount of illumination will dejM-iid on the use to U- made of
the

room.

<

)nc

foot-<andlc gives suflicicnt

to the page,
.5

illumination

for

easy

reading,

when measured normal

..")

nation of
cienl

foot-candle on a plane

feet

and probably an from the tliMir forms

illumi-

a sufli-

ground illumination. The illumination from sunlight fnm whil' clouds is from L'O foot-<-andles up, whih- that lue
light
is

rellwteil
to iiuhmi-

in iId*

nei^hborlxMMl of

.().'{

fiH>tH-andles.

It

is i,ot

ixwsibh* to

priNluce artificially a light eipiivalent to daylight on ai-count of the

58

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
amount
of energy that

great

would be required and the

difficulty of

obtaining proper diffusion.

of calculating the illumination of a room that has as the point-bij-point method and it just been described is known is taken of the angle at which gives very accurate results if account from each source strikes the plane of illumination and if the

The method

light

the light distribution curves of the units, and the value of k, have been Under these conditions the calculations becarefully determined.

come extended and complicated and methods only approximate, but

simpler in their application, are being introduced.

One method,

makes which gives good results when from the light sources the basis of calculation of the the flux of light
applied to fairly large interiors,

average illumination.
as the

Flux of light amount of

in order to

measured in lumens and a lumen may be defined foot of surface light which must fall on one square a uniform illumination of an intensity of one footproduce
is

candle.

and placed

at the center of a sphere of

source of light giving one candle-power in every direction one foot radius would give an

sphere the area of the sphere would be

illumination of one foot-candle at every point in the surface of the and the total flux of light would be 47r, or 12.57, lumens since
47r,

or 12.57, sq.

ft.

lamp giving

one mean spherical candle-power gives a flux of 12.57 lumens and the total flux of light from any source is obtained by multiplying its

mean
it is

spherical candle-power
to

by

12.57.

In calculating illumination

customary inches from the

determine the illumination on a plane about 30 floor for desk work, and about 42 inches from the

floor for the display of

goods on counters.

number

of

lumens

falling

on

this

we determine the total plane and divide this number by

If

the area of the plane, we obtain the average illumination in footcandles. This of course tells us nothing about the maximum or

minimum

value of the illumination and such values must be obtained

by other methods if they are desired. Reflected light, other than that covered by the distribution curve of the light unit including its reflector, is

We may

usually neglected in this method of calculation. assume that in large rooms the light coming from the
of 75 degrees from the vertical reaches the plane In smaller rooms this angle should be reduced to

lamp within an angle

of illumination.

about 60 degrees.

In order to determine the flux of light within this

FT.FrTRIC LUiHTING
uii^'U-

59

u lioussetiu diagram, which

is

desc-ribttl hiter,

should

Ix*

drawn.

this IJy the ineaiLS of

source within

tiic

diagram tlie avi-rage candle-[X)W'er of the light angU' assumed may Ix* readily determined and tliis

muhiphed hy 12.57, will give the flu.x of light in lumciLS. This metluKl of calculation, together with some guides for its rapid M<-ssrs. Cravath and Laasingh in the application, is described hy
vahie,

mean

"Transactions of the Illuminating Engineering Society,

I'.MJS."

The

same

authorities give the following useful datii:

To

determine the watts recjuired

j)er

desired nuiltiply the intensity of illumination

square foot of floor area, by the constants given

as follows:

INTENSITY CONSTANTS FOR INCANDESCENT

LAMPS

Tungsten lamps rated at 1.25 watts per horizontal candle-power; clear prismatic reflectors, either bowl or concentrating; large room; light
ceiling;

dark walls; lamps pendant; height from 8 to 15

light walls

feet

.25

Same with very

20

Tungsten lamps rated at 1.25 watts per horizontal candle-power; prismatic bowl reflectors enameled; large room; light ceiling; dark walU; lamps pendant, hoiglit from S to 15 feet

Same with

verj' light walls

29 23

Gem

lamps rated at 2.5 watts per horizontal candle-jMiwer; clear prismatic reflectors either concentrating or bowl; large room; light ceiling; dark walls; lamps pendant; height from S to 15 feet. ... Same with very light walls Carbon filament lamps rated at 3.1 watts per horizontal canille-power;
clear prismatic reflectors either
.

55

45

bowl or concentrating; liglU ceiling; .65 dark wali.s; l.n m; lamps pendant height from 8 to 15 feet 55 Same with very 11Bare carbon fdament lamps rated at .3.1 watts |)er horizontal candlcix)wer; no rrflcctors; large room; very light ceiling and walls; 75 to 1 .5 height from 10 to 14 feet .25 to 2.0 Same; small room; me<lium walls Carbon filament lamps rated at .'5.1 watts fn-r horizontal c opal dome or opal cone reflectors; ligiit ceiling; dark 70 room; lumps [x'tidant; height from 8 to 15 fe't GO Same with light walls
; . . .

>

INTENSITY CONSTANTS lOR ARC

LAMPS

5-am()ere, encloMj-d, din-ct-current arc on lU)-vult circuit; clear inner, opal oiitrr globe; no n-di-rtor: large room; light ceiling; medmiu walls li.iglK from 9 to 14 feel

50

Arrangcnicni Lamps. uniform ilhnnination cannot Im<ii

.\ii

:irrang-ment of lamps giving ti well applied to nvsidMurs on H<"eount

uf the

numU'r

of units repiired,

and the

inartistic cfTcct.

Wc

arc

60

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

limited to chandeliers, side lights, or ceiling lights, in the majority of cases, with table or reading lamps for special illumination.

form of

^^^len ceiling lamps are used reflector or reflector lamp

and the
is

ceilings are high,

some

to

be recommended.

In any

case where the coefficient of reflection of the

I

ceilings

is

less

than

40%,

it is

more economical

\Mien lamps are mounted on chandeliers, the illumination is far from

to use reflectors.

uniform, being a maximum in the neighborhood of the chandelier and a minimum at the
corners of the room.
liers

By combining chandeit is

with side lights

generally possible to

f|

*
'

IV)^^^ ^ satisfactory

<M

"

arrangement of lighting for ^ small or medium-sized rooms. "* As a check on the candle-power in lamps

- required, we
T
For

have the following

illumination

brilliant

allow

one candle-

two square feet of floor space. In some Fig. 53. Diagram Showing Po^'^r per Method of Calculatuig particular cases, such as ball rooms, this may be Room Illumination. increased to one candle-power per square foot.
for four square feet of floor space, aid of special lamps as required.

For general illumination allow one candle-power and strengthen this illumination with the The location of lamps and the height of

ceilings will

modify these

figures to

some

extent.

As an example

of the calculation of the illu-

mination of a room with different arrangements

of the units of light,

assume a room 16

feet
<e-

square, 12 feet high, and with walls having a Consider first coefficient of reflection of 50%.
the illumination on a plane 3 feet above the when lighted by a single group of lights
at the center of the
If

floor

mounted
candle
is

room

3 feet below
.5

the ceiling.

minimum
(first
1

value of

foot-

required at the corner of the room,

the equation
.0

we have

method outlined)
-X

c.

..1
1

p-

12.8^

.5
1 '^'

Since d
Fig. 53)

=i/8'

8'

6'

9 Q

/'see
^

^'^'

^"*

Diagram
Side Wall.

for

Four

8-c. p.

I-amps on

<
>:

> z
=>

s
fa

o p u H '^ < Q Ko
Cfi

b]

}'

.ti

%^'
..

fl

s < H U o < s
.3

>
Q

o o K a z z o

^3

o o

p.
<,

>-

^
/.

a
art

-r

= '^ =

u
e<

*^

a.

< z o
r!^ a

<

?^8

Q
0.

<

Aid

n 'a
J

FLKfTIUr
Solving the
c.

icMTlvr;
(f r.

gi

aljovt- for the

valm.5

p.,

we have
41

p.

=_

'

H2

=--

Thre<'
well.

Uj-euiulU'-jxnver

lamps would serve

this

pur|)ose very

Deteriiiiiiiiifj

the illumination directly umlt-r

tin-

lamj).

we have:

()-

..)

.ib

2.7 foot-eandles, or five times the value of the illumination at the

corners of the room.

Next consider four 8-oantlle-power

illumination at the center of the
the
floor,

lainj)s
Fij^'.

hxated on the side

54.

walls S feet alx)ve the floor, as .shown in

Calculating: the

room on

a plane three feet above

we have:
^

^ =
1

^
^~8Q
8'

"^

"^

^
"^89

"89"
5-

Hi)'

T^Ts'

rf

+
S

=
4
8!)

04

+
2

25 = 89

.72 foot-carulles

The

illumination at the ct)rner of the

^

room wouM
^

he-

"

^^W^W^ -Mo
)

'

343
.4")

1-..)

= 8(-J- + -7^
<S9
.j4.)

fiH)t-<andles.

In a similar
in the

manner

tht-

illuiuinatit)n

may

he (-dculattd for any

nK)m, or a series of points may Im- taken and curves ploC(c<i \H>\ul the distribution of the li^'ht. as well as the areas having the siiowin^ same illumination. Where re(iiu<l calculations are desire<l, the di-trihution curve of the

lamp must

Ik- usvi\
')')

for determining: the ean<llfor

jM)Wer
tin-

in dilFcrcnt ilin-'tions.

Kij;.

shows illumination curves

Meridian lamp as manufacture<l ly the (Icncral Klectric Com2"> or 'I'liis is a form of nllector lamj) made in two sizes, pativ.
.'<>

eandlc-[M)wcr.

I''ij:.

'>(

^ives

the

distribution curves

for

tin*

.'(>-

Similar incandescent (andli'-powcr unit. nianufacturi-<l iiv otlicr coi:ipanies.

hunps

ar*-

now

Im-imj:

62

ELECTRIC LIGHTING

Table XIV gives desirable data in connection with the use of the Meridian lamp.

Fig. 55.

IlUmiiuation Curves for a G. E. Meridian

Lamp.

TABLE XIV
Illuminating Data for Meridian

Lamps

,1

' :

n\c ur.HTiNo
tini)f

very ar-mai.
inetluxl.

...m,\

.\licii

sysU'in
fteii

illiiniiiiatioii aiitiuLs

of this

OiluT

iiutliiMis

an-

.simpler

and

sufiicieutly act-urdte

for practical work.

FiR.

5ft.

Distrllnitlon

Curve

f<r

ii

G. K.

riO-c. p.

Meridian I^iiip.

Dr.
lighting:

T-()ui> Hell

gives

tlic

following in connection with residence

TABLE XV
Residence Lighting Data
.

Ruuu
Hall, 15'

20'.

Lihriiry, 20'

2U'_
l.V
.<

Uccfpiioii

ri)()in,

X
.

1 l.V..

Mn-^ic roorii, 20'

2.">'

DiiiiiiK roDiii, l.V Hilliiiril r.M.iii, l.V

\'l,Tch

20'

X X

20'.
15',
10'

H.Mlr.M)mrt (G), 15' Dr.

.S.T

l.V.

lO'Xlo'
.1

Mailiruiiin.T Kitrliiii. l.V

I'iUitrv,
II.'iIIm'^

10'

IV
1.V

10'

(Vlliir

64

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
LIGHTING OF PUBLIC HALLS, OFFICES, ETC.

Lighting of public halls and other large interiors differs from the illumination of residences in that there is usually less reflected light,
and, again, the distance of the light sources from the plane of illumination is generally greater if an artistic arrangement of the lights is
to

be brought about.
object
is,

This

in turn reduces the direct illumination.

in residence lighting, to

The primary

however, as

produce

a fairly uniform ground illumination and to superimpose a stronger illumination where necessary. An illumination of .5 foot-candle for
the ground illumination may be taken as a minimum. In the lighting of large rooms it is permissible to use larger light units, such as arc lamps and high candle-power Nernst or incan-

descent units, while for factory lighting and drafting rooms, where the color of the light is not so essential, the Cooper-Hewitt lamp is being introduced. High candle-power reflector lamps, such as the
tungsten lamp, are being used rooms.
to

a large extent for offices and drafting

work.

The choice of Where the

to

the type of
lisj;ht

lamp depends on the nature of the must be steadv, incandescent or Nernst

lamps are
fully

be preferred to the arc or vapor lamps, though the latter are often the more efficient. AMien arcs are used, they must be care-

shaded so as

to diffuse the light,

shadows due

to portions of the

intrinsic brightness.

doing away with the strong lamp mechanism, and to reduce the Such shading will be taken up under the head-

ing "Shades and Reflectors." Arcs are sometimes preferable to incandescent lamps when colored objects are to be illuminated, as in
stores

and display windows. In locating lamps for this class of lighting, much depends on the nature of the building and on the degree of economy to be observed. For preliminary determination of the location of groups, or the illumination
ciples outlined
is assumed, the prinunder "Residence Lighting" may be applied. It has been found that actual, measurements show results approximating

when

certain arrangement of the units

closely such calculated values.

\Mien arcs are used they should be placed

to twenty-five feet

fairly high,

twenty
ceilings

when used

for general illumination

and the

are high. They should be supplied with reflectors so as to utilize Wlien used for drafting-room the light ordinarily thrown upwards.

I! I'C'IMMC

'(

MI'TIW;

r-^'i

work,

tlu'V

slioiihl

Ik*

susjM'iulnl
inu.st In-

from

twi-lvr to

fiftiH-rj

feet alxive

the floor,

ami

s[M-<ial

rare

taken to
arraiifjetl

tlitTuse the light.

IrieuiKleseeiit latnj)s
lij,'hts

may

Im-

in

fjroups, either as side

Ije

arranged u.s a frieze running around the HMiin a fiw feet Ix-low the eeiling. The la.st named arrangement of lights is one that may Ik- made arli>tie, hut it

or inouiitetl on chandeliers, or they

may

is

uneeonomital and when used should serve

for the grouncl illumiiui-

Kelleitor lights may he useil fur this style of uirk and tiou oiilv. the lights may b<' entirely concealed from view, the reflecting proputilized for distrihuting the light erty of the walls iK'iiig

where neede<J.
reflectors,

reiling lights should

prcfcraMy he supplied

with

are high. especially when the ceilings Indirect li'diting is emidoved to

lii'htin"

some

extent.

Bv

indirect

we mean a svstem af illumination in which are coiuealeil and the light from them is reflected to

the light sources the

njom hy

the

are wal.'s, or ceilings, or other surfaces; or in which the light sources above a difVusing panel. In the latter case the diffusing plate plaied In some ca.ses the walls them.selves apf ^ars to Ix' the .source of light. are shajx'd ami constructed .so as to form the refliH:tors for the light uni 5 (cove lighting), hut in others all of the reflecting surfaces, except
the side walls

Tables
lai
i|)S

portions of the lanij) fixtures. data on arc and mercury-va|x)r give Table XVII refers to arc lights as for lighting large rooms.
ceiling, are

and

made

XVI and X\II

ac'Mallv installf<l.

66

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
*

00

o o o

to

00

'^ _; CI t- ^3 5? "' to CO to

b "

CI

CO

O
CO
B<

to t^ ro

"
{J

<J<

-H

-H

o
r->

<

o CO

in c^

to CO Tf Tl* "O

^ O

-3 0> S ^ CO

C3

^ I o b r

Q
a n
00

<:

3 o lO S O o
.

o o 00 o (M
IN

CO CO

<K CSI

00 CO CO C)

O O

o
'

Li

to

C)

is
o

O C5
to

1-

(N

^ o ^
CO

C-J

CI _; 1^ C5 Q, CO "o ,ir

Q5
o
o
'-'

o * 00 M o

2oo

a
E
cs

2 a
I

CJ

wo u to

"3
t^

CJ "*

_;

CI

CJ C) rt CO CO JC"

01

jd O) "^

.J

O
C)

> <
o
w S

O
uo CI

C)
-<)

< Q
G
JS

> a < o
w o

SKYLIGHT
Tlie

WORK *

upper

illustration

curb measures
G'

G'

0* X 7' 6",
line.

shows the layout of a flat pitched .kylight whose tiie run of the rafter or length of the glass being
Five bars are required, making the glass 15 inches AB and CD is shown below.

0*

on a horizontal

wide

working section through

It will

be noticed in the section through

AR
tiie

tliat

the flashing

is

locked to

the roofing
this the

and flanged around the

rests,

inside of

angle iron construction; over

curb of the skylight

bolted through the angle iron as shown, tho

bolt being

capped and soldered to avoid leakage. The same construction is used in the section through

CI), with tho excepis

tion, that
in the

when the flashing cannot be made in one manner indicated, over the fireproof blocks.
itluiitratiou referred to will

piece, a cross lock

placed

The

bo found oa tho back of

Ihia pa^*-

coMSTnucTion drawing aHowiriG layout OF FLAT .5KYL1GH.T ARD i^lLTMOD OF FA5TEnin.G FLASamG on AnGLE.

mon

GOA5TRUGTIOn.

^1 l>-shmG,

Condensas-tion'

vSecTion
\T.n<2-.

u.pper

end
C-D

rhrou^h
of

curb

Secrion

i;hrouo,h lov/<s,r

end. of curb A.-S

FOR EXPLANATION OF THIS PROBLEM SEE BACK OF PAGE

SHEET METAL

WORK

SKYLIGHT WORK
\Mere formerly skylij^lits were cnmstructe*! from wrod^lit iron or wood, to-<lav in all the larj^e cities thcv are lein;j maderif ^alvaiii/xil
sheet iron anil
c)[)j)er.

Sheet metal

skylif^hts,

having hy their

jieculiar

construction lightness and strength, are superior to inm and woollen lights; su|)erior to iron lights, inasmuch as there is hardly any exjjansion or contraction of the metal to cause leaks or hreiikage of glass;
su|)erior to

and wooden lights, because they are fire, water and condensation* proof, and being less clumsy, admit more liglu. ^riic small Ix^dy of metal usetl in the construction of the bar and

densation,

curb ami the provisions which can be made to carry off the inside conmake slieet metal skylights superior to all others constructed from diiferent material.

CONSTRUCTION
The
if

the

construction of a slieet metal skylight patterns for tlie various

is

a very simple matter,

intersections are properly devel-

oped.

For example,
in

the

bar

shown

Fig.

14.')

consists of

piece of sheet metal having the rcfjuired stretchout and length,

or

and bent by .special machinery, on the regular cornice brake,

into the .shaj)e .shown,

which rep.\

resents strength an<l rigi<lity with

llicleast

amount of

weight.

A
Fig.
1 J.'i.
I

represent the condensation gutters to receive tlie condensation

ig.

un.

from the inside when the

tlie glius.s,

warm

air strikes against t\\v

ci>lil

surface of

while

]\ ]\

In Fig.

li(j,

shovv the rabbets or glas.s-rest for the glasA. C is a re-enforcing strip, which is imn1 to li(ld

tJic

134

SHEET IMETAL WORK

two walls

together and impart to it great rigidity. When skylight bars are required to bridge long spans, an internal core is made of in Fig. 147, which adds to its sheet metal and placed as shown at

O O

weight-sustaining power.

In

this figure

B B

shows the glass

laid

on

a bed of putty with the metal cap C C C, resting snugly against the
glass,

fastened in position by the

rivet or bolt

D.

Wliere a very
in Fig. 148 is

large span

is to

be bridged a bar

similar to that

shown

made heavy core plate of j-inch thick metal is used, riveted

used.

or bolted to the bar at

construction,
all

and B.

In
bars

the various

terminate at the curb shown at

AB

C
Fig- 147.

in Fig. 149,

which

is

fastened to

the

wooden frame

D E.

condensation gutters C C in the bar b, carry the water into the internal gutter in the curb at a, thence to the outside through holes In Fig. 150 is shown a sectional provided for this pm-pose at F F. view of the construction of a double-pitched

The

shows the ridge bar with a core in B the center and cap attached over the glass. shows the cross bar or clip which is used in
skylight.

glass in

where it is impossible to get the one length, and where the glass must r" be protected and leakage prevented by means of the cross bar, the gutter of which conducts
large skylights

the water into the gutter of

the

main

bar,

thence outside the curb as before explained. C is the frame generally made of wood or angle
iron

and covered by the metal roofer with

flash-

shows the skylight bar ing as shown at F. with core showing the glass and cap in position. E is the metal curb condensation being let out against which the bars terminate, the
through the holes shown. In constructing pitched skylights having double pitch, or being In other words it is one-third hipped, the pitch is usually one-third.

^uv.KT Mrr\r
a

wmi-k'

i::.'

of

tlu- >|iiiii.

If

.skyliji;ht

weif

IL' fet-t

wiile
Im.*

rttiiiirftl.

tht> rise in

the center wuulil

is

ami one-third pitch were one-third of 12, or 4 feet.

When

11

Hat

.skyHj,'ht

made

tlie

pitch or iron frame anil a

laiil

is

w^hmI usually huilt in the

flat

skylight
use<l

over

it.

The

jjlass

in

the construction of metallic .skyor lijjhts is usually J-inch rough rii)l)cd glass; hut in some cases

heavier glass
If for

is useil.

any

rea.st)n

it is

desired

to

the weight of the various thickness of glass, the following

table will prove valuable. NN'eight of Koujrh (Mass Per

know

Square

out.

Thickness

in inches.
i-

i iV
Weight
2.

^-

^-

^-

'

^-

in
2\.

|)ounds. 3\. 5. 7.

S'..

10. 12",.

B^
Y

FiR. 160.

136

SHEET METAL WORK

SHOP TOOLS

In the smaller shops the bars are cut with the hand shears and formed up on the ordinary cornice brake. In the larger shops, the for the bars or curbs are cut on the large squaring strips required
shears,

and the miters on the ends of these

as a miter cutter.

strips are cut

on what

is

known
on a

single table,

This machine consists of eight foot presses each press having a different set of dies for the purpose

The bars are then of cutting the various miters on the various bars. formed on what is known as a Drop Press in which the bar can be
formed
in

two operations
to

to the length of 10 feet.

METHOD EMPLOYED
The method

IN

OBTAINING THE PATTERNS

be employed in developing the patterns for the various skylights is by parallel lines. If, however, a dome, conservaor circular skylight is required, the blanks for the various curbs, tory
bars,

and

ventilators, are laid out

by the rule given

in

Sheet Metal

Work, Part IV, under "Circular Work".

VARIOUS SHAPES OF BARS

In addition to the shapes of bars shown in Figs. 145 to 148 inclusive, there is shown in Fig. 151 a plain bar without any condensation
gutters, the joint being at A.

rabbets of the bar, while

represents the glass resting on the shows another form of cap which covers

BB

Fig. 152.

Fig. 153.

the joint between the bar and glass. Fig. 152 gives another form of bar in which the condensation gutters and bar are formed from one
piece of metal with a locked hidden

seam

at A.

Fig. 153

shows a bar

on which no putty is required when glazing. It wall be noticed that it is bent from one piece of metal with the seam at A, the glass B B on the combination rabbets and gutters C C. D is the cap resting
which
is

fastened by

means

of the cleat E.

These

cleats are cut

about

^inch wide from

soft 14-oz copper,

and riveted

to the top of the bar

Iirir MI'.TAL

WOUK
t

Mil

at F;
tlifii

tlifii

a >lot

is

cut into

tin-

caii

as sluiwii from
};la.<>!

to h in Ki^;. I54;

the cap is pressed lirmly onto tlie down whicli holds the cap in |M)sition.

ami the

ch-at

tiirne<l

When
ijuiretl,

a skvH;;ht

is

constnictetl in

which raising
sash to he

suslies are re-

as

shown

in Fig. loo, lialf l>ars arc

tlie

re<juire<l at the sides

and

B. while the l)ars on each side of

raise<l
is

are so constructe<l that a water-tight joint

closetl.

obtained when
whicli
is

This

is

shown

in

Fig.
in

15<),

an enlarge*! section through

in

AB

represents the two half bars with condensation gutters as shown,

Fig. loo.
Fig. loG,
(^ C the locketl .seam taking place at B B. repre.sent the two half bars for the raising sash with the I) attachcaps etl to same, as shown, so that when the sash C C is close<l, the caps

Thus

AA

Fig. 154.

FiR.
1)

1.55.

and the stationary half cover the jomt between the glass F F are the half caps soldered at a a to the bars C (' which bars.
protect the joints between the gla.ss
II
11

EE
and

tlic

bars

C.

VVRjOlS SliMMIS or CI R lis

In
Figs.

lo7,

I'vS

and

1.'>M

are

shown
flat

a few sha|Hvs of ctirbs

usi-tl

which are
with
I.')7

in

cnne<'tion
.\

skylights.

in

Fig.

shows the curb

for the thret*

sides of a Hat skylight, fornuti in

one

|)ii'<'e

with a joint

at

B. while

.shows the cap, fastt'tUMl as previously tlescrilM'<l. ".\" .shows the height at the lower end ^f the Mirb wh'cJi i.s ina<ie ns high lis the
glass
i.s

thick

and allows

tJie

wuter

U>

run over.

In Fig. LVS,

A b

138

SHEET

INIETAL

WORK

another form of skylight formed in one piece and riveted at B; a shows the height at the lower end. In the previous figures the frame on which the metal curb rests is of wood, while in Fig. 159 the frame is

Fig. 157.

Fig. 158.

Fig. 159.

of angle iron shown at A. In tliis case the curb is slightly changed as shown at B ; bent in one piece, and riveted at C. In Figs. 160, 161; and 162 are shown various shapes of curbs for pitched skylights in addition to that shown in Fig. 149. A in Fig. 160 shows a curb formed
in

one piece from a to & with a condensation hole or tube shown at B.

Fig. 160.

Fig. 161.
is

Fig. 162.

rest

slightly modified shape A, with an offset to AMien a skylight is to be placed over an opening whose walls are brick, a gutter is usually placed around the wall, as

In Fig. 161

shown a

on the curb at B.

SIIFI-T

MKTALWORK

139

sh()\\ni in Fi^'.

102, in

which

A represents a section of tlie wall on which

a fitter, H,
to b to
c.

hung, formed from one piece of metal, a.s shown from a On top of this tlie metal curb C is sohlereil, whicli Ls also
i.s

fonnetl from

one piece with a

i<j

lot-k

seam

at

/.

To

stiffen this

curb a

FrtMu the iasile coninside as shown at I). slippeil densation gutter / a 14-oz. copjier tube runs through the curb, shown
wooilen core
at d.

The condensation from

/,

the gutter r in

tiic

bar, drips into

it is

tlie

gutter

out of

veyed

to tlie

tube d, into the main gutter H, from wliich outside by a leader.

tlie
is

c-on-

In Fig. 103

shown an enlarged

section of a raising sash, taken

through lower curb and

tion with Fig. Fig.

C D

in Fig. l.").

I) the .side

103 shows the ridge bar, H the .sections of the bars explaine<l in connecin Fig.

loO.

K F

in

103

shows

the

upjjcr
fit-

frame of the raising sash,

A.

ting onto the half ridjie bar

On

the upper

each raising sash, at end two hinges II

are riveted at

E and

I,

which

allow the

.sash to raise

or close

by means of a cord, rod, or J .shows the gearings.

lower frame of the sash over the curb B.

|)unch'Hl
at

fitting

Holes are
allow
the

to

condensation to escape int h, thence to the outside through

('.

TIk. U>3.

the hinge II a hood or cap is placed which prevents Fig. KM .shows a .section through .\ H in Fig. 1(17 and repleakage. resents a hippe<l skylight having one-third pitch. Hy a skylight of
C)ver

one-third pitch is meant a skylight whose altitude or height .\ H.isetpnil to one-third of the If the skylight was to have a pitch if .span C I). one-fourth or one-lifth, then the altititde A H would espial oni-fourth
"

or one-fifth respectively of the span

O.
a
hipj)etl .skylight

The

illustration .shows the construction of

with

ridge ventilat)r

which

will

the inside ventilator;

FF

be briefly descriln-d. (' 1) is the curb; F. K die outside ventilator forming a cap over ihc

140

SHEET

IVIETAL

WORK

glass at a.

G shows the hood held in position by two cross braces H.

rests,

J represents a section of the

glass

KK

common bar on the rabbets of which the shows the condensation gutters on the bar J,

Fig. 164.

which are notched out as shown

at M, thus allowing the drip to enter the gutter and discharge through the tube P. The foul air escapes under the hood as shown by the arrow.

Fig. 165.

DORMER ON MUSEE DE CLUNY,

Built in the Fifteenth Century

PARIS, FRANCE

Note the Figure Sculpture at Sides of Dormer.

i u 3

i.

o K

IT

:
V.

o z

a = >

Q - r
S =
<
a
a

SIIKKT MK'I'M
\

\\(

i!;K

HI

AkIOtS STYLES
sluiwii wliat
In*

Ol

>KM.l(im>
and
is

In Fi^. H'u)
plact-il

is

on

:i

curl>

made

is kimwii as a single-pitdi Itf^lit, the car|)C'nter wliicli luis the ilesirnl

jiitcli.

Fig. 160.

'rhe.se .skylislit.s are chiefly u.setl

on

.steep rt)of.s a.s .sliown in

furl).s

the

ilhi.s-

tration,

ami made

to

.set <>n

a \\(MKlen

pitching the .same as the

FiR. 107.

roof, the

iirh first l)eing {la.shctj.

liglits l)y

\\'ntilation

is

obtainetl

l)y

raising

one or more

means

of gearings, as sliown in Fig.

l.V).

FJK.

l(i.H.

142

SHEET METAL WORK

Fig. 166

shows a double-pitch skylight. Ventilation is obtained louvres at each end as shown at A. Fig. 167 shows a by placing with a ridge ventilator. The corner bar C is called the hip skylight
bar; the small bar D, mitering against the corner bar, is called the jack bar, while E is called the common bar. Fig. 168 illustrates a hip monitor skylight

with glazed opening sashes for ventilation. These sashes can be opened or closed separately, by means of gearings similar to
those

shown

in Fig. 177

In Fig. 169

is

shown the method of

raising

Fig. 169.

sashes in conservatories, greenhouses,

applicable to
of a photographer's skylight;
to open.

etc.,

the

same apparatus being

Fig. 170

both metal and wooden sashes.

if

shows a view

desired, the vertical sashes can be

made

In Fig. 171 is shown a flat extension skylight at the rear of a store or building. The upper side and ends are flashed into the brick work and made water-tight with waterproof cement, while the lower side
rests

on the rear wall

to

which

it is

fastened.

In some cases the rear

SHEET
gutter
is

MirrAI.
tlir

WORK
it

143

of cast iron, put

up hy
and

iron workt-r, l)ul

colil-rolle*!
tiie

is

usuully niiule

of No. 22 pilva!u/,e<l iron, or

2(>-o/..

the lM>ttoin of the jjutter

skylight,

copper. To receive wall should he cvere<l ly a

tliick.

\viK)den plate A, Ki^. 172. al>out

.set

two inches

e<l^eways flush with the insid*- of the wall, as

re<|uire<l

ami another shown at B.

is u.se<l.

j^lank
'I'he

two planks are not

Fijj.

when

a cast iron flutter

\7'^

on a metal curh
tnav he

slu)ws a hij)j)ed skyli;;ht without a ridfje ventilator, .set in which louvres have Keen place<l. These lou\Ttts
stationarv or movahle.

made

When made

movahle. they are

' '

Imr. 170.

con.structed as
|{

shown
closetl,

in

Fij,'.
'

17

I,

in

which

.shows a pers|HH'tive view,

open. They are o|)eratel hy the tpiadrants attached to the upri|^ht hars a and h, which in turn are j)uIUn| up and down hy cords or chains work-d from hclow. ^^hen a skylight
(

shows them

and

lias

a very lonj; spati, as

iti

Ki^'.

17.">, it

is

constructeil as

shown

in Fijj.

repres'nts a T-hcam which ean he tru.vsiNl if ne<t'.s.siiry. Tliis construction allows the water to cseap<* from the lM)ttom of the
17(i, in

which

.A

up|MT

li^'ht

to the outside of the top of the lower skylight, the

lij^'ht

curh

of the iijiper

fittinjj

over the <'urh

of the lower light.

144

SHEET METAL WORK

In Fig. 177
is

shown the method

of applying the gearings

A
the

shows the side view of the metal or wooden sash partly opened,

Fig. 171.

end of the main

shaft,

and

the binder that fastens the

main

shaft to

shows the quadrant wheel attached to main the upright or rafter. shaft and E is the worm wheel, geared to the quadrant D, communicating

motion

to the

whole

shaft.

is

a hinged arm fastened to the

shaft

main
sash.

and hinged to the By turning the hand-whee

1

the sash can be opened at any

angle.

DEVELOPMENT OF PATTERNS FOR A HIPPED SKYLIGHT

The
and
following
illustrations

text will explain the princiin developing

ples involved

the

patterns for the ventilator, curb,

hip bar,

and

cross

common bar

bar, jack bar,

or
clip,

in

hipped skylight. princiare also applicable to any other form of light, whether flat, double-pitch, sing-le-oitch. etc.
ples

These

SHEET METAL WORK

In Fi^. 17S
iJiiip)naI elevation
is

145

shown

half

.se<'tii)n,

fjiuirtfr

phiii,

ami a

of a hip har, inthuhnj; the patterns for tle curh, ami coinnion hars. '^Tlie method of niakinjij tliese drawinpi hi|), jack, will l>e exi)lainetl in detail, so that tlie student wlu) pays close attention

Fig
wn'll

173

have no
tlie

difficnlty in laying

pitch of

skylight

may

out any patterns no matter what the or what angle its plan may have. be,
line
its

First

draw any center

to 12 inches.

B, at right angles to which lay

is to

off

C 4', ef|ual

A.'isuming that the light

have one-third

FlK. 171.

pitch, tlicn

nuike the distaniv

CI)

e<|Ual to
1

S inches which

is

onMhird

of 21 inches,
asei'tion of
[larallrl
li>
1

and <lruw the slant hue

lar a.s

>

I.'

theconnnon
)

shown

l>y

At right angles to I ) I' phur K, through which draw lini*s

to / at the Utttoni
1-'

1'^

intersei'ting the curl)

shown fn)m a

and the inside

se<'tion of the ventilator fn^ni

to (i at the top.

At

146

SHEET METAL WXDRK

of the outside vent shown from hio I and the pleasure draw the section hood shown from mtop. X represents the section of the brace resting on i j to uphold the hood resting on it in the corner o. The condensa-

Fig. 175.

tion gutters of the

common

bar

are cut out at the bottom at 5' 6'

e f oi the curb and pass out of the opening indicated by the arrow. Number the corners of each half of the common bar section E as shown, from 1 to 6 on each side,

which allows the drip to go into the gutter d

through which draw

lines

parallel to

4' until

they inter-

sect the curb at the

bottom as

shown by similar numbers 1' to 6', and the inside ventilator at the
top by similar figures 1" to 6". This completes the one half-sec-

From this tion of the skylight. section the pattern for the com-

mon
Fig. 176.

bar can be obtained without

At right angles to stretchout of the section

these small figures,

4'

draw

the plan, as follows: the Una I J upon wliich place the

E as shown by similar figures on I J. Through

and at right angles to I J, draw lines, and intersect drawn at right angles to D 4' from similarly numbered intersections V to 6' on the curb and 1" to 6" on the inside ventilator. Trace a line through points thus obtained then A* B* C^ D' will be the
them by
lines
;

SUKKT MKr.\L
piitterii

\\T)HK

147

for the (luninon liar in a

liippeil skvli^jlit.

'I'lie

same

inetluKi

would

l(f

employe*!

pitili li^lit.

From
r aiitl

a pattern were ilevelope*! for u flat or a loul)lethis same half section the pattern fjr the curh is
if

ilevelopel l)y takin;^ the stretchout

(J

if

the various corners in

line

tiie

curb,

'.V -I'

il

/.

and

|lacinj^

them on the center

AB

as

shown

by similar
angles to

letters

A B
C

and figures. Through these divisions and draw lines which intersect with lines drawn
jKiints in the curl> section a
/ a will
j.

at rij^ht at right

angles to
the curl)
to

A' froni similar

'IVace a line

through points thus obtained; then K' F'

shown
tlie

in the half section.

tlie

he the half pattern for represents the condensation hole

he punched into

light.

As

{x)rtion

pattern between each light of glass in the skyd turns up on c 4', u.se r as a center, and with

I'^g.

177.

the radius

.v

strike the semicircle

shown.

AI)ove this semicircle

punch the hole \. Before the patterns can l>e obtained for the hip ami jack bars, a i|iiarfcr j)lan view nnist Ik- constr\icte<l which will give the jxiints of
intersections
vent, or ridge bar,

between the hip bar and curb, between the hip bar and and between the hip and jack bar. Therefore, fnun

j)oint on the center line .V B as K, draw K 1/ at right angles to A B. the skylight forms a right angle in plan, draw from K, at an angle of 4.'), the hip or iliagonal line K \'\ Take a tra<Mng tf the ctmunon

any
.Vs

with the various figures on same, ami j)la<t" it on the hip <"tme dinn'tlv on the plan >o that the ]Hiin(s hip as shown by K'. Through tlic various figures draw lines parallel to K 1

bar

se<'tion V.

line

K P

in

1^

PATTERN FOR COMMON BAR

rrCUT FOR UPPER

OF JACK BAR

END

Fig. 178.

SlIKirr MK'IAI.

WORK

IW
A

ore-lialf

of which are

iiiterse<'tt*<l

l>y

vertical Hne^i tlrawii parallel to

1'

fn)in similar jHjints of intersection

to

(5'

on the curb, and

1" to 0*

on the

ventilator in the half section, as

('t

interse<-tions 1 to

and

to

0''.

shown res|)ectively in plan by Helow the hip line K 1 trace the

It shoulil he untlersto>d that the opposite intersection as shown. section E' iti ])lan does not indicate the true profile t>f the hip bar
(

whichinust heohtained

later),

hut

is

only j)lace there to give

I

tlie

hori-

zontal distances in j)lan. In laying out the work in practice to full size, the up[)er half intersection of the hip bar in ])lan is all that is ret|uiretl.
It will

be noticed that the

j)oints

section

have similar numbers, and

of intersections in j)lan and one half if the student will carefully follow

each point the method of these projections will become apparent. Having obtained the true j)oints of intersections in plan the next
step is to obtain a diagonal elevation of the hip bar, from which a true To do this draw any section of the hip bar and pattern are obtained.
line as

j)arallel

to

K 1.
4'
G^'

This base

line

M has the same elevaFrom

the various

tion as the base line

{joints 1 to G

has in the half section.

and

V to

Now measuring in each and every crossing the line R indefinitely. in the half section take the various distances instance from the liiu' (
'

in plan, erect lines at right angles to

to jM.ints I) 1" 2" 3" 4"

.")"

and

(i"

at the top,

and

to iK)ints

1' 2'

3' 4'

">'

and

the biJttom, and place them in the diagonal elevation meason the similarly uring in each and every instance from the line R iiumberc<l lines drawn from tlie plan, thus locating respectively the
G' at

|X)ints
tlie

N r
and

2^ 3^ 4^

l)ottom.

^ and G^ at the top, and 1'' 2'' 3'' 4'" ') and tr at Through the points thus obtaine<l draw the miter lines
to
G'"

and c-onnect tlie various j>oints by lines as .sliown, which completes the diagonal elevation of the hip bar intersecting the curb and vent, or ridge. To obtain the true section of the hip bar,
to G'
1'"

take a tracing of the c<jmmon bar

or K' and place

it

in the |>osition

shown by
1'

Iv\ being careful to j)lace the j)oints 1 4 at right angles to ]' as shown. From the various j)oints in the se<-tion K' at right
til

Rnglf^

r r draw

lines intersecting similarly

munberi'd lines
siile.

in tlie

<iiagonal elevation as
jK)ints as

shown from
will

In

"

mi either

ConiUH-t these

shown; then V/

be the true profile of the hip bar.

Note

the di (Terence in the two profiles; the normal l''.' and the modititnl K'. Having obtaine<| the (rue profile F' the pattern for the hip bar i:
oiitairnil

by drawing the stretchout

line

at right angles 1'

1'.

150

SHEET METAL WORK

of the profile E*

Fake the stretchout

similar figures.

Through

and place it on P as shown by these small figures and at right angles to

O P draw lines which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to 1^ 1^ from similarly numbered points at top and bottom, thus obtaining the A line traced through the points tlius points of intersections shown.
obtained, as

shown by H*

J^

K^ L^

will

For

the pattern for the jack bar, take

be the pattern for the hip bar. a tracing of the section of the

common

bar

and place

it

in the position in plan as

1

shown by E^

being careful to

have the points

and 4

at right angles to the line 1^ 1.

It is immaterial how far the section E" is placed from the corner 2 as the intersection with the hip bar remains the same no matter how far the section is placed one way or the other. Through the various

corners in the section E-

draw lines

at right angles to the line 1 1^ inter-

secting one half of tlae hip bar on similarly numbered lines as shown by the intersections P2^3'^ 4^ 5^ 6^ and 1^ 2"^ 3-^ 4^ S*' andG'^; also inter-

secting the curb in plan at points 1^ to 6^. The intersection between the jack bar and curb in plan is not necessary in the development of the pattern as the lower cut in the pattern for the common bar is the

same

as the lower cut in the pattern for the jack bar.

is

intersection

shown

in plan to

make a complete

angles to the line of the jack bar in sections with the hip bar, erect lines intersecting similarly numbered Thus from the various interseclines in the section as shown.
tions

However, the drawing. At right and from the various interplan,

to 6^ in plan, erect vertical lines intersectshown from to 6^. In ing the bar in the half section at points shown from similar manner from the various points of intersections 3'', 5"^, and 6"' in plan, erect lines intersecting the bar in the half section at points

shown by 3"' 5'^ &. Connect these points in the half section, as shown, which represents the line of joint in the section between the hip and jack
bars.

For the pattern for the upper cut of the jack bar, the same stretchcan be used as that used for the common bar. Therefore, at rio-ht out
angles to

D 4' and

from the various intersections

P 2^

3''

4^

5''

and 6^

draw

lines intersecting similar

numbered
in the

lines in the

common

bar as shown by similar figures.

6"'

pattern for the In similar manner from the

section,

various intersections 3^ 5^ and

right angles to

one half

draw

lines at

D 4' intersecting similarly numbered lines in the pattern

and
Q'^.

as

shown by

3'^ 5"^

Trace

lines

from point

to point,

then the

SIIKKT
cut

MKTAL WORK

151

shown from N'

2''

to I" will represt'tit the

miter for that part sliown iu

and the cut shown from I" to () in the pattern will The represent the cut for that part shown in plan from 2*- to 0'', lower cut of the jack bar remains the same as that shown in the pattern.
plan from
to G'
,

is

The half pattern for the em nf the hooil is shown in Fij;. 17'.>, ami obtained as follows: Draw any vertical line as A H, Ujxjn which
I

place the stretchout of the section of the hood m n o p in Fij^. 178, as in Fi{^. 17!>. At right angles shown by similar letters m nop on A to A B and through tlie small letters draw lines, making them e<jual in
\'>

line A B) to jM)ints having similar letters from the center line A B. C'omiect jxjints measuring shown in Fig. 170, which is the half j)attern for the end nf the hood. For the half pattern for the end of the outside ventilator, take tJie

length, (measuring

from the

in Fig. 178, also

I J

2*1

Tl

HALF PAT T El FOR END OF HOOD

A"

op]

HALF PATTERN FOR END OF OUTSIDE VENT

G HALF PATTERN
FOR END OF
INSIDE

VENT

B
Fig. 179.

Fig. 180.
I

Fig. ISl.
it

stretchout of A
Fig. ISO as
lines

/;'

in Fig.

17s ami jilace

on the

vertical line

.\

in

shown by making them in

similar letters, tlirough which

length,

draw horizontal

letters in Fig. 178, also

the points as shown in Fig. 181 is .shown the half |)attern for the end of Uie inside ventilator, tlie stretchout of which isobtainetl from F 1" 2" 3" l" II (I in Fig. 17S.

measuring from A H, ecpial t> similar measuring from the center line .\ H. Connect In Fig. ISO which is the desire<l half pattern.

the jjattern l>eing obtained as explained in connection with Figs. 17l) ami ISO.

When a skylight is to be constructed on which the bars are of such lengths that tlic glass cannot be obtained in one length, and n cross bar or clip is re<jniad as shown by B, in I'ig. l.*)(), which miters against the
main
bar, the j)attern fnr this intersecting cut
is

obtaineil as

shown

in

152

SHEET METAL WORK

Let Fig. 182. represent the section of the main bar, B the elevation of the cross bar, and C its section. Note how this cross bar is bent so
that the water follows the direction of the arrow, causing no leaks because the upper glass a is bedded in putty, while the lower light b is

capped by the top flange of the bar C (See Fig. 150). Number all of the comers of the section C as shown, from 1 to 8, from which points

draw horizontal
At

lines cutting the

main bar

A at points

1 to

8 as shown

right angles to the lines in

B draw the vertical line D E upon which

2 3
8

4
C

-_Z^^

13";

PATTERN FOR CROSS BAR

e"i

E
Fig. 182.

place the stretchout of the cross bar C, shown by similar figures, through which draw horizontal lines, intersecting them with Unes

drawn parallel to D E from similar numbered intersections against the main bar A, thus obtaining the points of intersections 1' to 8' in the Trace a line through points of intersections thus obtained pattern.
which
will

be the pattern
is

for the

end cut of the cross bar.

In Fig. 183
turret sash

shown a
in Fig.

carefully

shown

168 at A.

drawn working section of the These sashes are operated by

SHEET METAI.
means of
tlie

^VOI{K

VA
the pjvot on which

ct>rds,

chains or gearings from the

insitle,

thev turn l>eing

shown hy

11

in Fig. 1S3.

htitt

for these saslies will l>e patterns miters which tlie student will have

Tlie method of obtaining omittwl, as they are only stjuare and

n-*

trouble in developing, pro-

vitling
tion.

he understamls the construe-

This

will

\>e

mmle

clear

hy
I

the following explanation: A B represents the ujiper part of

tlie

turret proper with a drip bent

on

same, as shown
as

at B, against which the sashes close, and a double seam,

In

1.^

shown

at

A. which makes a tight

joint, takes out the twist in bending,

and avoids any

This upindicated by f in per part Fig. 1G.S, over which the gutter B is in Fig. placed as shown by C. 183. represents the lower part
soldering.

AB

'

is

XUY

of
fits

tlie

turret proper or base,

tlie

which
is

over

wooden curb W, and

indicated by
Fig.

in

Fig. lOS.

in

lua_-.
H

183

represents

the

muUion

made from one

double
is

piece of metal ami

seaiiie<l at o.

This mullion
'r

joine<l

to

'Hie pattern for the top

the top and bcttom. end of the

V.

midlion wtjuld simj)ly show a square

cut, wliile tlie j)attern for

the bot-

-i)^
FiK. 1S.1.

represent a butt miter the slant line i j. Before forming up this mullion the holes against shoulil be punched in the sides to admit the U .'^. These mullitns
j)ivot

tom

wouM

are

shown in position in Fig. KJS bv E etc V ( in Fig. 1S;.3 represents the .section of
I'^.,

tlie

side of the sash Ih>Iow

the j)ivot T. Notice that tliis lower half of tlie siile of tlie siush has a lork attachment which h(X)ks into the flange of the mullion E at F.

While the
|)ivot

.side

of

tlie

sash

is

bent

in

one

piecx;,
.1

the uj)j>cr half, alxive the

T,

hiLS the lock

omitted as shcwti by

K.

'llius

when
lus

tiie ."MLsh

((pens, the ujper half of the sides turn toward Uie inside

.shown by

154

SHEET METAL WORK

the arrow at the top, while the lower half swings outward as shown by the arrow at the bottom. When the lower half closes, it locks as shown

a water-tight joint joint; but to obtain IVI, into which the used, partly shown by upper This cap is half of the side of the sash closes as shown at M. upper fastened to the upper part of the mullion E with a projecting hood /
at F,

which makes a water-tight

half,

for the

a cap

is

which

is

opened

will have placed at the same angle as the sash as shown by e e' and d cV or by the dotted lines.

when

it

is

The

side of the sash just explained

is

shown

in Fig.

168 at H.

The pattern for the side of the sash has a square cut at the top, mitering I I at the bottom, in Fig. 183, the same as a square miter. with Note where the metal of the bottom of the sash. the section

represents
is

doubled as at

h,

on the

side of the sash.

.section is

with the rabbet against which the glass rests in line which stiffens it. beaded edge is showTi at

This lower
both ends.

shown

in Fig. 168

by

and has square cuts on

NO

in Fig.

shown

in Fig.

168 by F.

183 shows the section of the top of the sash The flange in Fig. 183 is flush with the out-

side of the glass, thereby allowing

the glass to slide into the grooves in the sides of the sash. After the
glass
is

in position the angle

is

tacked at n.
to the gutter

A leader

is

attached

Fig. 168.

Y as shown by B in While the method of

shown
in Fig. 183 is

construction
IE
11

10
^^'
'

employed, each shop has different methods; what we

generally

have aimed

to give is the general construction in use, after

knowing

which, the student can plan his

own

construction to suit the conditions

which are apt

to arise.
illustrations. Figs.

In the following

184 to 187,

it

will

how common may

be.

to obtain the true lengths of the ventilator, ridge, hip, jack,

be explained and

bars in a hipped skylight, no matter what size the skylight Using this rule only one set of patterns are required, as for

example, those developed in connection with Figs. 178, 179, 180, and If, however, a skylight 181, which in this case has one-third pitch. was required whose pitch was different than one-third, a new set of
patterns would have to be developed, to which the rule above mention-

SHEET METAL WORK

e<l

155

woulil also be iipplicaltlc for .skyli^lits nf tlmt particular pitcli. Using tliis rule it sliould l)c unclt'rstM)d tliat tlie size of the curb, or
tlie

frame, forms

basis fur

all

mejisuremeiits,
line of the

and that rme of the

curb as shown meets the

lines

or l)endsoftlie barshoulil

meet the

in Fig. 17K,

where
curb c

tlie

bottom of the bar K

in the half section

line of the

4' at 4',

and the

ri<li:e

at the top at 4'.

Therefore when laying

K^

10^

12

i>nhiiliiililil.ii l.iilii.l.iil.i.l.i.Li^1r>>^ 11 10 9 6 7 6 5 -^ 3 2 1
Fig.

185.

out the lengths of the bars, they would have to be measured on the line 4 of the l)ar E from 4' to 4" on the patterns, as will be e.xplaineil as we
proceed.
of the
bars.

The first step is to prepare the triangles from wliich the lengths common and jack bars are ol)taine(l, also the lengths of the hip
After the drawings and j)atterns have been laid out
full si/e

according to the principles explaineil in Fig. ITS, take a tracing of the triangle in the half section 1) C 4' and place it as shown by A 12 O, in
Fig.
will

IM.

Divid.- ()

IJ,

which
a'-o'-

be 12 inches

in full size, into

(piarter, half-inches, and the same as on a 2-foot

inches,
rule, as

X
In similar

shown by the figures C) to 12. From these divisu)ns erect lines

until they intersect the pitch
.\
(

which cMm|iletes the triangle

for

tbtaiiiing the true lengths of

jack
size skvliirht.

and conunon bars

tracing
jlac'
it

for
I'

anv
in

>>(

1!

the
12 ()

diagonal
in

elevation

in

manner take Fig. I7s and

as

shown by H
tin*

Fig.

1S.'.

The
bar

length 12

tlien

iM'comes the base nf

ba-ic of
ili<-

triangle for the hip

in a skvlight

whose

trI;iiigU> for tlie

connnon and jack

i)ars meiusure.s

12 inches

156

SHEET METAL WORK

THE "NASSAUER HAUS

Built at the

" IN

NURNBERG, GERMANY
is

End

of the Thirteenth Century. Decorated with Coats of Arms.

Ivower Right,

is

Railing of Gallery underneath Red-Tiled Roof In the Niche over the Fountain at the a Statue of King Adolf von Nassau.

^ii

A
i

'^r^.

TERRACE OK HOUSE AT MONTECITO. CALIFORNIA

For
IVr<iiicllvo

Myrou Hiiiil View of IlulldlDtf.

.11:

Kliiu-r lin-}-, Archltcitx,

Lkk

Aut:<'l<^!*'

*-'''

Sr<i

Pasp SOS: niiirniPUt, on I'n^v ^

Klrnt,

and

Srciuil

Kloor I'lan*

Shown

SIIKKT MinWI.
est sitle of

Work
leiij^th witli

frame)

-r-

=-

feet.

We

have now the

whicli

to j)rocee<l to tlie triaiij^le for (>oiiiiiioii

and hip

Imrs.

ThiLS the len^tii

^A

of the

eominon har

will le e<|iial to twice the

amount

( )

in Fij;.

1x4, while the length of tlu- liip liar i> e in V\^. IS*), will l)e njual to twice the amount of H () in Fij;. ISo. Referrinj; to Fif;.s. isfi and Is? the

jack bars / y are spact**! for 12 inches will e<|ual

botl) of

Iti

inches, therefore, the length of

( )

tlie

jack bar

in Fijj. 1S4,

and 4 inches

e<|ual to 4 ();

which are adde<l together

lengths of the

for the full length.

hip bars will be .shorter in Fig. 187 because a ventilator has been used, while in Fig. ISO a ridge bar

The

common and

was employe) 1. To obtain the lengths of the common and hip bars in 4 inches (widtii Fig. 187 use Rule 3: 4S inche.s (length of short side) ^ 44 inches; and 44 inches -r- 2 =22 inches or of inside ventilator)
the length of the conunon bar c' d' mea-sure<l with a rule will be e<|ual to A <) in Fig. 1S4 and 10 () atldetl together, in Fig. and the length of the hip l)ar v' }' in Fig. Is7 will be e<jual to H
1

foot 10 inches.

Then

I80 and 10*0 added together. Use the same method where In laying out the patterns al parts of an inch occur.

fraction-

according to these measurements use the cuts .shown

in

Figs. 17S, 179, ISO,

and

ISl, being

careful

measure from thearrowpoints shown on each

It

j)atteni.

will

be

iKJticed in Fig. 17s

wc always
liij),

mea.s-

urc on line 4 in the j)atterns for the

connnon,
line 4
.slant

and jack
the

bars.

Tins
F*

is

done l)ecause the

directly

in

jrofiles

K and

come

on the

line

of the triangles which were traced to Figs. 1S4 and

\X'>

WluTc

and from which the true lengths were obtained. a curb might be us'd, as shown in l*'ig. ISS,

which would bring the bottom line of the bar ]\ inches toward the inside of the frame h, all around, then insteaci of using the size tf 4 x S feet as the basis of measurements deduct .{
inches on each side, nuiking the basis of measuremeiMs
.\
."?

TiR. ISS.

ft.

'.

inches

ft.

'.

inclies,

and

j)rocee<l as e.\plaine<l alove.

158

SHEET METAL WORK

ROOFING
A good metal covering on
dation.

a roof

is

as important as a
for this

good foun-

There are various materials used

purpose such as terne

The rigid body, or the plate or what is commonly called roofing tin. base of roofing tin, consists of thin sheets of steel (black plates) that are coated with an alloy of tin and lead. AVhere a first-class job is
desired soft and cold rolled copper should be used.
is

The

soft

copper

generally used for cap flashing and allows itself to be dressed down well after the base flashing is in position. The cold-rolled or hard copis

per
or

steel

used for the roof coverings. In some cases galvanized sheet iron is employed. No matter whether tin, galvanized iron, or

copper is employed the method of construction is the same, and will be explained as we proceed. Another form of roofing is known as corrugated iron roofing,

which consists of black or galvanized strength and stiffness. Roofs having

sheets, corrugated so as to secure

less

than one-third pitch should

be covered by what is knowm as flat-seam roofing, and should be covered (when tin or copper is used) with sheets 10 x 14 inches in size rather
than with sheets 14 x 20 inches, because the larger number of seams
stiffens

weather.

the surface and prevents the rattling of the tin in stormy Steep roofs should be covered by what is known as standing-

seam roofing made from 14" x 20" tin or from 20" x 28". Before any metal is placed on a roof the roofer should see that the sheathing beards
are well seasoned, dry and free from knots and nailed close together.

Beforelayingthe tin plate a good building paper, free from acid, should be laid on the sheathing,or the tin plate should be painted on the underside before laying.

Corrugated iron

is

used for roofs and sides of

usually laid directly upon the purlins in roofs, and held in place by means of clips of hoop iron, which encircle the purlins and are riveted to the corrugated iron about 12 inches apart. The
buildings.
It is

method of constructing

flat

and double-seam

roofing, also corrugated

iron coverings, will be explained as

we

proceed.

TABLES
The
material required to cover a given

following tables will prove useful in figuring the quantity of number of square feet.

SIIEtrr

METAL WORK
H()<)FI.\'(i

l.VJ

FL.Vr-.SEA.M

Table showing quantity of

'

mil
wit

...
tl>e

H
.

x 20-ineh tin rccjuircil to cover a given

ii

Hjofing.

8ln-it of II

.'

ll

M|uare inches.
"

In

following

all

or folilid, 13 X I'j i: ^ iV fractiontil jMirtii of a sheet arc counted a

fclgi'<l

full

160

SHEET

ISIETAL

WORK

STANDING-SEAM ROOFING
Table showing the quantity of 20 X 28-inch tin in boxes, and sheets required to lay any given standing-seam roof.
SQ.

FEET

SIIKKT MKTAI.

WoUK

ir.l

NKT WKKWIT
]'.<
I

I'KU
II

BOX TIN PLATES

.'Mil.'
ic
luT
lOO-lb.i
j '

Trade term

80-lb.

-lb. 90-lb.
8B
,90

DMb.

WelKbt per
Sl
r.f

Im>x.

tl>.

'm

lOU

162

SHEET METAL WORK

OTHER FORMS OF METAL ROOFING
There
is

another form of roofing

known

as metal slates

and shin-

gles, pressed in various geometrical designs with water-tight lock attach-

ments so that no solder is required in laying the roof. Fig. 189 shows the general shape of these metal shingles

which are made from tin, galvanized iron, and copper, the dots a a a a
representing the holes for nailing to the wood sheathing. In Fig. 190, A
represents the side lock, showing the first operation in laying the metal slate
or shingle
nail.

on a

roof,

a representing the

B, figure, shows the metal slate or shingle in position covering the nail b, the valley c of the bottom
in the
^'s- ^8^'

same

slate allowing

the water,

if

any, to

flow over the next lower slate as in

in Fig. 189.

In Fig. 191

is

shown the bottom

slate

A covered by the top slate B,

the ridges a a a keeping the water from backing up. Fig. 192 shows the style of
roof on which these shingles are employed, that is, on steep roofs. Note the construction of the ridge
Fig. 192,
roll,

5HEATH/NG

BOAR D

IJ

pl

and

in

which

at a a etc.,

nailed in position after which the shingles B are

is first c.

jSb
SHEATHING BOARD

slipped under the lock

Fig. 193

shows

^^S- 190hip covering which is laid from the top downward, the lower end of the hip having a projection piece for nailing at a, over which the top end of the next piece is inserted, thus

roll

%
Fig, 191.

covering and concealing the nails.

Fig. 194 represents a perspective

view of a valley with metal slates, showing how the slates A are locked to the fold in the valley B. There are many other forms of

RHKI-n^

MriWL WORK

163

netiil

sliiii^'les,

hut

tlie

shapes shown herewitli ure known as

tlie

Cortright patents.

TOOLS
er; starting at the left

RI:QI

IRHD
re<[ulrel

Fig. 195 shows the various hand tools

hy the metal roof-

we have

the soldering copper, mallet, scraj>er,

A^-,

B
ImK. 192.

21
stretch-awl, .shears,

hammer,
is

aiul dividers.

In addition to these

hand

tools a notching maciiine

retpiired for cutting ofT the corners of the

ii;.

]'.:{.

sheets,
(piired

and

r<M)(ing

folders

are

rellat-

for e<lging

the sheets in

seam
and

roofing,
r(X)fing

and hand double seamer

roofing.

tongs for standing-seam Tiic roofing doul)le seamer

usol
ft>r

and s(|ueezing tongs can he

I'JK.

lai.

standing-seam roofing
hanil
diiiilile
if

plaiv of the seamer), which allow the

(in

operator to .stand in an iipright jM)sition

the ri>of

is

not

to

steep.

ROOr Mi:\SlR\TI()\
While .some mechanics imdiTsiand tlionughly
llie

metltods of

164

SHEET METAL WORK

not understand

kinds of roofing, there are some, however, who do laying the various how to figure from architects' or scale drawings the

amount of material required

shaped, or hipped roof.

to cover a given surface in a flat, irregular

The modern house

with

its

gables and va-

Fig. 195.

rious intersecting roofs, forming hips and valleys, render it necessary to on roof measurement. In Figs. 196 to 198 ingive a short chapter clusive are shown respectively the plans with full size measurements
for a flat, irregular,and intersected

hipped roof, showing

how the length

from

of the hips

and

valleys are obtained direct

the architects' scale drawings.

The
drawn
6'0'

illustrations

shown herewith are not

a scale as architects' drawings will be, but the measurements on the diagrams are asto

tia

ed
i

sumed, which will clearly show the principles which must be applied when figuring from scale drawings. Assuming that the plans from which

- A2-0"

we

are figuring are

drawn

to

a quarter-inch

scale,

Fig. 196.

then when measurements are taken, every quarter inch represents one foot. ^ inch = 6 inches, ^^
If the

inch

= 3

inches, etc.

drawings were drawn

to

a half-inch

= 12 inches, \ inch scale, then \ inch inch = I2 inches, etc. yg

= 6

inches, \ inch = 3 inches,

A B C D in Fig.
as

shown hy ab
12.5

c d.

196 represents a flat roof with a shaft at one side In a roof of this kind we will figure it as if there

was no

air shaft at all.

The shaft is

6 feet

Thus 64 feet X 42 feet = 2,688 square feet. - 75 feet = = 75 square feet; then 2,688 feet

SHEET METAL WORK

2,613 s<iuare
tlie flosliinj;
fct-t

1G3

of

rH)lii4i;. ti)

wlikh must

l>e uiitlwl

iiii

allowaiife for

turning up
is

against an<l into the walls at tlie sides.

flat

In Fig. 107
iH'ing

shown a

ronf with a shaft at each

sliape*!
is

sitle,

one shaft
^

irreguhir, forming an irreguhir

roof.
ilar to

The

rule for ol)tainuig the area

sim-

that useil for Fig. 10<) with the exception

.r

that the area of the irregular shaft

Fig. 197
sluift
is

x x x
feet

in

deterinineil differently to that of the

hcde.
is

Thus
9.25

.\

H C

1)

= lOS

4.')

X9^

feet

4,S()0 sfjuare feet.

which

Find the area of h c 39..^ - 3G5.373 or 3(l.^>g

^
O
o
c

.'

scpiare feet.
sliaft,

To

find the area of the irregular

.r.r

bisect

xx and

and ohtain a
feet,

a,

measure the length of a a which is 4S = 412, multiply by 9. Thus 48 X 9

-}-

and
412

X
d e
t*
1.

an.l

365.375 = 777. M75.

-

The

entire roof
feet

the shafts

\,s{'A)

square

minus 777.'S7o =

9-3

_1
JC

A 5-0"
^^'K-

4,aS2.G25

.sf|uare feet
is

of surface in Fig. 197.

''"

In Fig. 198

tersected hipped roof.

.shown the plan, front, and side elevations of an in.\ H (' 1 ) represents the j)lan of the main build-

SIDE

ELEVATION

lie
ing intersecte<l

1S

by the wing

1''

<

II.

We

will first figure

the main

roof as

if

tlierc

were no wing attaclml

an<l then dinluct the

sputY luken

166

SHEET METAL \WRK

up by the intersection of the wing. While it may appear difficult to some to figure the quantities in a hipped roof, it is very simple, if the As the pitch of the roof is equal on four sides the rule is understood. of the rafter shown from O to N in front elevation represents length the true length of the pitch on each side. The length of the building at the eave is 90 feet and the length of the ridge 4S feet. Take 2 = 21. Now either add 21 to the length of the 90 - 48 = 42, and 42 edge or deduct 21 from the length of the eave, which gives 69 feet as shown from S to T. The length of the eave at the end is 42 feet and = 21, as shown from T it runs to an apex at J. Then take 42 feet -^ 2 to U. If desired the hip lines A I, J B and J C can be bisected, obtaining respectively the points S, T, and U, which when measured will be of similar sizes; 69 feet and 21 feet. As the length of the rafter O N is 30 feet, then as follows: 69 X 30 = 2070. 21 X 30 = 630.

multiply

Then 630

2,070

2,700,

and multiplying by 2

(for opposite sides)

gives 5,400 square feet or 54 squares of roofing for the main building. From this amount deduct the intersection F in the plan as follows:

EL

The width of the wing is 24

roof as

feet

6 inches and

it

intersects the

main

shown

at

E L F.

Bisect

E L and L F and obtain points W and

V, which when measured will be 12 feet 3 inches or one half of HG, 24 feet 6 inches. The wing intersects the main roof from to F' in the

side elevation, a distance of 18 feet.

Deduct 220.5 from 5400 =

5,179.5.

Then take 18 X 12.25 = The wing measures 33

220.5.
feet 6

inches at the ridge M, and 21 feet 6 inches at the eave F G, thus =27 feet 6 inches. The length of to making the distance from

the rafter of the wing is shown in front elevation by P R, and is 18 feet. Then 18 27.5 = 495, and multiplying by 2 (for opposite side), gives

995

sq.

ft.

in the wing.

We then have a rooting area of 5,179.5 square

of

main roof and 995 square feet in the wing, making a total 6,174.5 square feet in the plan shown in Fig. 198. If it is desired to know the quantity of ridge, hips, and valleys
feet in the
tlie roof,

in

the following method is used. the plans by adding 48' + 33'6" = 81'
the hip I
until
it

The ridge can be

6".
I'

taken from

For the true length of

in the front elevation

D in the plan, drop a vertical line from

On

intersects the eave line 1.

the eave line e.xtended, place the

distance I

D in the
by

plan as shown from 1 to

D and draw a line from

D to I* which will be the true

ply this length
4,

which

in the plan. Multilength of the hip I will give the amount of ridge capping re-

SHEET MirrAL WORK

(luiinl.

lo:

This

lengtli
hcij,'ht

liij)

tan also

Ik* obtaiiietl

from

tlie

plan by tak-

ing the vertical

of the roof 1

I'

in the elevation I to

right angles to I

in the plan, as

shown, from

and placing it at P, and draw a lintvertical line

from

I-

to

D which is the desired

length.

length of the valley L from F' in the side elevation until

For

tlie

F
it

in tlie plan,

drop a

intersects the eave line at F.

it ils

Take

the distanc"e
line

F L in

tlie

plan and j)lace

shown from F to L,
tlie

and draw a

from

T^ to F*,

which

is

the true length of

valley

shown hy
tlie

LF

in the plan.

Multiply

this length

retjuireil

nund>er of

feet of valley retpiired.

{)lan

by 2, which will give This length of valley

vertical height of tlie

can also be obtaine<l fi*om the

roof of the wing,
right angles to
to

by taking the
I^ Ut

shown by

I'^

F* in the side elevation,

FL

in tlie plan,

from

P, ami draw a
L

and placing it line from

at

F which The

is

the desired length similar lo F'

in tht; side elevati<ni.

ri.AT-SEAM ROOFING
lirst

step necessary in jjreparing the plates for dat

iHHifing

is

to notch or cut off the four corners of the plate as

it

scam shown in

Fig. 1!>0

which .shows the plate as

is

taken from the

\)ox,

the shawled

corners a a a a representing the ctjniers which are notchetl on the notching machine or with the shears.

^"

Care mu.st be taken when cutting

to cut off too
little

oil'

the.se

corners not

otherwise

tlie

sheets will not edce

otherwi.se a hole will

well,

and not

to cut off too

much,
off

show

at tlie corners

when
to

the sheets are laid.

To

fiiul

the correct

**' proceed us follows: .\ssuming that a l-inch e<lge is ilesireil, set the dividers at \ inch an<l .scribe the linens h a and c on the .sheet .shown in Fig. 100, ami,

amount

be cut

where the

lines intersect at a,

draw

the line d c at an angle of 45 dt^rees,

which reprasents the true amount and true angle to be cut off on each corner. After all the sheets have been
notchetl, they are etlged as shown in Fig. 20(), tlie long sidesof the .sheet being bent right and left, tis shown at
a,

while the short

sitle

is

bent as .shown at
lus

b,

making
CJises

the

notched corner aj)pear

at

c.

In .some

after the .sheets are edgtl the contract retpiires that the

sheets

1); on the underside before laying. This is usuallv piiintetl d)ne with a small bru.sh. bring careful that tlic etlges of the .sheets

168

SHEET METAL \TORK

are not soiled with paint, which would interfere with soldering. Before laying the sheets the roof boards are sometimes covered with an
oil

or rosin-sized paoer to prevent the moisture or fumes from below from rusting the tin on the underside. As before mentioned, the same method used for laying tin roofing would be applicable for laying

have

copper roofing, with the exception that the copper sheets would to be tinned about 1^ inches around the edges of the sheets
after they are notched,

and before they are edged.

In Fig. 201 is shown how a tin roof is started and the sheets laid when a gutter is used at the eaves with a fire wall at the side. A repre-

Fig. 201.

sents a galvanized iron gutter with a portion of it lapping on the roof, with a lock at C. In hanging the gutter it is flashed against the fire

wall at J

after

which the base flashing

D D is

out on the roof at E, with a lock at F.

miters with the flange of the gutter the flange E of the base flashing as

Where

put in position, flashing the base flashing E

it is joined as shown at b, allowing shown by the dotted line a. As the

water discharges at G, the sheets are laid in the direction of the arrow H, placing the nails at least G inches apart, always starting to nail at the butt e e, etc. Care should be taken when nailing that the nail heads
are well covered
flashing D D

by the edges, as shown

in

W, by

a.
it

Over the base

to

J the cap flashing

is

placed, allowing

go into the

wall as at

O.

SHKKT MKTAL WOHK

Wlifii
Ill

mi
iiiftluMis eiii|iluve(l.

jiiittiiij^

ill l)ii.se

(lashings tliere are

two

Fig.

202

is

shown a

side thtshiiig hetweeii the roof

ami

jaraj>et

wall.

A sh)ws the fhishing turning out on the nwjf at H, with a lock C, uttache<l and flashtnl into the wall four courses of hrick al>ove the rtxjf line,
as

shown

at

I),

where wall hooks and

-^^

are usetl to paintskins or roofer's cement make a tight joint. Flashings of this be i)ainte<l on the kind shoiiltl

always
brick

underside, and
l)etween
the

paper

slujiild

lie

j)la(ed

work and metal, beis

cause the moisture in the wall

rust the tin.

apt to
in
I'ifi.

This method of putting

not advisable in
the
l)iiilling
is

20J.

flashing

is

new work,

l>ecause
to settle

when

and when

this

occurs the flange

new, the walls and beams are liable D tears out of the wall, and tlie

result
to

is

walls. disagreeable leaks that stain the

When

a new roof

is

be placed on an old building where the walls and ctipings are in beams have .settled, there is not so much place and the brick work and
in flashings

danger of leakage. Tlie proper metliod of putting

for the

and one which allows

of the metal and the settlement of tlie expansion and contraction building is shown in Fig. 203, in which A shows the cap flashings,

When the ma.s4in has coats of paint bcfon* using. painted with two built his wall up to four courses of brick iibovc the roof line the ca|>
flashing
.\.

is

j)laced

in j>osition anil the wall

and
.\.

ct>])ing finislutl;

the

base

In |>racticc the cap fhisiiing is cut 7 inches, then bent at right angles through the t*nter. (lashing making each .side (t and h 'i' inclcs. Tlic lase flashing H is then
is

then

uiuler the cap .slipjx-d

tlipp-d

under the cap flashing A

a.N

shown

at

(\

170

SHEET METAL WORK

Where
the cost
is

not considered and a good job

is

desired,

it is

better to use sheet lead cap flashings in place of tin.

They

last longer,

do not

rust,

and can be dressed down well

to lay tight onto the

base

flashings.

Into the lock

the sheets are attached.

After the sheets

of a

are laid the seams are flattened

down

well

by means

heavy mallet,

with slightly convex faces, after which the roof is readv for soldering. When a base flashing
P"b

is

required on a roof which abuts against a wall composed of clap boards or shingles as shown
in Fig. 204, then, after the last course of tin

A
is

Fig. 205.

j^g^g

been

laid, the flashing

with the lock a

locked into the course

and extends the required distance under the

boards D.
before
it is

flashing should always be painted and allowed to dry placed in position. In the previous figures it was shown
left.

The

how

the sheets are edged, both sides being edged right and

In

Fig 205 is shown what is known as a valley sheet, where the short
sides are

edged both one way, as

shown at a a, and the long sides right and left as shown at bb.
Sheets of this kind are used

when

the water runs together from two Fig. 206. directions as shown by in Fig. 206. By having the locks a and a turned one way the roof

is

laid in

both directions.
Fig. 207

the flashing

B CDE

shows a part plan of a roof and chimney A, around which is to be placed, and explains how the corners C and D are double seamed,

on a chimney, bulkhead, or any other object on a roof when the

water flows in the direction
of the arrow F.

whether

The

first

Thus
it.

it

operation is shown at a and Fig. 207. the final operation at b. will be seen that the water flows past the seam and not against
flat

In laying ance must be

seam roofing
for the

especially

when copper

is

used, allowsheets.

made

expansion and contraction of the

SIIERT
Care should
ill

MKTAL WOUK
lirectly tlir>Uf,'h

171

l)c

taken not to nail

Wliilf this
wt-ll

the sheet as

is

shown

\V.

Fi},'.

201.

r<H)Hn<;,

on a gH)d joh, as
should he

method is j^eneraliy employed in tin as on cj[)|)er nx)ling, cleats as shown at

I) in Fij;. 2()S

tised.

To show how
sheets.

The

they are used, lock tm the cleat

A and H
is
ii

locke<l into the

represent two locked-etlged of tlie sheets e<lf,'e

d, ar as

and nailed into the roof boards

at

b c

and

often as retjuired.

1^
B
D

Fig. 2(is.

In this

maimer

the entire njuf can he fastene<l with cleats without

for expansion havin; a nail driven into tlie sheets, thereby allowing cleats are placed, tlie and contraction of the metal. The closer these

firmer the roof will be

and the better the seams

will hold.

By

using

fewer cleats, time may be .saved in laying the rt)of, but double this time is lost when soldering the seams, for the heat of the soUiering copper

Imk.

JO".).

will raise the .seams,

.S4>ldering

ami

re<(uire

causing a succession of buckles, which retard When the seams are 10 [)er cent more .solder.
it

luiiled

or

cleaite<l clo.se

lays flat

and smcwith and the soldering

is

ilone

with ease and less

soliler.
is

When

a connci-tion

to

be made between metal and stone or

in

terra cotta, the

method .shown

Fig. 2(K)

is

employnl.

This
line

illus

tration .shows a stone or terracotta cornice A.

The heavy

ah c d

172

SHEET METAL WORK

represents the gutter lining, which is usually made from 20-oz. coldis of stone, the stone cutter cuts a If the cornice rolled copper.

as at B, dove-tail in shape, after raggle into the top of the cornice which the lining abcdis put in position as shown. Then, being careful that there is

no water or moisture
it is

in the raggle
it is

poured into the raggle and after

cooled

dressed

B, molten lead is down well with

the caulking chisel and hammer. By having the dove-tail cut, the lead

holding down

the edge of the lining and the cornice be of terra cotta this raggle

secured firmly in position, making a tight joint. Should

is is

cut into the clay before

it is

baked

in the ovens.

This method of making connection between

Fig. 210.

metal and stone

is

is

the

same no matter whether a

gutter or upright wall

to

be flashed.

be
in

made tight,

WTien a flashing between a stone wall and roof is to then instead of using molten lead, cakes of lead are cast
for this purpose,

molds made

driven into the raggle

as

shown

about 12 inches long, and these are in Fig. 209 at X.

The most important step in roofing is the soldering. The style of soldering copper employed is shown in Fig. 210 and weighs at least 8 pounds to the pair. WTien rosin is used as a flux, it is also employed
in tinning the coppers, but when acid is used as a flux for soldering zmc or galvanized iron, salammoniac is used for tinning the coppers. It will be noticed that the soldering coppers are forged square at the ends,

and have a groove

filed in

at A. When the copper turned upward the groove should be filed toward the lower side within J inch from

one side as shown

is

the corner, so that

when

the groove

is

placed
it

upon
^*g- 211-

the seam, as

shown

in Fig. 211,

acts

the copper as the latter is drawn along the seam. The groove a being in the position shown, the largest heated surface b rests directly on the seam, "soaking"
it

as a guide to

thoroughly with solder.

the locks, about 6

pounds

of ^

As the heat draws the solder between and h solder are required for 100 square
tin
fta

feet of surface using 14

x 20-inch

The
acid

seams in a

tin roof is to

be avoided

foming

u^e of acid in soldering contact with the

Ml.

COCYAftC'lTC^

r
i'

1
t

Kj

z.

- '\^i

r.*^

^.-.-r-f'iT

PLANS OK MODSF. AT MONTECITO.

Al.IFORNIA

SlIKI-rr

MKTAI.

WOUK
are
folle<l

173

lijire

ed^'es

and corners, where

tlie slieeLs

ami seametl

t>-

jjetlier, will

cause rusting. rosin shotild he employe*!.

No other soldering Hux The sune flux (rosin)

but gojd clean

sliould l>e use<l

when soldering copper

tinned with rosin.

n^ofing whose edges have previously been

We will now consider the soldering of upright seams. The solderas shown in Fig. ing copjier to l>e emj)lovel for this purj)ose is shaj>e<l 212. It is forge<l to a wedge shaj>e, alxnit 1 inch wide and \ inch

3Fig. 212.

thick at the end,

othersvise,

and

is

tlie .solder,

tinned on one side and the end only; if tinned instead of remaining on the tinned side when

soldering,
iie<l
t
)

paretl,

would flow downward; hy having the soldering copper tinon one side only, tlie remaining sides are black and do not tend draw tlie solder downward. The soldering c^)pper being tlius pretlie upright seam, shown in Fig. 21.?, where the .sheet R overlaps

the .sheet

1", is

soldered by

first

tacking the seam to

make

it

lay close,

then tlioroughly soaking the .seam, an<l tlien placing ridges of solder across it to strengthen the same. In

using

should
shown

be held

the soldering copper it in the position

)-

wliidi allows the soll)y C, der to flow forward and into the

y" ^

./

seam, while
a.s

if

the c-opper were held

shown by D, the solder would flow backward and away from the
solder
tlie

/ '^^^D

seam.

In ".soaking" the .seam with copper should be place<l

the
lapj)eil

Vifi.

213.

directly over

part, so

that

the metal gets tlioroughly

joint.
It

heated and draws

tlie .solder

between the

makes no

dilTer-

vl\(^' where this cross joint o<curs; the same methods are usctl. The riM.f being comj)leteil, the rosin is si-rajHtl oiT the .seams

ami

tlier(M)f cleaiie<l and painted with good iron oxide aiitl linseetl oil paint. .Some roofers omit the s<Ti[)ing of rosin nnd paint dirwtly over it. If the Tliia is the cau.se )f rusting of se^uns which sometimes occurs.

174

SHEET METAL WORK

paint is api)licd to the rosin, the hitter, with time, will crack, and the rain will soak under the cracked rosin to the tin surface. Even when

the surface of the roof

will often

is dry, by raising the cracked rosin, moisture be found inulerneath, which naturally tends to rust the plate more and more with each storm. If the rosin is removed, the entire

tin surface is proteeted

by

paint.

One

of the

most

difficult

ing a conical tower.

As

jobs in flat-seams roofing is that of coverthe roof in question is round in plan and taperit

ing in elevation,

is

necessary to

know

the

method
sheets.

of cutting the various patterns for the

In Fig. 214 shows the elevation of a tower to be covered with flat seam
roofing, using 10

ABC

14-inch tin at the base.

is

As-

suming that the tower through B C

ference
is

10 feet 6

inches, or 120 inches, in diameter, the circum-

obtained

3.141G
inches.

which

As

by multiplying 120 by equals 395.8410, or say 390 10 x 14-inch plate is to be used at

will

the base of the tower the nearest width which

can be employed, and which

space into equal spaces,
is

divide the

13^ inches without

in

edges, thus dividing the circumference

30
to-

equal spaces. B or B C gether with the length of the rafter in elevation, will be the basis from which all the

This width of 13^ inches

Fig. 214.

patterns for the various courses will be laid off. At any convenient place in the shop or at

the required

length, tacking

the building, stretch a piece of tar felting of the four corners with nails to it at

keep tlie paper from moving. Upon the center of the felting strike a chalk line as A B in Fig. 215, making it equal to the length
of the rafter

AB

or

AC

in Fig. 214.

Fig. 215 at either side,

inches, being

draw the lines

B D

At right angles to A B in and B C each equal to Of

one half of the 13|^ above referred to. From the points draw lines to the apex A (shown broken). As the widtli of the sheet used is 10 inches and as we assume an edge of f inch for each side, thus leaving 9j inches, measure on the vertical line A B

C and

lengths of 9| inches in succession, until the apex

A is reached,

leaving

siiKirr MF;r\i.

wohk
'I'limu^li tlie |M>iiiLs
iiitrr statin;;
tliiis

the

liist

slut't at

tlii'

(ilttaiiinl oil

I?

top to miu- a.s it may. tiraw liiu-s |arallfl to (' 1)

'I'heii

the hues
I

<"

ami
lie

l) JUS shtiwii.
i)atterii.s
'

the variiiis

.^lla|Ms

marketl

.'{

etc. will

the net

for siniilarlv

iminhered

courses.
jtatterns
re(|uiretl.

'I'ake the shears

and cut out the

a.s

on the

felting

and nuuiher them

No.

For example, take the j)aj)er pattern 1, place it on a sheet of tin a.s shown in

I'ig. 21t),

and notch the corners

on

and allow g-ineh edges all arounil, .\ B (' and D. Mark

tlie tin pattern "No. 1, 21> more", as 'AO sheets are re(julrel to go arouixl the tower, and cut 29 more for course No. 1. Treat all

of the paper patterns from No. 1 to tiie apex in similar maimer. Of course where
the patterns become smaller in size at the top, the waste from other patterns can he used.
In Fig.

217

is

.shown

how

the sheets

should he edged, always being careful to have the narrow siile towards the top with
the edge toward the outside, the
flat

same

as in
tlie

seam

roofing.

Lay the

sheets in

u.sual

manner, breaking joints as in general As the seams are not sohlered |)ractice.
care must be taken to lock the edges well. .\fter the entire roof is laid and before closing the seams with the nudlet

take u snuill brush an<l

paint
\vliit'

tin'

locks with thi-k

lead,

then

close

with

the

mallet.

This

>

will

make
.\fter

a water-tight

job.

the

r(M)f

is

176

SHEET METAL WORK

from C to and all following lines should be curved, struck with a radius from the center A, and not straight as shown.

terns the line

as

if

To

those the wi-iter would say that the curve would be so little on a small pattern, where the radius is so long, that a straight line answers the purpose just as well in all practical work; for it would amount to

considerable labor to turn edges on the curved cut of the sheet, and there is certainly no necessity for it.

WTien

different metals are to

flashing, or

be connected together, as for instance

tin roofing to
ters,

copper copper tubes to galvanized iron gutor zinc flashings in connection with copper linings, care must be taken to have the copper sheets thoroughly tinned on both sides where it

joins to the galvanized iron, zinc, or other metal, to avoid

sis

any

electrolyto roofers

between the two metals.

if

It is

a fact not well

known

that
ly,

we take

two clean

strips,

a glass jar and fill it with water and place it in separateone of zinc and the other of copper, and connect the
electrical action is the result,

two with a thin copper wire, an

and

if

the

connection remains for a long time (as the action is very faint) the zinc

would be destroyed, because,

for

it

may
same
was

he said, the zinc furnishes the fuel

the electrical action, the
as

wood

furnishes the fuel for the

if

fire.

Therefore,

the copper

not tinned, before locking into the other metal, and the joint became

wet with
electrical action

rain, the coating

of the

metal would be destroyed by the

between the two metals, and the iron would rust

seldom called upon to lay out patterns
arise that a roof flashing
is

through. Wliile the roofer

roofing

is

for

any

work occasion may

required around

a pipe passing through a roof of any pitch, as shown in Fig. 218, in which A represents a smoke or vent pipe passing through the roof B B, If the roof B B were the metal roof flashing being indicated by C C.
level the

But where the roof the opening in the flashing becomes an ellipse, whose minor pitches axis is the same as the diameter of the pipe, and whose major axis is
true circle the

opening to be cut into the flashing C same diameter as the pipe A.

C would

simply be a

^'TTFF'I'

MKTAL WoUK
i.s

1~7

ttjiial
taii)el

lo

till'

pitch a

h.
ji

In

I'ig. L'l'J

slmwii liow Uiis

()l>i>|>c>nin^ is

by

tlie

use of

few

nails, a strinir.

ami a

pencil,

which the

rfM)fer

will

always have handy.

First tlraw the line

then

make

[iroper
line.

A W representing the >lant of the roof, and the pipe of the <lesireil size passing through this line at its angle to the roof
draw the center
of
'
."^

Xe.xt

line

the
t

.shown.

all

h e

pipe, as po n t
i

where
tlie

this

line
I, F.

intersects

r>of

line,

and the
and
<"

points where
intersect

1)
(J

B.

and
I

II r'-

spectively.

Through
and
1

draw
.\

KL

at right angles tn

H.

making
cipial
to

KI

each

the half diameter

of the

j)ipc.

lished the

Having estal>minor axis K L

and the major axis

the ellipse
is

II.

made by
half the

tak-

ing

II,

III-

axis, as a radius,

major and with

'

as a center strike arcs in-

'*^-

-''

tersecting the

major

axis, at iM)ints

M
K.

ami N.
.string to

Drive a small nail

the nails as a

in

each of these two

the dotted lines

jM)ints

and attach a
in sui-h a

shown by
|K)int
i>

K M
it

X.

way

that

when

j)encil

placnl
string,

ill

the string
it

will

reach

Move

the |)cncil aK)ng the

keeping
Nt>te
h,

taut

all

the tinu' imtil the ellipse

II

(i
it

is

ol>-

tained.
a,
th'n

how

the position of the string changes

when

reache."

etc.

SI

\\IHN(i-Sr:AM kOOl
rooliiig is that
less

l\(i

Another form of mclal

which
is
u.s'<l

known
\

as standing seiun.
\

on steep nnifs not

It

than

pitch, or

the withh
hori/jontal

of the building.

consists of metal sheets

whose

cni.-vs tir

s<'am.s are |o<'k'd a> in (hit

M-am

nwiling,

and who.se

vertical s>ams are

.standing Icx-keil seams, as will be dcscrilxtl in conne-tion with Figs.

178

SHEET METAL WORK

to

220

229 inclusive.

Assume

that 14 x 20-inch sheets are used

and

the sheets are edged

220,

making

sides only, as shown in Fig. by the sheet 13 x 20 inches. After the required number of

on the 20-inch

sheets have been edged,

and assuming that the length

roof
is

of the pitched

30

feet,

then as

many

sheets are

locked together as will be required, and the seams are closed with the mallet

In practice these strips are prepared of the required length in the shop, painted on the underside, and when
Fig. 220.

and soldered.

dry are rolled up and sent to the building. If desired they can be laid out at the buildrolling

ing,

which avoids the buckling caused by

to the job.

and transportation

from the shop

After the necessary strips have been prepared they are bent up with the roofing tongs, or, what is better and quicker, the roofing edger for standing-seam roofing. Tliis is a machine into which the strips of
tin are

fed, being dis-

charged in the required bent form shown at A or

in Fig. 221,

bent up

inch on one side and IJ inches on the other side.

Or

the machine

will, if

^'^- ^'^^^

desired,

bend up \\ inches and \\

inches, giving a |-inch finished

doubled seam in the first case and a 1-inch seam in the second. WHien laying standing-seam roofing, in no case should any nails
be driven into the sheets.
I"

This applies

to tin,

nized iron sheets.

A cleat should

copper or galvabe used, as shown

-k

which also shows the full size for laying the sheets given in Fig. 221. Thus it will be seen in 222 that \ inch has been added over the measureFig.
in Fig. 222,

^XCLEATN
Fig. 222.

ments

in Fig. 221, thus allowing edges. cleats

These

shown

in Fig.

222 are

made from

scrap metal; they allow for the expansion and contraction of the roofing and are used in practice as shown in Fig. 223,

which represents the first operation in laying a standing-seam roof, and in which A represents the gutter with a lock attached at B. The

SIIKET
la.^itncti

MKTAL WORK

170

j;imii

lock

li

the same as
its

Ihim;^'

in

|)Ositinn

hv means of cleats unrler the

in flat

.scam nxdiiig

the

stamiiri;; y^aiu
it

.stri|s

arc
lock

laiti

follows:

Take

the strip

('

ami lock

well into the

222

tijijhtly

at 1),

A its shown, ami place the cleat sliown in Fig. the upright lientl of the strip C in Fig. 2'2.'i a^ shown anti fasten it to the roof by means of a 1-inch roofing nail a.
)f

the "gutter
a},'ainst

Fig. 223.

Press the strip C firmly onto the roof and turn over e<lge b of the cleat I). This holds the .sheet C in position. Xow take the next sheet H,
|)rcss
it

down and

holds

in jKJsition.

against the cleat 1) and turn over the e<lge d, which The.se cleats should be j)laced about IS inches

Fig.

-JJ-I.

Fig. 225.
it

aj)art

and by using them

will

be

sitMi that

no nails have

Ikhmi driven

through the .sheets, the entire roof being held in positi)n by nieans cf the cleats onlv.

The

.second operation

is

.shown
(>r

in

Fig. 22

I.

By means
at .

of the

hantl ilouble si-amer

.s<juee/.ing tongs,

and mallet

w itii the roofing double .seamers and

is

the single .seam

is

made

as

shown

The

third

and

.shown in Fig. 22') where by the n.se )f tlte .same operation In Fig. '2'2^) is .shown how the tools the doubled seam a is obtained.
last

finish is

made

with a ctimb ridge at

tin*

(oj).

The

.sheets

A A A have

180

SHEET METAL WORK

on the one side the

are soldered

single edge as shown, while the opposite side B has a double edge turned over as shown at a. Then, standing seams hhh

down
is

to

e.

In Fig. 227

shown how the

side of a wall

is

flashed

and counter

Fig. 226.

flashed.

shows the

gutter,

the leader or rain water conductor,

and

the lock on the gutter A, fastened to the roof boards by cleats

Fig. 227.
9-s

shown

at

D.

TJie back of the gutter

line E.

is

flashed

up against the

wall

as high as
strip

shown b^ the dotted

F represents

a standing-seam

locked into the gutter at

H and flashed up against the wall as high

SHEET METAL WORK

xs
at

ISl

shown by
any

tlic ilotteil line

J J.

.Vs

the Ha-sliing J J

Ls

not fastenetJ

part to the wall the l>eain.s or wall

can

settle witliout tlLsturhing

counter or cap Hashing K K K is now slep{>e<J as lines, the joints of the brick work iK'ing cut out to This is well fastenetl with allow a one-inch flange d d d etc. to enter.
the tliushing.

The

Jiown by

tiie

heavy

flashing hooks, as indicatetl

tight

ith roofer's

cement. As

by the small dots, and then made waterwill be seen the cajj flashing overlaps the

covers to
a
b.

base flashing a tlistance indicated by J .1 and L L; the corner is double seamed at

M
i,

gutter showing liow the tubes

joined.
at
i

shows a sectional view through the ami leatlers are

tube

The

is

flanged out as

shown

and soldered

to the gutter; the leader

()

is

then slijjped over the tube

as shown,

and fastened.
In the section on Flat-.^cam Roofing
it

was explained how a conical tower, Fig. 211, would be covered. It will be shown now

how
tlie

this

tower would be covered with stand-

ing-seam roofing. As the circumference of tower at the base is 396 inches, and
1-1

assuming that
be
usel at the

x 20-inch
tlie

tin

))late
tlie

is

to

base of

tower,

nearest

width which can

will divide the

be employetl and which

is

base intoe<^{ual spaces

17

^''^

inches, witliout edges, thus divitling the cir-

cumference into 23 equal parts. Then the width of ITn'j inches and the length of the
rafter

AH

or

AC

in elevation will to construct

strip,

be the

basis from which

for the
ceel
JLs

the pattern

standing .seam
follows:

for

which pro-

1) ill Fig. 22.S represent a 2()-inch wide strip l.icktNl and the n-cpiirnl length. Through the center of ilie strij) draw Now measure the length of the rafter .\ \\ or .V (' in Fig. the line 1'. F. 211 and place it on the line V. V in Fig. 22S its .shown from II to F. At

T,ct .\

'

soldj-retl to

right angles to 11
e<|ual
to

F on

eitluT side

draw F

and F
ITj'j

\.

making each

S\\

in'hc.s,

being one half of the

alH)ve refTrcl to.

182

SHEE'l

METAL \WRK

right angles to

O draw lines to the apex H (shown broken). At and H O draw lines H P equal to 1^ inches and H S equal to 1 j inches respectively. In similar manner draw L D and O C and connect by lines the points P D and S C. Then will P S C D
From
points

and

HL

be the pattern for the standing seam

required.

strip, of

which 22 more

will

be

When

the strips are all cut out, use the roofing tongs and bend up the sides, after which they are laid on the tower, fastened with cleats, and double seamed with the hand seamer and mallet in the usual manner.
If the

tower was done

steel,

m copper or
would be

galva-

nized sheet iron or

where 8-foot sheets

cross-

could be used, as

many

sheets

locked together as required; then metal could be saved, and waste avoided, by cutting the
sheets as

shown

in Fig.

229 in which

AB CD

shows the sheets of metal locked together^ and E and F tlie pattern sheets, the only waste be-

Where ing that shown by the shaded portion. in Fig. 214 sets over the tower, the the finial

standing seams are turned over

'^'

flat

as

much

""

as

is

required to receive
finial, to

the

finial,
it

or small

notches would be cut into the base of the

allow

to slip over

Before closing the seams, they are painted with the standing seams. white lead with a tool brush, then clos.ed up tight, which makes a good
tight job.

CORRUGATED IRON ROOFING AND SIDING

Corrugated iron
is

used for roofs and sides of buildings.

It is

usually laid directly upon the purlins in roofs constructed as shown in Figs. 230 and 231, the former being constructed to receive sidings of

corrugated iron, while in the latter figure the side walls of the building are brick. Special care must be taken that the projecting edges of the
corrugated iron at the eaves and gable ends of the roof are well secured, otherwise the wind will loosen the sheets and fold them up. The corrugations are made of various sizes such as 5-inch, 25-inch, IJ-inch and |-inch, the measurements always being from to B in Fig. 232,

and the depth being shown by C.

The

smaller corrugations give a

SUKKT MKIAI. WoUK

luuri'

IS3

sillier and pleasing ;i|)|K'aran(i*, Imt llie lurjier rurriij(ation.s are a ^eacer tli.staiict'.thfreljy juTjiiittiiij,' the jmrliiis to |je further will span

apart.

I'ig.

230.

The

tliickne.-vs

varies from

No. 24

of the metal f;ene'-ally iise<l for roofni}; aiui siding to No. Ki gauge. Hy actual trial made by The

i-r

184

SHEET IMETAL WORK

TABLES
The
following tables will prove of value

when

desiring

any

infor-

mation

to

which they appertain.

MEASUREMENTS OF CORRUGATED SHEETS

Dimensions of Sheets and Corrugations.

RESULTS OF TEST
of a corrugated sheet No. 20, 2 feet wide, 6 feet long

between supports, loaded

uniformly with

fare clay.

Load

;tif.i-:t

mi"'''\'

wmrk
sUwts
.{(1^

w*
iinlifs wiJe lK-fi>re

The

is follitwiiij!; talilf

tul<ulatel for

ct)rruj;aliiig.

j:?

"1.1
I

M.'.

23 St

.018

.73

186

SHEET METAL WORK

Should the gable have a fire wall, then let the sheets butt against the wall and flash with corrugated flashing as shown in Fig. 235, over which the regular cap or counter flashing is placed as explained in connection with Fi";. 227. Should ^

^^.^^
_

\^__

the

ridge of

the roof

butt

\^/y/yyyjmi^m\\\w///m'Mm^

ROOF LINE

against a wall, as shown at B in Fig. 230, then an end-wall flashing

is

used as

is

shown

in Fig.

236 which must also be capped,

by

either using

cap flashing or

allowing the corrugated siding to overlap this end-wall flashing

Fig. 234.

Fig. 235.

as would

be the case at

in

Fig.

230.

Now commence

the

second course at the eaves, giving one and one half corrugations for side lap, being careful that the side corrugations center each other
exactly

and

nail with

washers as shown in Fig. 237.

Nail at every other corrugation at end laps, and at about every 6 inches at
side laps, nailing through top

Fig. 236.

corrugation as shown in Continue laying in Fig. 237.

of

this

manner

until the roof is covered.

rule is to be observed in regard to laps and flashing if the corrugated iron were to be fastened to iron purlins, and the method of fastening to the iron frames would be accomplished as shown in Figs.

The same

238 to 240 inclusive.

steel structures

Assuming that
let

are to be covered, as

shown

in Figs.

230 and 231, then

rafter,

in Fig.

238 be the iron

Fig. 237.

the cross angles on which the sheets of the clip or clamp C, which is made from
tlie

are laid, then by means hoop iron and bent around

angle B, the sheets are riveted in position. In Fig. 239 is shown another form of clamp, which is bent over the bottom of the angle iron.

;HKF.T MK'IAI.

WOHK
F is riveted
'!'

\S1

Fig.

240

slu)\vs still iiiiotliiT iiietli<Ml, wlierc the claiiii)

to the

blieet

at K,

tlieii tiiniitl

the storm drive in

rugatetl

unminl the angle A at D. between tlie corrugated opening

used a^ shown
in Fig. '2\\.

uvriiil

having

at the caves, cor-

wood

filler is

'I'his

keeps out the

V
Fig. 2:W.

I
FiR. 239.

snow and
put down
If

framing Another form of corrugated iron roofing

sleet.

On imn

this
is

is

made

of pressed metal.

shown

in Fig. 242.

This

is

with cleats in a manner similar to standing-seam r(X)fing. tliere are hips on the roof, the corrugated iron should l)e care-

fully

cut

with

sheet

and the hip This lead.

c)vered
is

hest

done by having a wooden cove or filler place <1 on the hip,

again.st

which
is

tlie

roofing butts.

Sheet lead
this

tlien

formed over
into

wooden core and

the
Fir. 210.

by corrugations, meJMis of wood screws through the lead cap

'i'he

and

ta.stcne<l

intt

the W(Kiden core.

lead

being

soft,

it

can

be

worked

a valley occurs in a hippctl roof, a valley as .shown in Fii:- 21."?, being sure to give

When

any desire<l shape. form from plain shivt iron

it

into

twoa>atsof paint

before laying, and

it

make

from
n

24-intii

wide
u
jt
1

sheets,
i

lientling

ch
it

<-s

on each

.sile.

'*' "

Fit
to
lit

in

the valley, anl

the re(|uired angh-. corrugated iroti over the vallev from (I to s in(lle^. corrugated
cut
tlu-

iron

Then

lap

tlie

When

iron, ix-nding U|)

chinmey is to Im- flashnl, a.s shown in Fig. 244, use plain and flashing into the chimney joint>, and allowing

188

SHEET METAL WORK

the flashing to turn up under the corrugated iron at the top about 12 inches and over the corrugated iron at the bottom about the same distance. At the side the flashing should have the shape of the cor-

rugated iron and receive a lap of about 8 inches, the entire flashing

Fig. 242.

being well bedded in roofer's cement. \Vlien a water-tight joint is required around a smoke stack, as shown in Fig. 245, the corrugated iron is first cut out as shown, then a flashing built around one half the upper part of the stack to keep the water from entering inside. This
is

best done by using heavy

sheet lead

and

riveting

it

to

the sheets, using strips of simi 1 a r corrugated iron as a

washer to avoid damaging the

lead.

Before

riveting,

the

flashing must be well bedded in roofer's cement and then

make a beveled angle of cement to make a good joint.

in position a collar
Fig. 243.

After this upright flashing is is set over the

same and fastened

to the

bolted

and made

tight as

shown.

stack by means of an iron ring Cement is used to make a waterfor the

This construction gives room tight joint arovmd the stack. stack to sway and allows the lieat to escape.

Sometimes the end-wall flashing shown

in Fig.

236 can be used

FRONT AND REAR VIEWS OF RESIDENCE OF MRS. H. M. COBB, MAGNOLIA DRIVE, CLEVELAND, OHIO Watterson & Schneider, Architects, Cleveland, Ohio.

FRONT AM) KKAK \11.WS OK HKMKKNU.

I

^l^

MH.

M.

1.

llHlMls,
t>l>li.

.MAi.Sviii\

i.mi.i,

I.KVKI.ANI).

OHIO

Wnitprooti

Srhnrlilpr. An-hliwin, t'lcvplaiiil.

SHEET MEIWL WoKK

to gool a<lvaiita<jc in
Imiltliiiji; tlie ui>riglit

1S^

llasliing in Fi;^. 24'j.

Where
and

the currugatetl iron

inet't.->

at the ridge, as at 1)

and

i) in Figs. 2'.U)

^p-p_^-_

Fig. 244.

^\, a wooden core is plac^I tlie hij) ridge, and an angle

in position

a.s

exphiined in connection

witli

ridge, pressed

by dealers who furnish the

TiK.

21.".

corriigatnl iron,

is

phiced over the

riilge

jis

.sh(wn in Fig.

'2\i\.

When

a ridge

roll

i.s

rejwiri-d,

the .shape .shown in Fig. '217

is

eniployitl.

190

SHEET METAL WORK

direct to the roof sheets

These ridges are fastened

or bolting.

by means of riveting

LAYING CORRUGATED
shown

SI

DING

Before pntting on any corrugated siding or cla])boarding, as in Fig. 24S, a finish is usually made at the eaves by means of a

Fig. 24G.

hanging gutter or a plain cornice, shown in Fig. 249, which is fastened This method is generally to the projecting wooden or iron rafters.
used on elevators, mills, factories, barns,
etc.,

where corrugated

iron,

crimped iron or clapboards are used for either roofing or siding.

This

Fig. 217.

and gable projections, so as to make When laying the siding commence the building entirely ironclad. at the left hand corner, laying the courses from ba.se to cornice, giving
style of cornice covers the eaves

the sheets a lap of two inches as the ends and one and one half corruga-

Fig. 248.

Nail side laps every 6 inches and end laps at every tions at the sides. other corrugation, driving the nails as shower in Fig. 250. Where the sheets must be fastened to iron framing use the same

method

this case, instead of nailing the sheets, they

is

In as explained in connection with Figs. 238, 239 and 240. would be riveted. If siding

the studput on the wooden studiling care should be taken to space In the same distance apart as the laying width of the iron used. ding

siii:i:r

miim.
In-

\\<)1:k'

i'.i

tliis

vase piet-es of

stiidiliti;;

sIhmiM

plat i| Ix'twdMi the iipri^liLs at

\\ lini toveriiig gruiii cievutur"*

tlie

eml of

facli

.slu-rt (u

nail tlir laps.

(\)nuneinr at the hase and necessary to use swinging scall'olds. ( 'omineiKe the course to the eave, the leii<,'tli of the scatt'ol.!. carry up
it is

at tlie left luiiid

and

j^ive

the sheets a lap of one coriui^ation on the side

and a two-inch lap

at the end.

Nail or rivet in every corrugation 'i inches from the lower end of tlio sheet; this allows
for settling of the huilding.

Fig.

2.").

A
to

When any
lie

structure

is

(ii\frfd

oil

two

(ir

nior'

.sides,
flat

corner casinjjs
are

made

of

eniploved, of a sha|<e similar to that .shown iit

iron

-diy

H, I'V-

-d.
an<l

I( i^

will

he

s.eii

that a ralihet
.sides
(I

heiit

on

lH>th

to

admit

the
finish
If

KiK

-'.''

I.

.siding.

This makes a neat

on
a

tlu*

outside and
is

hides
to

the

edges of tlie .siding. casings a jamli is usnl as shown

rough
l.el

window opening
,

have
ral>-

at .\,

l-'ig. 'J.'l

whirh has a similar

l>

at

II

to re'eive the siding,

and a sipiare heiid at

nail against the

It is

frame.

In

I'ig.

J.'iL*

is

.shown the <ap of a window or o|K>ning.

192

SHEET METAL WORK

is

bent so that a

nailed to the

window

or other frame at the bottom,

while b forms a flashing over which the siding will set. Fig. 253 shows the sill of a window, which has a rabbet at a, in which the siding is

Fig. 252.
;

Fig. 253.

water coming over the sill passes slipped then b forms a drip, and any over the siding without danger of leaks; c is nailed in white lead to the

window frame.
Another use
awnings.
sheets laid
to

which corrugated iron

is

put

is

to cover

sheds and

Sheets laid on

wood

are nailed in the usual manner, while

on angle

iron construction are fastened as explained in the

Fig. 254.

In Fig. 254 is shown an awning over a store laid on angle iron supports. In work of this kind, to make a neat appearance, the sheets are cui'ved to conform to the iron bracket A.
preceding sections.

CORNICE OVER BRICK BAY *

An
^ides of

elevation and plan of a brick.

lj;iy

are .shown in the illu.stration, tho

which are S inches, 3

feet 2 inches

and

Ft

feet

10 inches wide.

I^ijm

allowed on the 3 feet 2 inch pieces and no laps on the S inch and 5 feet 10 inch i)ieces. The lookouts or iron braces are indior flanges for soldering are to
\)e

cated in the plan by the hea^y dashes making a total of 9 required. After the detail ."section is drawn and knowing the angle of the bay in plan,
the angle
vertically
is

placed as
.'i1

from

in the .section.

shown by ABC, being careful The miter line

and

to place
Ls

CB on

a line

drawn
to the
Ls

then drawn as shown by

BI), the section divided into equal spaces,

vertical lines

dropped

miter line

BD

as shown.

At

right angles to
1

BC

the girth of the section

drawn

as

shown by

similar figures from

to 2G, through

which points at right

lines

angles to 1-2G, lines are dra\\'n

and

intersected

by similar numbered

drawn from the miter

miter cut shown.

line

BD

at right angles to

BC, thus obtaining the upjwr

Now

using this miter cut in practice,

make

the distance

from either points 25 or 24 (which rcpre.sents the

8 inches, 3 feet 2 inches and 5 feet 10 inches.
10 inches have oppo^ite miter cut^ as shown.

line of the wall) equal to

The

3 feet 2 inches

and 5

feet

As
right

will

and one

be seen by the plan, two eight inch j)ifces will be required, one Nine left and two 3 feet 2 inch and one 5 feet 10 inch pieces.

iron lookouts will be required

formed to the shape shown

in the detail section*

where holes are punched

*
1

for bolting as there indicated.

nv illuatrutlon rcfemxl to will

l>o

(ouud oa

tlie

buck of

tliiii

imgv.

\\\\\\\v.y\\\\\\\\\v

w
a,
-r*

-^

C
o

<t^

" W o
-t^

cu to

."

>K

^ 3 O

_ -

o w < n H H
(fl

in
(0

s H
n o
a-

a H
to

O 2 O
Hi*

J
6<

H
ee

7
-^
.,-2-.e-

:,oi-s^-

SHEET METAL
I'AHT
II

WOPK

COIi^MCi:
There
is u)

WORK
ti)-<lay

trade

iti

the liuildiii^ line

wiiieh Iia^ inale

.-.uch

Sheetrapid projjress as that of Sheet-Metal (Joniice, or Arehitectural of this braneh Metal Work. It is iKit very lun^ since the j^eiieral scope
iif

(Taftsinaiishij)

seale.

merely represented a tin-shop hnsiness on a larj^e But as things are tt)-tlay, this is changt^l. Fn)iu an enlarged

that title tin-shop business, sheet-metal cornice work, including under branch of architectural sheet-metal work, has l)ecoit'e one of tlie everA'

substantial industiies of the countrA-,

comparing favorably with almost

anv

<ther

mechanical branch

in the building trales.

Nor

is

this

wrk

In tlie smaller towns is .>.hown the progconfined lo the larger cities. ress of architectural sheet-metal work in the erection of entire building
fronts

consMurtcd from sheet metal.

CONSTRlCriON
Sheet-metal cornices have heretofore,
in a great
in

measure, l>een

wood, which, in duplications of the designs commonly em|)loyed were imitations {f stone. turn, with minor modifications,

With the marked advancement of

need no longer be the
tive.
It

this industry,
is

however,
not

this

ca.se.

.sheet-metal corni'e

now

imitajat-

j)os.sesses

a variety

and beauty peculiarly

its

own.

.\'o

I lern is to) complex or too diilicult. )esigns are salisfactrily e.\tH-util which are imjM>.ssible to product' in any other material. in sheet metal free and judi'ious aj)plication of j)res>ed metal ornaments, a liy the

pn<luct
sharj)

is

and clean-<ut

For bo|dnes.s of figure, obtained that eijuals carved work. sheet-metal work takes the leail of all coimlines,

|ctitors.

In onler that there nuiy be no misimdersianding as to the various onlained in what the sheet-metal workir ealls a "cornice."
I

'

>.

in tlu-

ha.i been prepared, which giv's the nanus of all the meiMbers the architeitural name for what in Uu* .sliop ia "entablature"

194

SHEET METAL WORK

known as the cornice. The term "entablature" is seldom heard among mechanics, a veiy general use of the word "cornice" having
supplanted
it

in the

common

language of business.

frieze,

An entablature consists of three principal parts the cornice, the and the architrave. A glance at the illustration will serve to
relation that each bears to the others.
is

show the

Among mechanics
and
for

the shop term for architrave

foot-moulding; for frieze, panel;

cr

i- i
1
UJ

QUARTER ROUND
STILE

/dentil mould q,0

COVE
I

PANEL
V

_l UJ

PANEL MOULD

i
u

WA5H
y QUARTER ROuFTd^

'"ILLET

X o a. <
.JL.

FASCIA
DRIP

OQ O

-I

o
FASCIA
Fig. 255.

the subdivisions of the cornice, dentil course, modillion coixm^, bedmould, and croum-mould. In the modillion course, are the modiUion-

band and mod ill ion-mould; while in the dentil course are ihe dentilhand and dentil-mould. Drips are shown at the bottom of die crownand foot-mould fascias, and the ceiling under the crown mould is called
the planceer. The edge at the top of the cornice is called a lock, and is used to lock the metal roofing into, when covering the top of the cor-

SHEET >frrAE WORK

nicv.

195

the Mile.

In the panel, tliere are tlie panel pruper, the paael-iiwuld, The side and fmnt of the inodilhon are als4) shown.
2')<>

aii<l

Fij;.

shows the side and

frint

view of what

<s

known

as a

Lar^e tenninal brackets in cornices, which ])roject l)eyond the niouldin^'s, and a;;ainst which the
hracket.

nionhUngs end, are caUed trnsses, a front and a side view of whidi are

shown

ill

Fi^.

'2'u

hlock phiced
a<;ainst
Fig. 250.

above
which
stop

common

bracket

tlie

hlfx'k,

monlding ends, is calle<l a a fnmt and a side view of

in Fig. 25S.
F'i<^.

which are shown

2.jU

is

tlie

front eleva-

tion of
iiiiiiiiiii i iii i iii i iiiiiiii i i

a cornice, in which are

u iiiii

sliown the truss, the bracket, the

modillion, the
panel.
It
is

dentil, and the

stnnetinies the case,

in the construction of a cornice,

that

bracket or modillion

is

called for,

whose

front

and sides
In

are car\el as .shown in the fmnt

anl side views in
F^ig. 2(50.

that case, the brackets are ol)-

tained

fmnx dealers

in

pressetl

ornaments,

who make a

specialty

of this kinl of work.

'I'he

same

FRONT
Imk.
'-ViT.

SIDE
aj)[)lics

to

capitals which would

j

be reipiircd for

blasters or col-

unins, such

a.s

tho.se

shown
the
sol-

in

Figs. 2G1 and

2l'i2.

The

pilaster or

oolinnn

would be formed
metal, and
antl

r
!

up

in .sheet

ca|>ital

purcha.sel
in

dered
2r)3,

position. .shows an

In

liu

inclined
a.s

moulding, which,
general
position

far as

front
Fi. 2.VS.

SIOC

is

con-

cenied, would be the

same

as a gable monlding.

196

SHEET METAL WORK

Raking inouldings are those which are incHned as in a gable or pediment; but, inasmuch as to miter an inchned moulding (as A) into a horizontal moulding (as B and C), under certain conditions, necessitates
ers,

a change of profile, the term "to rake," among sheet-metal workhas come to mean "to change profiles" for the accomplishment of

FRONT ELEVATION
Fig. 259

the term "raked moulding" has been changed to admit of mitering. profile

such a miter.

Hence

means one whose

The tenn
ing at

miter, in

common

usage, designates a joint in a mould-

any angle.
foiTn a veiy important part in sheet-metal architectural

Drawings

FRONT ELEVATION
Fig. 2G0.

SIDE ELEVATION

work.

An

elevation

is

a geometrical projection of a building or other

object, on a plane perpendicular to the horizon as, for example, 259 and 263. Elevations are ordinarily drawn to a scale of | or Figs.

>liHKT MHTAI.
\

WORK

19/

iiuli

ti>

till'

fiMit.
it

.^fctionul

(itluT <l)ject as
a.s,

would

drawituj sliuws a view <<f a Ijuilditig Ot if cut in two at u jjivcii vertical line a|)|)ear
Detail draw'mtfs arronliiiarily
full size, ai.d

for

example,

Fij;.

2').*).

A--

SEC
<//'^.-r-.

ON

iUN

.V/. / ....

Fiu.

-'t,!.

Fit;

2(V.>.

are often called work'nuj drawhuja.

made

\>y traciii<r

iipon traiisparct't

i-lotli

Traeinrjs are (iii|iiicate <lrawings, or paper j)Iace(l over tlie orig-

Fi?. 2rt3.

inal

drawiiij;.

eiioiigli,

we

lielieve,

M-inv other terms might l>e ititrodiiccti her'; l>nt ha '' l>'eii presented to give the student the leading

general

]Miint.s.

198

SHEET METAL ^NORK

A few
to the wall.

words are necessary on the subject of fastening

the cornice

Sheet-metal cornices are

made

of such a

wide range of

sizes,

and

are required to be placed in so many different locations, that the methods of construction, when wooden lookouts are employed and

Fig. 264.

when
up,

the cornice

is

the most careful study.

is

put together at the building in parts, are worthy of The general order of procedure in putting

as follows:

The

wall finished

foot-moulding or architrave a b (Fig. 264) is set upon the up to /, the drip a being drawn tight against the wall.
in position,

The brickwork is then carried up, and the lookout A placed

the wall being carried

up a few courses higher to hold the lookout in A board B is then nailed on top of the lookouts (which position. should be placed about three feet apart) and on this the flange of the
;

foot-mould b

is

fastened.
is

The

frieze or

panel 6 c

is

now

placed into

the lock B, which

closed

and soldered; when the lookout

C and

the

board

are placed in their proper positions^ as before described.

siiKi<n^ .\ii-rrAi.

work

M9
.s<l(lere<l

The
1>,

plaiifeer

ami

lo<l-ini>ul(l c

d an- iiow luckel and

a lx)ard

at

and the

Io<jk(iUt

with phiceil in position,

phicetl

under

t!>e liHikoiits

ceer

is

the entire lenj^th of the cornice; onto this l>oard the j>lunfastened. Having the |)n)j)er measurements, the framer now
I

constructs his lookouts or hrackets (I II

H, fastening

tt)

the

beam

at

T, when the crown-mould d c is fastened flange of the drip at d, and at the top at r.
of mouldings, are

to the plani-eer,

through the

made by

joints l)etween lengtns or bolting, care l>eing lapping, riveting,

its

The

taken that they are joined so neatly

to liide all indications of a

seam when
sliort

finished

and viewed

from a

distance.
If

brackets or modillions are to

"'"^''*'

in position, they are riveted or bolte<l in i)osition; or sometimes the

be placed
of

"T

l)ack

tiie

cornice

is

blocked out

with wood, and the brackets screweil

in

position tlirough their flanges. \Miile a galvanizeil-iron cornice

thus constructed on
will resist fire for

wooden lookouts

a long time, a strictcornice is obtained only ly fireproof by the use of metal for supports and
fastenings, to

the entire exclusion of

flrej)roof

w(H)d.

This
is

method
Fig.

of conFig.
20.';.

Ntniction

shown

in

20.').

Inis

stead of piitting up ill j)arts on the l)uilding, the c-ornice stnicted in one piece in the shoj) or upon the ground, an<l to the top of the wall in long lengths A <lrip a easily handled.
at the

i-on-

lioisteil
is

used
in-

bottom of the foot-mould, and the

joints nuidc in the

way

di(ate<l at h

and

r,

with a lock at d.

Hand

iron supprts

are \iscd, formc(l to the general ctiutour of the parts as ( ', an<l bolted direct to the cornice, as shown, before hoisting.

and braces shown bv .\ \\

When
to the

the cornice

.sets

on the wall

jus

at (',

anchors are fastenni

l>'ut

main brace, as

at I>

and

I.,

with an cud

up or dwn

for

fastening.
hi> wall,

If tlie c<rnice sets perfectly

phnnb. the

nut.son carries

up

which holds the

then framrd

crni<c in a lirni
iisn.-il

hark

iirr

in flu-

top and nwiimer and ct)vere<l bv the metal

iM>^itii>ii.

The

200

SHEET METAL WORK

In constnirtiiif^ cornices in this manner, the nionldiniis are The brackets solid, behind jill l)rackets and niodillions.
of riveting through outside

roofer.

run througli

and niodilhons are attached by means

flanges.

SHOP TOOLS
One of the most important tools in cornice or architectural sheetmetal working shop is the brake. On those operated by hand, sheets In the laCrger shops, are bent up to 8 feet in one continuous length.
power presses or brakes are used,
feet in length, the press

in

being so constructed that they

which sheets are formed up to 10 will form ogees,

l)en(ls in one operation. squares, or acute Large <S- f)r 10-feet squaring shears also form an important addition to the shop, and are operated by foot or power.

\Mien cornices are constructed where the planceer or

wide,
it is

frieze

is

verv

usual to put crimped metal in, to avoid the waves and buckles showing in the flat surface; for this purpose the crimpitig machine
is

used.

In preparing the iron braces for use in the construction of fireproof cornices, a punchltu/ machine and slittimj shears are used for
cutting the band iron and punching holes in it to admit the bolts. \Miile braces are sometimes bent in a vise, a small machine known as a

hra^e bender

is

of great value in the shop.

it is

constructions,

necessary that

all

In large fireproof building doors, window frames, and even

in so neat
will

sashes be covered with metal, and

made

a manner that,
to indicate

when painted and

grained, no differences
is

be apparent

whether the material

inch being obtained.

down to \ This, of course, cannot be done on the brakes

wood or
metal, the smallest l)ends

but just mentioned,

structed in lengths

done by means of the draw-hcnch, which is conup to 20 feet and longer, operated by means of an endless chain, and capal)le of drawing the sheet metal over any shaped wood mould as tightly as if it were cast in one piece. The smaller
is

shop are similar to those described in the Instruction on Tinsmithing and Sheet Metal Work, Part I. Papers
tools in the

METHOD EMPLOYED FOR OBTAINING PATTERNS

to cylinder developments as explained in principles applied the Tinsmithing and Sheet Metal Work courses, under the heading of "Parallel-Line Developments," are also applicable for obtaining

The

SHEET Mtrru. WoKK

llif

2xi\

jialicni.^ fur :iiiv iiiiMilliii<: wlu-iiint

:(ll

iiu-iiiIhts

run para
a.s

lei;

for

it

makes
this

Wiirereiiee

what

j)rulile

is

eiiiiiloxed, Mt

Imig

the lines nin

|aralUI

to

one another, the

is

i>arallel-line

method

is

usel.

While
will

method
ill

ehiefly
l!ie

employed

in corniee

uris'.

which

"Kadial-I.iiu" and

work, other proMems rriaiij^'iilation" methoijs

(ex-

plained in previous Papers) will lu- of >erviie. 'I'lie term used in the >hop for pattern ;,'enerally

iiitiin};

on

e<.rnief

work

is inilir i-iitfiinf.

To

illiistrite,

>iippo

-c

two
90

piece-r of moiildin;;-^

are to

le

joined
as

lo^'elher

at

anjjie of
L'tit't.

IK)*^,

shown

in Fi<;.

V^-T"',

The

first

woukl he
an^Ie an<l
linf

to

l)ise<t

step necessary the j^iven

olitaiii

the

initrr-

and cut each piece so they wnidd miter to^'et her.

had
t)

that
If a
kin.
-'till.

<arj)iiter

make

a joint of this kind,

j>iece
ri<,'ht

in the miter-l)ox,

and cut one

le

he would |)lace his moulding' and one pie<e left at an aiijjie

of

l."),

and he would

sitifui l)eforo

careful to hold the moulding in its proper posawing; or else he may, instead of having a return miter as shown, have a face miter as in
I

|ictiire

L'(i7.

'I'he

frame, shown in Fig. sheet-metal corniceafter his

it

maker cannot,
is

moulding

formed, place
to
it

in the miter-

\.
o.

l>o\

cut

XJLU
FIr.
:it>7.

lay

out

the miter, hut

or, in

must

other words,

sheet of metal.

develop iton a Hat surface or lie nmst also he

careful to place the profile in its piopi-r |>o.sition with the miterliu'-'; or else, instead of ha\ing a return miter as shown in Fig. L!(i(>, lu*
will

have a face miter as shown

he can (hen cut two
a miter will result hetween as

in Fig. 2<i7.

If

he lays out his wtrk

corretly,

jiieces,
lln'

fonn om-

right

and the other

left,

when
l<M,k

two pieces of moulding and

is

will

shown
l''ig.

i*i

Fig. LMWJ.

If.

|iowe\cr, a face miter

desinil. as
for panels

^howti in

'ji\7,

which

is

used

when miters

an-

d'sirs|

and other purjMises, the method of laying them out we ppweed. The same principles reijuired for and
Uti?

will lie

esplaiiml as

are

\isvt\,

de\i'|oping I''igs. "Jllti whether the mouldings are mitereil at angles oflH/'

202

SHEET METAL WORK

or otherwise. The method of raking the mouldings or, in other words, changing their profile to admit the mitering of some other moulding at various angles will also be thoroughly explained as we

proceed.

VARIOUS SHAPES OF MOULDINGS

The
style

Roman, and

are obtained

of mouldings arising in the cornice shop are chiefly by using the arcs of a circle. In some cases,

Greek mouldings are used, the outlines of which follow the curves
of conic sections; but the majority of shapes are arcs of circles.

In

Fig. 268.

Fig. 269.

268 to 272 inclusive, the student is given a few simple lessons on mouldings, which should be carefully followed. As all pattern-cutters are required to draw their full-size details in the shop from
Figs.

Roman

small-scale drawings furnished

must understand how

to

by the architect, it follows that they draw the moulds with skill and ease; other-

Fig. 270.

Fig. 271.

wise freehand curves are made, which lack proportion and beauty. In Fig. 268, A shows the mould known as the cyma recta, known

shop as the ogee, which is drawn as follows Complete a square abed; draw the two diagonals a c and b d, intersecting each other at e. Through e, draw a horizontal line interThen, with / and h as centers, draw resecting adatf and 6 c at h. spectively the two quarter-circles a e and e c.
in the
:

Cupples Hall, No.

2.

Building is 207 FulI L.,u^, i. i Engineering; Second Floor, to

>..

. v ., ij^lectrical

First Floor Devoted to Mechanical

Engineering.

The Library. The Building is 257 Feet Long. 46 Feet Wide. " The Reading Room is 100 Feet by Feet. The Stacks tor Books Have Room for Over 400,000 Volumes. Cost of Building, $250,000.

41

SHEEl
In
Fiji. -"!K
(

.\ifc:iAl.

WORK
known
in the

2(A

H shows

tlu- rt/inu rtiTr.ia,

shop as the

h r d, and lniw tlie two lUimonuls 'oniplete u square a h d and a r at ; thnai^h r, draw a vertical line intersecting interseetinj;
(Hfir, rcversetl.

abut } and
a f an<l e c.

at

//,

which points are the respective centers fur

tlie

arcs

C
is

in Fig.

270 shows the

cavetto, calle<l the cove in tlie shoj).

whidi

drawn hy coni]>lcting a s(|uare a I) c d. I )raw the diagonal h d at 4o, which pn)ves tlie
using d as a center, (|uarter-(ir(le a c In Fig. 271, 1) represents the
s(|iiare;

and,

draw

tlie

ovolu or

rchinun,

known
is

rnund, which
Fig. 270, witli
is use<l

the shop as the (juarfcrcon.stnicted similarly to C in

in
FiK. 27.>.

to obtain the
in Fig.

the c.\cej)tion that h in Fig. 271 curve ac.

is

E
mould.

272

known

as the torus,
is

known

in

bisected, thus obtaining center with which to describe the semicircle a b.

A given

distance a b

the shop as a beadc, which is the

should All of tiiese pn)files

sired scale for practice.

be drawn by the student

to

any de-

In [)reparing mouUlings from sheet metal,

V\k. -27^.

it

is

somehnuvs m|uirrd

tiiat iiirirlinieiils

and bead.

In that case the

are added in the t)giH', cove, mould must be bent to; receive these enobtaine<l
in
is

richments, which are

iisiuilly

fmm

pressed she<'t-metal work.

Thus,

Fig. 273,

dealers in stanipel r F reprvsents a front

ej-

view of a crown mould who.sj oget?

enriehetl. tlw; .section of tlie

204

SHEET METAL WORK

richment being indicated by a 6 in the section, in which the dotted Hne d c shows the body of the sheet-metal uioukUng bent to receive the H represents i)art of a bed-mould in which pressed work. In Fig 274,

Fig. 274.

egg-and-dart enrichments mould is bent as shown by

dart
is

In this case the body of the are placed. cd in the section, after w^iich the egg-andJ in Fig. 275 represents part

soldered or riveted in position.

Fig. 275.

The body of of a foot-mould on which an enriched bead is fastened. would be formed as indicated by c in the section, and the the mould bead a b fastened to it. This same general method is employed, no
matter what shape the pressed work has.

PRACTICAL MITER CUTTING

Under this heading come the practical shop problems. The problems which will follow should be drawn to any desired scale by the
student, developed,

and bent from

stiff

cardboard to prove the accu-

If the student cannot use the small brake in the racy of the pattern. and test his patterns cut from metal, he can use the dull blade of shop

a table knife, over which the bends can be made,

when using cardboard

once proves interesting and instructive. Should patterns. there be any problem which is not clear, he should write at once for further information; or, should any problem arise on which he desires This
at

SllKKT MlCr.VL WOltK

iiifdniialioii, ilic
l>Nk.s coiitaiiis
liiiii.

J(I5

School

will iiiforiii

liiiii

wliicli

|trol)leiu

in

liis

text-

similar

|)riiici|)U's.

or will prrpart' such a pnihlein for a .stjuare

The
return

lirst

|>rol)lciii

will Ik* to ohtaiii the (Icvclopiiient of

iiiitcr.

such as would occur when a

l)uililinj(, lus

inoiiltliii;; hail to return

around the nirner of a

are

shown

in Fij;. 27t).

In

Fij:.

277

shown two methods

the
|attcrii.

of ol)first

taiiiinjj

The

v^
\
^

'

.1

method which w ill he

is

descriheil

the "lon^" inetluHl, in which

all

are set forth

apjilicalile

the |)rinci{)les

olitaiuing patterns for niouldin<;s, no matter

to

^'^^- -'*'

what

ani,'le

the plan

may

have.

The

second method

is

the "short'

ELEVATION

II

II'

10 9

8 7'6'5'4'3' Z'

'

l'

'h

'

l-ig

"V7

206

SHEET METAL WORK

employed
in the shop, which,

rule generally

when the angle

H G F in plan is 90, or a right angle.

however, can be used only

obtain the pattern by the first niethotl, proceed as follows: of the mould as shown First, by 1, B, A, 11, drawing the coves by the rule previously given. Divide the curves into equal spaces; and number these, including the corners of the fillets as shown

To

draw the elevation

by the small figures

to 1 1.

In

its

proper position below the elevation,

of 45.

draw the

soffit

plan as

F by

the line

shown by C D E F G H. which is drawn at an angle D,

Bisect the angle From the va-

HG

rious intersections in the elevation, drop lines intersecting the miter-line At right angles to as shown. G, draw the stretchout line 1' 11',

upon which place the stretchout of the mould 1 11 in elevation, as shown by similar figures on the line 1' IT. At right angles to 1' 11', and from the numbered points thereon, draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to H G from similarly numbered intersections

on the miter-line

G D.

Trace a

line

through the intersections

Fig. 278.

Then will 1' G J 11' be the desired This gives the pattern by using the miter-line in plan. pattern. In developing the pattern by the short method, on the other hand, the plan is not required. At right angles to 1 B in elevation, draw the
thus obtained, as

shown by J G.

stretchbut line 1" 11",

1

11 in elevation, as

upon which place the stretchout shown by similar figures on 1"

lines

of the profile
11", at right

angles to

which draw

through the

numbered

points as shown,

which intersect by

lines

drawn

at right angles to 1

from similarly

numbered intersections in the profile in elevation. Trace a line through points thus obtained, as shown by G K. Then will G 1" 11" K be
similar to J

1' 11'

obtained from the plan.

.^iii:i:'i

Mi;i'AL

wouk

207

In

Fijj.

?78

is

shown a

hurizontal mmiUling lutliim

Jigaiiist

A miter cut <f this kind would plane surfatr oljlitjue in elevation. be re<|uired when the return nioiilriinj^ of a ilonner window woidd butt
against a
Ui

mansard or other

pitclietl roof.

In this case

we

a.ssunie

be the return

liuttinj; Ji^jainst

the pitched roof U.

The

luetljocl of

PATTERN

Fig.

'JTU.

obtaininp; a pattern of this kind

is

shown
.\
1

in Ki^'.

LT'.t.

I,i-t

.\

1?

('

|)

represent nxif. In

tlie
its

elevation of the return.

n'jresentin>,'

the

pitcli
1

of the

diviilc into e<|ual

II. which proper position as shown, draw the .section spaces as .sliowii. and fn)m which, paralh'l ti A H,

draw hues

intersecting,' the

shmt
as

hiic

1)

fn)m
1'

to
11',

1,

as .sliown.

At

right atigh's to

AH

erect

th'

stretchout hue

ujM>n which

phuv
11'.

the stretchout of the

s-'tinii

shown

b\'

similar li;4un's

on

1'

At

right angles In

I'

11',

and thniugh the ninnbcrcd

jMiints tiiertiin,

tlraw lines, which intenjcci by lines drawn at right angles to similarlv tnnnberc<l intersections on the slant line \ I'

li

fnin

Through

208

SHEET METAL WORK

draw E
F.

the various intersections thus obtained,

11' 1'

Then

will

EF

be the desired pattern. It is sometimes the case that the roof against which the moulding butts, has a curved surface either concave or convex, as shown by B C
in Fig. 280,

which surface

moulding, as

E; and

which divide into which

Complete the elevation of the proper position draw the section 1 9, equal spaces as shown by the small figures, from
is

convex.

in

its

which draw horizontal

is

lines until they intersect the curved line B C, struck from the center point A. At right angles to the line of the moulding erect the line 1' 9', upon which place the stretchout

SECTION

c
Fig. 280.

of the section, as

the numbered
intersect

shown by the figures on the stretchout line. Through 1' 9', draw lines, which by lines drawn at right angles to 2 D from similarly numbered
points, at right angles to

intersections

on the curve

9" in the pattern, as shown. ductions of the arcs 2 3

C, thus resulting in the intersections 1" to The arcs 2" 3" and 7" 8" are simply repro-

and 7 9 on

C.

These arcs can be

traced by any convenient method; or, if the radius to make it inconvenient to use, the arcs in the pattern
as follows:

AC

not too long may be obtained

is

Using

AC

as radius,
;

and

7"

and 8" as

centers, describe

arcs intersecting each other at A' in similar manner, using 2" and 3" as centers, and with the same radius, describe arcs intersecting each

SHELT MKIAL WuHK

otiier at

2(W

With the same

nulius.

ami with A' and A' as

ct-uters.

ilraw the ares S" 7"

and

.)"

2" respeetively.

Traee a hue through

will
I'

the other various intersections as shown.

desiretl pattern.

Then

1" 'J" 9' l>e llie

In

Fi<j.

"J-Sl

is

shown an

elevation of an oblong or rectangular

is

panel

for

which a miter-cut

desired on the line a b

known

its

"panel" or "face" miter.

The

pattern

rule to aj)j)ly in ol)taining this is shown in Fig. 2S2.

shows the
panel;
In

jjart

elevation of
c
<l,

the

a h

and

the

miter-lines
45.

drawn

at angles of

its

proper
tiie

position

with the lines of

mouM-

the ing, draw the pn)Hle B. cun'eor mould of which divide into ef|ual spaces, as shown

hy the figures
allel

to 7;

and

fn)iu

the poHits thus obtained, parto

1

h,

draw

lines

inter-

I-iR. Jsi.

liK.

JSJ

.seeling
allel

the miter-line a h as shown.

/)

From

the.se intersections,

to

(I,

draw
At

line-s

intersecting also ril.

1' 7'.

parAt right angles to bd

draw

the stretchout line

right

pndih' n.
)M)iiits

angles

to

upon which plai-e the stretchout of the 1' 7', and through the nundiertnl

of divi>-ion. <lraw lines,

to
It

angles
lines
(I

which intersect by lines drawn at right d fnmi similarly numbere<l intersiH-tions on the nuterTrace lines through the various |M>ints <f interanti r d.
a.s

section in the pattern

shown.

Then

will

1>

1',

1'

be the

re|uin*<l

cut for the enils of the panel.

The same

miter-<'Uts

would be employnl

for the long side u c in

210

SHEET METAL WORK

E in Fig. 282 that length being necessaiy only to make out the patttern on the sheet metal. laying
it

Fig. 281,

when

Wliere the miter-cut is required for a panel whose angles are other than right angles, as, for example, a triangular panel as shown in Fig. First draw the elevation of 283, then proceed as shown in Fig. 284.
the triangular panel as

shown by

AB

C, the three sides in the case

being equal. Bisect each of the angles\A, B, and C, thus obtaining the In line with the elevation, place in its miter-lines Ac, B 6, and C a.

proper position the profile

E, which divide into equal spaces as shown; and from

numbered division points, parallel to A C, draw

the
lines cutting 'the miter-line

ELEVATION

a.

From

these intersec-

tions, parallel to'

B, draw

lines intersecting the miterline.

6 B.

At

right angles to

C B draw the stretchout line V T, upon which place the

Fig. 283.

Fig. 284.

stretchout of the profile E.

sion

and

at right angles to

Through the numbered points of divi7', draw lines as shown, which intersect

by lines drawn at right angles to C numbers on the miter-lines a C and

obtained, trace the pattern

from intersections of similar

h B.

Through the

points thus

F G H I.

It makes no difference what shape or angle the panel may have; the principles above explained are applicable to any case. In ornamental cornice work, it often happens that tapering mould-

ed panels are used, a plan and elevation of which are shown in Fig. 285.

SIIKKT MinWI,
My
to the plan,
it

WOHK
a,

211

rt'ffrriiif;

will In-

swii that the four parts h

in Fij^.

b', h' a',

ami

' b are syinmetrical; tlicrefoR*, in practice,

it is riei-exsan.-

only to

<lra\v

the one-<juartcr plan, as

shown
is

2.S(),

ami

otnit the eleva-

tion, sinc-e the height

v (I'V-

2^3)

known.

the (juarter-plan of the |)anel. no matter

Thus, in Fig. 280, draw what is its shape, as shown

1m.

2,S.5.

by a

15

fi

0.

Divide the curves from

5 and

9 into

ofjiia'.t.

spaces, indicated respectively hy 1, 2, 3, 4, and o, and (, 7, S. and As the ])attern will he ileFn)ni tiiese jxtints, draw lines to the apex a.
velojxxi

by triangulation, a

set of trian<,'les will

he

rcnpiireil.

as

shown

in

I'lK.

-'sti.

Fi^. 2s7, fur

which procccil as follows:

Diaw any

horizontal line, ns

I;

and
is
It

panel
fn)in

a erect the perpendicular (i ' npial to the height the to havi-. Now take tlu> lengths of the \arious lines in Fig. 2S(
fi-orn
I, rj

to

to 2, a to 3, etc., to a to<),
ly

and place iheni on the

line o

in

Fig. 2S7,

a.s

.shown

similar ninnhers.

Then

using as radii the vari)us

212

SHEET METAL WORK

lengths a' 1, a' 2, a' 3, etc., to a' 9, and with any point, as a' in Fig. 288 as center, describe the various arcs shown from 1 to 9. From any

point on the arc

draw a Une

to a'.

Set the dividers equal to the spaces contained in the

curve

5 in Fig. 286; and,

starting

from

in Fig.

288

step from one arc

to an-

othcx having similar

bers, as

num1

shown from

to 5.

In similar manner, take the

distance from 5 to 6 and
^'
'

the spaces in the curve 6 9

in Fig. 286,

and place them on corresponding arcs in Fig. 288, stepfrom one arc to the other, resulting in the points 5 to 9. Trace ping
thus
a line through the points obtained.
will a' 1

Then

5 6 9 a' be the

quarter-pattern,

which

can be joined in onehalf or whole pattern as

desired.

In Fig. 289

is

shown
Fig. 288.

a perspective of a moulding which miters at an

occurs when a moulding is angle other than a right angle. This window or other structure whose angles vary. required for over a bay
to in Fig. 290 is applicable or profile. First draw a any angle section or an elevation of the moulding

The rule given

as shown by A B 14 1. Directly below the moulding, from its extreme point, as 2 3, draw a plan of the desired

angle as
Fig. 289.

shown by C 2 D.

Bisect this

angle by using 2 as center and, with any radius, describing an arc meeting

the sides of the angle at C and E. With the same or any other radius, and with C and E as centers, describe arcs intersecting each other in F. be the From the corner 2, draw a line through F. Then will 2

SHEET METAL WORK

initor-l inc.
|)n>tile
1

213

or

ilip line l)ist'ctinf?

.s|)ac'e.s

tlip aiifjle

('2

1).

Xow

iliviile

the
tlie

14 into vt[un\

as sluiwu by

tlie figures,

and from

tlius obtaineti

vertical line.s intersprtintj the miter-line ilitjp

-\

::;:

111

12
, 1

,1

ELEVATION
13
l|-i

.1

'
1

'

-B

(4

lail 109 8 7 6

5 4

PATTERN

"M

Fig. 290.
II in

plan from

to
('

14
2.

a.s

.shown-

At

ri^'ht
I

angles to

draw the

line K, n|K)n which place the stretchout of the |)rofile in elevation a.s .shown by similar figures on the

stretchout line, through which drop

lines

|K'rpendicular to
linivs

.1

K, which
parallel

intersect with
to
I

drawn

K
I-

from

similarly

mnnb'nHl

|M>int.s

of intersection

on the miterthe miter-<'ut

line

_'

II.

Traci- a line as

shown

liy

M, which

is

desired.
\N

hen two mouldings having dilTercnt

lus

j)roliles
('

are reipiin^l to

miter lt)gelhcr

.sluwn in Fig. 2*.H.

where

miters at right angles

214

SHEET METAL WORK

with D, two distinct operations are necessary, which are clearly shown

The first operation is shown in Fig. 292, in the elevation of an ogee moulding which is to represents miter at right angles with a moulding of different profile as shown at D.
in Figs.

292 and 293.

which

Divide the profile

horizontal lines

into equal

2 spaces, from which points draw

intersecting
1'

the

moulding
right

from

to 10'.

At
the

angles

to the line of

moulding C, draw the line A B, upon which place the stretchout

of the profile
lar figures

on

angles to

shown by simiAt right B, and through the

as

B.

PATTFRN FOR
Fig. 292.

points indicated by the figures,

draw
lines

lines,

which

intersect with

drawn parallel to A B from similarly numbered intersections Trace a line in the profile D.
through the points thus obtained,
as

shown by

E H. Then
for

will

E
in
Fig. 293.

GH
To

be the pattern

elevation.

obtain the pattern fori), is to miter at right draw the elevation of (Fig. 293), which with a moulding whose profile is C. Proceed in precisely angles Divide the same manner as explained in connection with Fig. 292. in Fig. 293 into equal parts, as shown, from the profile which draw horizontal lines cutting the profile C. At right angles

siiKtrr

MhrrAL
D, ilraw
tli'

wouk
liiu-

21;

to

till-

liiu's tif till- moiiltliii;;

llif >tri't(li)Ht
I).

IJ,

iijmii

wliith place the stretclioiit of

anil thniiigh
tlie iuiiuIhtc*!

pnilik'

At

ri}^lit

uii^U's to
its

B,

lines points of ilivisioii, ilruw

to

shown,

which intersect hy Hnesdniwii parallel

intersections in the profile

AM

fruni similarly nunil>erei

('.

'riirou^'h these |)oints of intersection

II

Iraw

;.

Then

will

EF

he the

clesirel

pattern for

).

It

shoulil

he understood that when the

|)atterns in Fifjs.

202 and

203 are fonned antl

is
If,

will form an inside miter, as joine<l together, they

shown

in

Fig.

201.

however, an outside
refjuired,
it

miter were

wouKl he

neccssar}' only to \ise the reverse cuts of

and 203, as shown by

II

the patterns in Figs. 202 EJ

in

Fig.

202 for the

mould C, and F J G in Fig. 203 for the mould D.

When

Fig. 291.

n g

curved moulding with a straight mouUling in either plan or elevation even though the cur%ed or .straight mouldings each have tlie

same

profile,

it

is neces.sar}-

to estal)lish

the true miter-line before

the pattern can be correctly develojied, an example being given in of a curvtnl moulding which Fig. 204, which shows an elevation
is

intersecte<l

by

tlje

horizontal mouldings

H.

The method

of ol>is

for the horizontal pieces, taining this miter-line, also the pattern

clearly

shown
is ("

in Fig.

20.').
1

First
10.

draw the

pn)iile

whiih the horizontal

moulding

to have, as

Let the distance

H be

e.stablisluMl.

Then, with
the arc
line
<i

on the center

line as center,

and

.V

("as ra<lius, describe

A.

I).

From any point on the line Through the various divisions

( ',

H, as n. erect the vertiinl

in the

pmlile
1

10,

draw

horizontal lines intersecting the vertical linea/<fn>in

'

to 10 asshowii.

From

the center

draw any
to 10'.

radial line, as

d, cutting the

arc

M A at
e to

e.

Now

take

tin-

various divisions
1'

on a

/,

and place them from

</ jus

shown bv points

Then, using (' its center, with radii deterniineil bv the various jioints on r d, dniw arcs intersecting horizntal Through Urn's of similar mu'diers drawn through the divisions on a b.

216

SHEET METAL WORK

The
student

these points of intersection, draw the miter-Hne shown. will note that this line is irregular.

Having obtained the

miter-line, the pattern

is

obtained for the

horizontal moulding by drawing the stretchout line E F at right angles On E F lay off the stretchout of the profile 1 10; and to 9 B.

E F, draw horithrough the numbered points and at right angles to which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to 9 B zontal lines,
from similarly numbered
a'.

in-

tersections

in

the

miter-line
lines

determined by horizontal

already drawn through the Trace a line vertical line a b.

through the points thus obtained, as shown by H I J K,

which

is

the desired pattern.

A
B

Fig. 296.

In Fig. 296

is

shown a shaded view

the gable moulding B ing a pilaster, the joint-line being represented by A,

of a gable moulding intersectthe vertical pilaster cutting against a 6 c. To obtain this joint-line,

without which the pattern for the gable moulding cannot be developed,

an operation in which
In
its

in projection is required.

This

is

explained in Fig. 297,

BCD shows the plan of the pilaster shown in elevation by E.

in plan, place the profile of the gable moulding, proper position which divide into equal spaces as shown by the figures as shown by A,
1

to 8,

pilaster

lines intersecting the plan of the through which draw horizontal For convenience in prosimilar figures. shown B C as

by

SlIKKT
varu)ii.s |x)iiil.s,

MKTAL WoHK
to

2l'i

jectiiij;

till'

and

avoid a coiifusion of

lines,

number

the intersections between the Hnes lrawn from the pntfile A llirougfi At the (h-sired in.int II in elevathe wash H 2. "7". "4", an<l *':{^'.
ti)n,

draw the lower hne

of the j;able mouldinij,

a.s

II

I".

Take a

traeini; of the ])roliU' A in phin, with all of the

various intersections on
>anie,

and
as

j)lace

it

in

elevation

shown

by

A', placing the line 1 S at rifjht an^^les to II V.

'riiroufjh the various in-

tersections
2, 3, 4, o,
<),

1, 7,

4, 3.
in
11.

7.

and S
to

A',

and

|)arallel

draw

lines

indefinitely,
lines

which intersect by

drawn
("

at ri^dit an<jles to

in

plan fnini simintersec-

ilarly

numbered
s

tions in the pilaster

I)

H,

11

obtainini:

the
1"

[)oints of intersection

to

S* in elevation.

For the pattern,

(cvA as follows: At
angles to
II F,
.1

j)rorij^ht

draw

the

^t^tchout line

K, upon

which place the stretchout of the pn)(ile A or .V,

with
all

tersection
I

the points of inon the wash

ri/;ht

2.

At

anodes to

K, and through the nuntberNl

j>oints,

draw
S*

lines as
I''

shown, which

intersect

by

lines

drawn
in

at rij;ht anj^les to II j>int-line

l"

fn)m similarlv numbered

inlerse<-tions
iIm-

the

Throu^'h the points thus obtained, trace will I, \ ( ) I' be the pattern for tlu- jjable mouldiiifj.

miter-cut

MN

>.

'I'hen

In Fiy.29S are

shown pable mouldings miterinn

uj)on a wash.

The

218

SHEET METAL WORK

A A intersect at any desired angle the wash B.
This
is

mouldings

In this case,

as in the preceding problem, an operation in projection

through, before the pattern can be obtained.

in Fig. 299.

must be gone clearly shown

Draw

the section of the

horizontal moulding B^ with the wash a b. From this section project lines,

and draw the part elevation

^^S- ^^^-

D
is

C.

Knowing

the bevel the

have, draw C B,

in this case the top line of the

to gable Draw a moulding.

section of the gable mould, as A,

shown from
parallel to

to

8;

which divide into equal parts as and through the point of division draw lines

C, indefinitely, as shown.
it

Take
A'.

A, and place

in section as

shown by

Divide

a tracing of the profile A into the same

PATl

SECTION

ELEVATION
Fig. 299.

number
draw

of spaces as

vertical lines intersecting the

horizontal

through similarly through these intersections as shown, which represents the miter-line

A; and from the various divisions in A* drop wash a 6 as shown, from which points lines intersecting lines drawn parallel to B C numbered points in A, at 1 to 8. Trace a line

E F, at right angles to B C, upon which place the stretchout of the profile A, as shown by similar figures on the stretchout line E F, Through the numbered pomts of division and at right angles to E F, draw lines as shown, which intersect by

or line of joint in elevation. For the pattern, draw any line as

SIIKK'I

MKTAL WOHK
|{

219

lilies

tlrawii at

rij^lit an;,'lr.s ti

('

fnmi similarly
line
i

niiiiiltertti

iiUersec-

tioiis

on

1 ff anil

on
as

tlu-

vertical
<

15

1).

line tracel tlinrnj^li

shown Ity I, uill he tiiedesiretl pattern. Ill Fifj. 30() is shown a fnjiit view )f a turret on which four j:aljles are to he i)hice<l, as shown hy A A; also the nnifs !b/A r! over same, as shown hy B B. The j)n)hleni con|)oiiit.s thii.sc)l)taine<l,
1
1

sists in ohtaininjj

moiihlinfjs

the developments of the jjahle on a square turret. In developing

.-J

this pattern, the half-elevation

only

is

rtH|uire<l,

shown center Hne

as

in

Fig. 301, in

which

first

draw the

F; then cstahlish the half-width of

the turret, as

I),

and draw the rake

B
its

C.

At

riuht annjles to tlic line

( '.

and

in

j)n)j)er
FiK. 300.

position as shown, draw the prf)file .\, whicji divide into ef|ual spaces as shown hy the Hjjures
1

lo 0, throuj^h

center line

FE

as

which, parallel to B C, draw lines intersecting the shown; and extend the lines helow (", indefinitely.
it

Now

shown hy

take a tracing of the profile A, an<l place A*, heing careful to have it spaced in the

in

same numher

position as of

divisions, as

shown from

to 6,

through which,
lines

j)aralk'l to

D C, erect

lines intersecting similarly

numhered

drawn through the pmfile

A, thus ohtaining the intersections 1 to G, through which a line is traced, which represents the line of joint at the lower end hetween
the two gahles.

For the
J

j)attcrn,

K drawn at right angles to B

take a stretchout of A. and |)lace C, as .shown hy the figures

it

on the
to
('

line
.1

on

K.

At right angles to .1 K, and through these p)ints of division, draw lines, which intersect hy lines drawn fn)m similarly numhere<l interstx-tions on
as
1" li

anrl

1'' (').

shown hy

1*^

B C

'Trace a line through the |)oints thus ohtaine<l, 0, which is the desirel |)attern, of which eight

are rciiuin-d to complete the turret, four formol right and four left. If the roof shown hv B in Fig. '.)()() is desire<l to he addetl to the

pattern in Fig.
ejpial to

.'{(ll.

II in

F' then, at right angles to V^ (l, draw the line the half-elevation, and draw a line frum F' to '^ in the

pattern.

In Fig.

302

is

shown

front vij'wof
.\

an angular pnlinient with

lu)ri-

zontal returns at l)ottom

and top H.
pn)lile is

which

will follow, a

change of

In this pntl>leiii, as in othets i)efon' the otrreet ne'e."vsary

220

SHEET METAL WORK

In other words, a new propattern for the returns can be developed. file must be developed from the given or normal profile before the pat-

can be developed. It should be undergiven profiles are always divided into equal spaces; therefore the modified profiles will contam unequal spaces, each one oi
terns for the required parts
all

stood that

^i

HALF ELEVATION
Fig. 301.

which must be carried separately onto the stretchout

this in
files

line.

Bearing
I

mind, we

shall

proceed

to obtain the modified or

changed pro-

and patterns

for the horizontal returns at top

and

foot of a gable

moulding, as at

and

A in Fig. 302, the given profile to be placed in the

let

gable moulding C.

In Fig. 303,

represent the gable moulding

MiKivi'

Mrr\i.\vr)nK
tlie

221

nljKtil at

its
("

pn)pcr an^'lo with

<) is

Imri/ontal

iiiouldiiitj

(ill.

As.smu-

the prujuT an<jU'. place the ^iveii pn>file A at right iiij; that to the rake. a.>< .shown; and divide .same into e<jiial .spaces as aiij^le.s

.shown

fmm 1 to U). thn)U^h wliich |)>int,s, parallel towards the top and hottom of the
rakiiif^ nionldin<;.

to 6*

O**,

draw

lines

.V-ssuniin^ that the

lenj^th

('"

()*'

is

t-orreet,

take a tracing;

of the j)rofile A. an<l j)la(e it in a vertical |)osition l)elow at A' and al)ove
at A-, hein^' larefiil
(i

^.
FiK. 303.

have the
''n

jjoints

and

(1

in

the

j)n)files directly

a ver-

Vi^ and (), as .shown. From the vaposition below the jioints rious intersections in the profiles A' and A" (which mu.st contain tlie

tical

same ninnber
end from

of spaces as the

fi:iven

j)rofile

A), erect vertical lines

intersectinj; lines

P to

drawn through the j)rofile A, as .shown at the lower Trace a line lO'', and at the ui)per end from 1 to K).

lO'^ be the modifiel Then will througli the points thus obtained. for the lower horizontal return, and 1 10 the moditietl prt)file |)n)hle

fur the upj)er liorizontal return.

Note the difference in the shapes an<l sj)aces between these two and the jiiven j)roHlc .\. It will be notice<l that a of the gable moulding miters on the horizontal moulding (I II portion
modifie<l profiles

from

(\^

to 10'.
jiattern

For the

for the gable

moulding.

j)roceetl
.1

as follows:

At

right angles to

F,

draw the

.stretchout line

K, u|x)n which place

fig\ires
1

the stretchout of the given pri)(ile A, as

J

shown by the
1

to

lOon

K.

Through

these figures, at right angles to

lines

K, draw

lines as

shown, which intersect with

similarly
lO* at

drawn
in
1

at right

lunuln-rcd

intersections

10 at

angles to V. V Inun the top and T ''

thus
ol>-

the lower cud.

Tra(> a line
,

lhr..,igii th<- infersecticuis

tained.

Then

will

M N

bi- tlic

pattern

I'm-

'.

Vov the

p.ittiTM

for tile horizontal rt'turn at thetoj.

draw aside

view as .^howii at H, making I' K the desired |)rojection. and the pntlile 10 n H. with it.s various intersections, an '\act n-pnxluction of
1

1 10 in the 'Ievation.

Extend the

line

K
in

T
H

as

II

."-1;

anl. starting

from
I

10. lay off

the stretchout of the

pr>lile

as

shown by the

figures

to 10 i>n

S.

being careful to measure each spa-e separately.

At

right angle-, to

.-^

ilraw

tin-

usual measuring lines, which intersect

222

SHEET METAL WORK

lines

by

drawn
B.

parallel to

from similarly numbered points

in the

profile in

through points thus obtained. Then will V 10 1 be the pattern for the return B. In similar manner, draw the side view of the lower horizontal

Trace a

line

return as

ru <n

shown
^ m
coNqj

at

D, making the projection

o>9
(-

W 10

equal to

P R

CO o CO

in B.
to

(\iir)tu)<ot^ia

o)2

The profile shown from 1 to 10 in D, with all its divisions, is be an exact reproduction of the profile 1^ to 10^ in elevation. Extend the line W' X as X Y, upon which lay off the stretchout of the profile 1 10 in D, being careful that each space is measured separately,
as they are
all

unequal.

Thiough

the figures on

XY

draw

lines as

'IIHET

METAL WOHK

i23

\ from tle variou.s shown, which intersect by hnes<h'awii paruHel Ui intersections in tlie profile in the side I). A Une traced thnuigh jMjints thus ohtainetl, as shown hy Z V, will he t]ie desired cut, and 1 Z
\'

10 the pattern for the return D.

In Vi^. 304

is

shown a

upper and lower horizontal

'I'his

front view of a segmental pe<liment with returns.

presents a pn)l)lem of obtaining' the pattern for horizontal returns at

to[) and foot of a segmental pediment, shown respectively at A and H. the

given profile to be place<i in C.

j)rinciples
usetl

The

'

'>^

'*'"

in tlie preceding

ing

is

curved

in

obtaining these patterns are similar to tliose problem, the only difTerence being that tlie moid<lelevation. In Fig. 305 the true method is clearly
in

given.

First ilraw the center line

D, through which draw the horizon-

-^--H
the heigiil

tal line (' f

''.

Fn)m
a.s

"

the line

C establish
*

K ami with the

,

dcsire<l center,

H,

draw the arc

]]

interseting the line ('

(' at (',

proper |M)sitionon a vertical line F (1. parallel to I) H, draw the ^^ivcn pnililc of the cuncd moulding as shown by A, which divide int
In
its

e<pial .spaces as
iinjjles to

.shown

fmm

to 10.

Through

tlu'se (igures. at right

(i,

draw

lines intersecting the center line 1>

as

shown.

224

SHEET METAL WORK

B
as center, with radii of various lengths corresponding from A, describe arcs as shown, ex-

Then, using

to the various distances obtained

The point of the pediment. tending them indefinitely below the foot C or 6" being established, take a tracing of the profile A, with all the various points of intersection in same, and place it as shown by A^ A^ come directly below the point being careful to have the point 6 in Then, from the various inter6" in elevation in a vertical position.
sections in A- erect vertical lines intersecting similarly

drawn from the

which
is

profile A.

Trace a

line as

numbered shown from 1" to

arcs
10",

the modified profile for the foot of the curved moulding. Establish at pleasure the point V at the top, and take a tracing
it

of the given profile A, placing

in a vertical position

below

1',

as

shown by A^

From

the various

intersections in A^ erect vertical

lines intersecting similarly

num-

bered arcs as before.

these intersections,

Through shown from

shown,

to 10', trace the profile

is

which

the modified profile for

the top return.

The

curved moulding shown

in elevation can

be made either

by hand or by machine. The general method of obtaining the

blank or pattern for the curved
average a line through the extreme points of the moulding A, as I J, extending it until it intersects a line drawn at right profile
is

to

angles to

D B from the center B, as B

will

H,

at

K.

not go into any further demonstration about this curved work, as the matter will be taken up at its proper time later on. To obtain the pattern for the upper and lower return mouldings,

We

proceed in precisely the same manner as explained in connection with

returns

B and D

in Fig. 303.

In Fig. 306 are shown the plan and elevation of a gable moulding This problem should be carefully followed, as it in octagon plan.
in presents an interesting study in projections; and the principles used this are also applicable to other problems, no matter what solving

angle or pitch the gable has.

By

referring to the plan,

it

will

be seen

SIlKE'l"

MK'IAL WuitK

225

that tlif

' points in elevation

moulding has an octuf^on aii^lr in plan u h c, while .similar // c' run on a rake in one line, the top aiid foot

of tlie

The method
detail

moulding hutting against the hriek piers li ani A. of pHx-ettlin^ with work of this kind is exjjlained in Ix't in V'\i^ 307, where the principles are thoroii<,'hly explained.
'

A H

<

1.

muuldinu

is io

which a j^aM* represent a plan view of the wall, over I II. the ^^iven be placed, as shown hv < pmfile of the
I

?E

SOFFIT P:N

FiL'.

:U)7.

)ivi(io tlir profile into equal spacts nouldin^ hoinjj shown l>y I, M. shown liv the li^'iiri>s to s. Parallel to II or (J. and thn>ui;h ihe ns Bisect the ai^jle fi^'ures mentioned, draw lines imlclinitely as shown.
1

.1

and obtain the miter-line as follows: With and anv radins, describe the arc N ). With N and ( as

'

f)

in |)lan.

(' jis

center,

centers,

and

'

unv radins
other
at

jfreater

than

or
('.

(' ().

describe an-s intersiftinj; each

1*.

I'ntm the point

'

and lhron^;h the interseition

piiililc
I -

draw
|Msi-

die miter-line

<

t^.

Transfer the

in

elevation to the

226

SHEET METAL WORK

tion
as

shown by R S in plan, dividing it into the same number of spaces Through the figures in the profile R S, and parallel to D C, draw lines intersecting the miter-line C Q, as shown. From the intersections on the miter-line, and parallel to C B, draw lines intersecting

L M.

the surface

A.

Now,

at right angles to

D in plan,

and from the

SOFFIT PLAN
Fig. 308.

intersections

on the miter-line

secting lines of similar

C Q, draw vertical lines upward, internumbers drawn from points in profile L in

elevation parallel to J G. line traced through points thus obtained, as shown from 1' to 8', will be the miter-line in elevation.

in plan,

For the pattern for that part of the moulding shown by and H G 8' 1' in elevation, proceed as follows:
1

D E Q'

At right

angles to

in elevation,

draw the

line

T U,

upon which place the

SIIKK'I'

MK'I'M

WORK
Hj^ures
1

227

.stretchout of the pniHIe

iiii;h's to
'I'

I^

M,

as

shown hy the

to S.

At

rij^ht

intersect

r, and throuf^h these figures, draw with Hues of siinihir nunihers drawn

lines, as shown, wliich

at rij^ht anjj;les to

from

intersections

on the
\V

niiter-line

1'

S'

and

fnjni

intersectioas

against the vertical surface

ol)taine<l,
lus

H
X

(J.

shown
in

l)v \'

Lines trace<l through jxtints thus Y, will he the jiattern for that |)art of

the gahle

shown
.'iOS,

In Fig.

plan by C U E Q' of Fig. '.0)7. on the other hand, the j)osition of the plan

is

changed,

so as to hring the line

AQ

horizontal.

At right angles

to

\i

T draw

In the same E, on which locate any |X)int, as K. manner, at right angles to C B, draw the vertical line B J intlehnitelyFr')ni the point E, parallel to B C, draw the line E S", intersecting

the vertical line

the line J B, as shown.

Now

take the distance from S" to J in eleva-

tion, Fig. 307, and set it off from S" toward J in Fig. 'MS. fn)m J to E, which will represent the true rake for this

Draw
1

a line

of the |Mjrtion
to S

moulding.
line

Now

take the various heights shown frt)m

on the
in

Z Z

in elevation in Fig. 307,

and

i)lace

them as shown hy Z Z

elevation. Fig 30S, being careful to jilace

line

the point S of the

At right angles to Z Z, and from points on same, draw lines, which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to B C from intersec-

Z Z on

the line S"

extended.

tions of similar

numbers on

C C

in plan.

line tracel
in eleva-

through

points tlius

obtained, as

shown by
in plan.

DE

tion, will

be the miter-line on

From
parallel to

the intersections on

the miter-line I) E, and

lines
in

J,

draw

lines,

which intersect with

drawn from

intersections of similar

mnubers on
through

AB

at right angles to j)lan

C.

line traced

jwiints

.^.^^
''K- ''^^^

thus oi)taineil, as

or line of joint

shown by F J, will be the miter-line again.st the pier shown in plan by B A.

it

Before obtaining the pattern

section or |)rolile at right angles
t)

will In-

necessary

t>

obtain a true
lo so,

the moulding
I.

>.

To

pro-

ceed

lus

follows:

'i'ransfer the given pi"olilc

in elevation in Fig.

307, with the divisions and figures on sanu-, to a position at right angles At right angles to F D. and fn)nt to F ) of Fig. 30S, as .shown at I..
i

the interstM-tions in the

iar n(Miil)ers in

|>ro(ile
I.

E,

draw

lines inter.se<-ting those of sinii-

I''

Trace

a line fhn)Ugh interse<"tions thus

ob-

228

SHEET METAL WORK

shown from
1

tained, as

to 8, thus giving the profile

M,

or true sections

at right angles to

D.

For the pattern, proceed as follows: At right angles to F D, draw the line H K, upon which place the stretchout of the profile M, as shown by the figures. At right angles to H K, and through the figures, draw lines, which intersect with those of similar numbers drawn at

Fig. 310.

Fig. 311.

right angles to

from points of intersection

in the miter-lines

DE

and J F, as shown. Lines traced through points thus obtained, as shown by N O P R, will be the pattern for the raking moulding shown
in plan, Fig. 307,

by

AB C

Q'.

In Fig. 309 is shown a view of a spire, square in plan, intersecting In practice, each side A is developed separately in a four gables. manner shown in Fig. 310, in which first draw the center line through
the center of the gable, as

E F.

Establish points

B and

C, from which

WEE'V MK'l'AL WollK

tlraw lines to the apex V.
to

229

At
.1,

pleiLsure. estal)li.sli
lines

).

At right angles
J

K,

aiil

fmiii

H ami

draw the

II antl

respectively.

For the pattern, take the distances

as

K.

A, and e

F,

and place them

shown hy
^11.

similar letters

on the
Fi-:-

vertical line

B F

in

^
B

SIDE

At right angles

to ]{ F.

and
A.

H and

draw

thnuigji points lines as

shown, making B II and li II' on the one hand, and A X anl A O on the other
hand,
li

etpial respectively

to

II anil

AX

in elevation in
in

Fig. 310.

Til en,

Fig.

.-=*!

Fig. 312.

Fig.

MA.

31

1,

draw

lines fn)ni

to

to

1o

fl'

to

O.

its

shown, which repre-

sents the j>attern for one side.

In Fig. 312 is .shown a perspective view of a drop B mitering against the face of the bracket (' as indicated at A. The princij)le.s
for developing this prohleni are explaine<l in Fig. 313.
|ilii<
I

to similar

work no matter what die

may

he.

Let
I"
1 1

.\
<

droj),

and

and can he apthe ln>p or hrneket j)rofilesof B (' 1) F represent the faceor fn)nt view of thehnieket Divide one-half I the side of the ilrop and hrackel.
intf)

of the face, as 1) C,

ecpial sj)aces, as

shown

l>y

the figures

to 7

on either
in sid7'.

from which points draw hori/onial lines view and intersecting the face II I of tlu* hracket
side,

cro.>vsing II (i

at

points

1' t<

In line with

IH!, ilraw
<
1

tlu- line

.1

out of the profile B

angles to
.sect
.1

as

shown

l>y

K, n|Mn which place the stretch.\t right to 7 to 7 to 1 on .1 K.

a.s

K, draw the usual measuring lines

shown, which

inter-

ly

lines
II
1.

drawn

parallel to

,1

K fmm

similarly mnnlu'n'd inier.iM'^

|M)int.s

tions

on

Tra<-e a line through the

thus ol)|aine<l.

Then

230

SHEET METAL WORK

will J

K L be the pattern for the return of the drop on the face of the

bracket.

In Fig. 314, A shows a raking bracket placed in a gable moulding. When brackets are placed in a vertical position in any raking moulding, are called "raking" brackets. B represents a raking bracket

they The patterns which will be developof the gable. placed at the center bracket A are also used for B, the cuts being similar, the only ed for the
difference being that one-half the

width of

the

bracket in

is

formed right and the other half left, the two halves being then
joined at the angle as shown. In Fig. 315 are shown the
principles

employed

for obtain-

ing

the

patterns

for

the side,

face, sink strips, cap,

ELEVATION
Fig. 314.

for

and returns Th ese a raking bracket.

principles can be applied to any form or angle in the bracket or

Let S U V represent part of a gable moulding respectively. front elevation of a raking cornice placed at its proper angles with draw the outline of the any perpendicular line. In its proper position,
face of the bracket as
as shown,

by

O. Also, in its proper position shown by E G draw the normal profile of the side of the bracket, indicated and X and 6-Y-Z-15 the normal profile of the cap-mould, as
;

the normal profile of the sink strip, as indicated by 10 10' 15' 15. Complete the front elevation of the bracket by drawing lines par-

from points 7 and 9 in the normal profile; and establish at pleasure the width of the sink strip in the face of the bracket, as at and L H. To complete the front elevation of the cap-mould of J O of the Extend the lines G E and the bracket, proceed as follows
allel to

E O

front of the brackets, as

shown by E 6 and O 6, on which, in a vertical as shown, place duplicates (W^ W^) of the normal profiles position and X, divided into equal spaces as shown by the figures 1 to () in W^ and W^ From these intersections in W^ and W^ drop vertical lines, vhich intersect by lines drawn parallel to E O from similarly numbered intersections in X, and trace lines through the points thus obtained.

Then

will

R E and O

1^

represent respectively the true elevations, also

SlIKKT MKTAl. WollK

tli<
ii 111

TM
tin*

[ii.Mii.

-.

i.ir tin- ivliirii.s

at

tup ami foot uf

cap of

tin-

rakiii^

lirackft.

Now

tliviilo

tliL-

iiuriiial

profile

of the hraeket into etjual >pactrs, as

shown hy the

figures G to 15, through which, parallel to

E O, draw lines
tlie

intersecting the nonnal sink jirofile from 10' to l.V

of the bracket KFt!.

and

face lines

HI.

KI..

and

)NM,

as shown.

To

obtain the

PATTERN
f

roR SIDE BRACKET

6'

icT-

e'WpATTET.l

W^y
4'

FOR SINK STRIP

5'

PATTERN FOft/ RETURN R E

PAT T CRN FOR C

l-iK.

315.
(

cet-il

true profile for the side of the bracket on the lino Parallel in as follows: )M, ilraw any line, as
(

).M

and <JK, proat right

V Z'; and

angles to

()M, and from the

variotis intersections

on the same, dniw

lines indefinitely, crossing to the line

in

each instance from the line

ti

VZ in

Z' as shown. Now, neasuring the normal prolile. take the various

distances to points

to

1.')

an<l l.V to 10',

mnnbcred

lines nteasnring in I'ach

Z',

Trace a
?''.>'

thus obtaining the points '' line through the points thus cibtained.
1.')'

and i>lace them on similarly and every instance from the line to 1.'.' and 1")" to 10", as shown.

Then

will

0'

10'

Z'

be the pattern

for the side of the raking bracket,

232

SHEET METAL \WRK

10' 10" 15" 15'

and
lines

the pattern

for

the sink strip shown by the

K L and H J in the front.

For the pattern
for the face strip B,

draw any Hne,

as A^ B', at

right angles to

G M, upon which
shown

nonnal

profile, as

place the stretchout of 10 15 in the from 10 to 15 on A^ B^ Through these

at right angles to A' B^ draw lines as shown, which intersect points, and J. with lines drawn from similar intersections on the lines

FG

Trace a
which

line

will

through points thus obtained as shown by F be the pattern for the face B, B.

G H

J,

GM,
as

For the pattern for the sink-face C, draw C^ D^ at right angles to upon which place the stretchout of 10' 15' in the normal profile
at right angles to

C*

shown from 10' to 15' on C^ DS through which, D\ draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn from similar intersections
on

K L and H J.

Trace a line through

the points so obtained as J K L H, which is the pattern for the sinkface C.

The
the face
piece,

pattern for the cap

D
in

and
one

will

be developed

by drawing

at right angles to

EO

the line E^ F'.

At right angles

Fig. 316.

Fig. 317.

to E' F',

and through the

REF

drawn at right angles to and NOP. A line traced through the points thus obtained, as shown by R E F and N 0 P will be the pattern for D and A. For the patterns for the cap returns R E and O P, draw any line
at right angles to 1 1 in the

figures, draw lines, which intersect with lines EO from similarly numbered intersections on

normal

profile, as

H^

G',

upon which

place the stretchouts of the profiles R each space separately onto the line
0^'

E and O P, being careful to carry H^ GS as shown respectively by

draw
lines at right angles to
1

1^

and

6"^

F.

Through
by

these points
lines

G'

W,

which

intersect

drawn

at right angles to

from

;iii:i:i-

mktal work
Trace

233

siiuilar

imnihers in \V ami X.

uhtaiiuij.

Then

will

N'
.1'

)'

of the (a)),
turn.

K; while

M'

lines through the tlius jx)iiit.s he the pattern for the lower return L' K' will he the pattern for tle up|>er re-

U'

S'

IM J.
In
Fig.

31G

is

shown

a perspective view of a gutter or eave-

an exterior angle, for wliich an outside miter would he reIt is iiiitnaterial what t|uircd. shape the gutter has, the nieth<I of In Fig. 317 let 19 nl)taiMing the pattern for the miter is the same.
trough at
10 represent the section of the eave-trough with a l)ea<l or wire edge at ah r; divide the wire edge, including the gutter and flange, into an e<^|ual nund>er of spaces, as shown liy the small divisions d to 1 to 9
to 10.

Draw any

vertical

line,

as

ujM>n which place the stretchout of the ed gutter as .shown l)v sinn
r..

lar

letters

and nund)ers on

B,

through which, at right angles to .V H, draw lines, which intersect l)V

FiK. 31.s
'IPS

1-iK. M'.).

Trace to A B from similar points in the section. K F be the Then will (' the points thus ohtained. thntugh pattern for the outside angle shown in Fig. 31(1.

drawn

pjtrallel

line

If

a pattern
it is

is

refpiired for

in Fig. 31S,

necessary only to

an interior or inside angle, as is shown extend the lines CI) and F K in the

111. Tlienwill .1 I) pattern in Fig. 317, and ilraw any vertical line, a> II lie the for the inside angle shown in Fig. 3 IS. !' pattern In Fig. 319 are .shown a plan and elevation of a moulding which

has more pn>jection on the fnuit than on the side.

In other words,

AB

is to l>e represents the j)lan of a hriek pier, around which a ct)rnice constructed. The |>rnjcction of the given profile is itjual to C, the The projection of the fnnt profile in eh-vation heing .shown ly ('.

in

plan

is

also cpml to C,

.s

.shown hy

C.

The

pntjecfion of the

left

side of the cornice should he only as much as is shown l>y I) in plan. This re|uires a change of profile thn)Ugh I), as shown hy D'. I'o ob-

234

SHEET METAL WORK

and the various
patterns, proceed as

tain this true profile

shown

in

Fig. 320, in which

A B C D represents the plan view of the wall, against

which, in

its

proper position, the profile

equal spaces, as shown allel to C D, draw F.

E is placed and divided into the figures 1 to 12. Through 1 2, parby Locate at pleasure the projection of the re-

turn mould, as
at

G.

B H, and draw H G parallel to B C, intersecting F G Draw the miter-line in plan, G C. From the various divisions
E, draw lines parallel to

in the profile

C D,

intersecting the miter-line

CG

as shown.

From

these intersections, erect vertical lines indefi-

nitely, as

shown.

Parallel to these lines erect the line

K J, upon which

place a duplicate of the profile E, with the various divisions on same, as shown by E^ Through these divisions draw horizontal lines in-

;'?'-

FRONT AND BEAK VIEWS OK HKSIDKNCK OK HENRY STEINBRENNER. BKl IKIDWKK AVENUE. CLEVELAND, OHIO
WnltonMiii

S.

Iiiirlili-r.

Anhltr.

!<.

<

IrvrUnd. Ohio.

SHEErr

METAL WoliK
as

235

miinl)eri'<l vertiial lines, tersec'tiiig tlie similarly

shown by

tlie in-

tersectioivs

to 12'.

Tiacr a

line

tliroiifjli

these points,

'Hien

will

F' be

true section or profile t)n II H in plan. For the pattern for the return II (1 (' B in plan, extend the line which place the stretchout of the profile F', l>eing A, as B M,
tlie

upon

careful to

measure each space separately (as they are unwjual), as B. shown by figures 1' to 12' on At right angles to this line ami through the figures, <lraw lines,

which intersect by lines drawn C G. Trace a j)oints on

line

at right angles to II (j

from similar

thn)Ugh the points

II'

thus obtaine<l.
will

B' C
,

T hen
.

TRUE PROFILE

be the
return

THROUGH
1"

7' IN

pattern

for the

plan

mould.

The
face
f)btained

pattern for the

mould
by

GCDF
taking

is

stretchout of the profile E and placing it on the

j<

f^^

'

^'j ^

' "' .

FiR. .321.

liK. .;-.

vertical

line

(),

as

right angles to

1' ( ),

shown l>y similar figures. thn)Ugh which, at draw lines intersecting similarly numberi^l lines
('
1

previously extended from

intersections.

in j)lan.

Trace- a

lin'

through these

Then

will

B'C

12

b'

the miter paltmi for the face

mould.
Ill
til

I'ig.

'i2I is

shown a

pers|)ective

view of a gore

pie<-e .\ joineil
in

a chann'cr.

Thia presents a pniblein often arising

ornamental

236

SHEET METAL WORK

Let
is

sheet-metal work, the development of which is given in Fig. 322. A B C show the elevation of the corner on which a gore piece

re-

7' E in plan is a section through C D, and E F is quired. a section through I, all projected from the elevation as shown. The profile 1 7 can be drawn at pleasure, and at once becomes the pattern

GH

for the sides.

Now

divide the profile

7 into an equal

number

of

spaces as shown, in plan, as shown

to

from which drop vertical lines onto the side 7' E from 1' to 7'. From these points draw lines parallel G, intersecting the opposite side and crossing the line 7' 1"
(which
is

drawn

at

right
5''

angles
6".

from T)

at I" 2" 3" 4"

to F G Draw any

line parallel to D, as J, upon all the intersections contained place

\" in

which

on

7'

From
PATTERN FOR GORE

J. plan, as shown by 1 to 7 on these points erect perpendicular lines,

which
larly
to

intersect

by

lines

drawn from

simi-

numbered
D. on

points in elevation parallel

trace a line.
Fig. 323.

Through the points thus obtained Then will 1^ to 7^ be the true

7' 1" in plan.

profile

For the pattern for the gore, draw any vertical line, as A B in Fig in Fig. 322, 323, upon which place the stretchout of the profile F At right angles to AB, as shown by similar figures on A B in Fig. 323. and through the figures, draw lines as shown. Now, measuring in

each instance from the line

7' \" in
1'

plan in Fig. 322, take

the various distances to points

in

to 7',

and place them

Fig. 324.

Fig. 323 on similarly numbered lines, measuring in each instance from the line A B, thus locating the points

shown.

Trace a

line

through the points thus obtained.

in

Then

will

F
by

be the pattern for the gore shown

7'.
is

plan in Fig. 322

FG

In Fig. 324
arises in cornice

shown a face view

of a six-pointed star,

which often

work.

No

matter

how many

principles

which are explained for its or shape. Triangulation is employed in this problem, as any size shown in Fig. 325. First draw the half-outline of the star, as shown by A B C E F G. Above and parallel to the line AG, draw JH of

points the star has, the development are applicable to

similar length, as shown.

Draw the section of the star on A G in plan,

<\]VVr MirrAL \V(jUK

as

!n7

shown by J
I. it

II.
I,
I

I'n>jeft
>

initer-lincs
1
<

li I, ('

1,

is

necessan,' that
I

nulius anil

as center,

K into plan a.s shown at I, and tlraw tlie K I. an<l V I. As K II is the true lengtli on we find the true leimth on 1'. I'sinj; I F a^ draw an are interseetinj; I it at a. From a
1

erect a line cutting J II in section at h.

Draw

a line from h to

K, whicii

is

the

true Itiigth

on

F.

For the

[lilt

tern,

proceed

as

shown
as

in

Fij;. 32(5.

Draw any

line,

K
in

II, e<|ual in len<;th to

K II

in Fij^.

32o.

Then, using K h as ratlins and Fig. 32G as center, describe the

h,

arc b

which
(J (r

intersect at a

and

(i

lv

an arc

struck fnini II as center

in plan in
Fig.
32.")

an(i with
railius.

FG
Draw

as

lines in Fig. 32(1

from
for

K
of

to a to II to a to
tlie

star of

K, which will he the pattern which G are retjuired.

line

one of the

jM)ints

^Mien l)ending the points on the

stay or nuide.
i)rofile

UK,

it is

necessar\- to

have a
he

so that

we may know
.stay,
c,

at

what angle the hend

siiould

To

obtain this

erect fi-om the corner

in Fig.

325 a

line

intersecting the base-line J II at

J K,

draw

c d.
r.

I'.sing c as center,

and

fn>m which point, at right angles to c d as radius, strike an arc inter/

secting J II at

From
(!'.

drop a
.*>et

vertical line

off
to

PATTERN FOR
^CORNER

e<|ual to

meeting A () in j)lan at / H, and draw a line

is

from H
after

(/'

to B',

which
in

the true
is

j)i\)file

which the
If

j)attern

Fig. 32()

to

be

bent.

the stay in Fig. 32.') has been correctly develo|)ed, theiw/' B' or (/' B uuisti><|ual
ii

in Fig. 32ti

on both
is

sides.

In Fig. 327

shown

finishel elevation

of u hippeil roof, on tlie four corners of which FiK. :V2(). a hip ridge .\ A butts against the uj)per base B an<l r-uts olf on a vertical line at the bottom, as (' and C. To obtain
tiie

nnci the |)attenis for the

tnie profile of this hip ridge, together with the top and lower cuts lower heads, proceed as .shown in Fig. 32X,
front elevation has l)een omitted, this not being ne<'essar\',
letpiiretl.

where the

as only the part plan and diagonal elevation are

First

draw

238

SHEET METAL WORK

BC E the part plan as shown by F C in a horizontal position; and line

lines

make

A, placing the hip or diagonal the distances between the

FA

and

C B and

between

F E and C

D equal,

because the roof

has equal pitch all around. (The same principles, howwould be used if the roofs had unequal pitches.) Above ever,
in this case

the plan,

draw the

line

G H.
F
and

From

the points

in plan, erect

the lines

F G and C I, extending C I to C^ so

that I

C will
G

be the

re-

quired height of the roof above I at the point

C
-FRONT ELEVATION

in plan.

^^'^^^

Draw a line CS and from

C* draw a horizontal and

vertical line indefinitely,

as shown.

Then

will

C^ be a true section on the line of the

roof

on

FC

in plan.
is

The next step

at right angles to

to obtain a true section of th? angle of the roof at

right angles to the hip line

G C* in elevation.
any Extend a b
line, as

This
a
b,

is

done by drawing

FC

in plan,

intersecting the lines

F A and F E
elevation at
intersecting

as shown.

until

it

cuts the base-line

G I in

c.

From

c,

at right angles to

CS draw a

line, as c d,

the line

which

is

C^ at d. Take the distance c d, and place it in plan on C, measuring from i to d'. Draw a line from a to d' to h, the true angle desired. On this angle, construct the desired
J,

shape of the hip ridge as shown by

each half of which divide into

C^ repequal spaces, as shown by the figures 1 to 6 to 1. As the line resents the line of the roof, and as the point d' in plan in the true angle also represents that line, then take a tracing of the profile J with the
various points of intersection on same, together with the true angle a d' b, and place it in the elevation as shown J^ and a' d" b\

by

being

careful to place the point d"

on the

line

G C^

CS making

a' h' parallel to

From

lines parallel to

the various points of intersection in the profile J, draw F C, intersecting B C and F at points from 1 to 6,

as shown.

only to

As both sides of the profile J are symmetrical, draw lines through one-half.

it is

necessary

SI I Hi: r

MK'l'AL WOltK

2:j9

III

similar

iiiaiiiii-r,

mi elevation, purallel to
.1',

thr.)ii;^'li till'

various intersections in

wliieli intersect

at

riL'lit

antrles to

FC

in pli'.n

from similarly

draw lines* drawn numbered j>oints on A F

l)y lines

G C,

w 214

PATTERN FOR LOWER

HETAD

34 12
5

FiK. 32S.

and Br.

"^Prace a line tliroii^di the points tlins ol)(ainel.

Then

will

lie (In- iiiitcr-line at

the iMittotn, and

line,
ils

M N the miter-line at the top.

O
P, at right an^^les to (

I'or tlie |)atlern,

draw any

C,

240

SHEET

ISIETAL

^WRK

upon which place the stretchout of J in plan or J' in elevation, as shown by the figures 1 to 6 to 1 on O P; and through these numbered points, at right angles to O P, draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn at from similar intersections in the lower miter-line right angles to G K L and upper miter-line N M. Trace a line through the thus

O
is

obtained.

Then will

R S T U be the desired
to obtain

points

pattern.

In practice it or the bottom top

words,

U T is that part falling out of R S, the same as R

U
T.

necessary and use theonly for the opposite reverse

one miter-cut

either the
In other
that part
is

side.

miter-cut butts against Fig. 327; while the lower cut requires a flat head, as shown at C. obtain this flat head, extend the line I in Fig. 328, as I W,

which cuts away from

The upper

B in To
upon
in

which place twice the amount of spaces contained on the

plan, as 6, 3

line

6 on the
intersect

5, 4, 1, 2, as shown similar by figures on either side of line V W. From these divisions erect vertical lines, Avhich by lines drawn parallel to V W from similarly numl)ered
intersections in the miter-line

AF

K L G. A line traced through

the points

thus obtained, as

shown by

X Y Z,

will

be the

pattern for the heads.

^\Tiere a hip ridge is required to miter with the apron of a deck moulding, as shown

in Fig. 329, in which B represents the apron of the deck cornice, and the hip ridges mitering at a and a, a slightly different process from that described in the

Fig. 329.

preceding problem

is

used.

mansard roof must

first

be drawn as shown

represent the part elevation of the mansard, the section of the deck moulding and apron being shown by D B E. Draw E X parallel to B C. then represents the line of the roof. In its proper position, at right angles to B C, draw a half-section of the hip mould, as shown by F G, which is an exact reproduction of B E of the deck mould. Through the corners of the hip mould at Y and G, draw lines parallel to B C, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to B A from V, W, and E in the deck cornice. Draw the miter-line H I, which completes the part elevation of the mansard.

In this case the part elevation of the in Fig. 330. Let A B C

EX

SHEET METAL WORK

Befort- the patterns can
lr (ljtaiiii*<l,

?A\

<k'velo|H.'<l

surface of

tlie

inaiisanl

must he ilrawn.

'I'hereforc,

fn)m

H
at

tical line, iLs

J, intersecting the line ('

[lae
it

(Fig. 330), tlrop a verJ. Now take the disa.s

tance

(tf

(',

and

on a

vertical line in Fig. li^U,

shown hv

('.

Thn)Ugh these two points draw the horizontal

line.s

B \ and
it

CK

as shown.

Take the

jirojection

J to

(' in

Fig.

330, and place

as

PART ELEVATION

MANSARD ROOF

OF

PART PLAN

TRUE
SECTION
R'

ON OP'

Via.

:5:n

shown
will

fnini
('

C to C in
l)o

Fig. 331. anl

draw

a line fn.ni

(' to

B.

Theix

A B
As

the devclo|)ed surface of

.\
(
'.

<"

in Fig. 3.30.

l)oth the |)rofiles

\'

F, an<l

F\

are similar, take a tracing

of cither,

respectively in Fig. Bistvt of cpial spaces, as sh)wn. 1 )ividc l)ofh into a and /<. and, u.sing these a.H tx-nlers. the angl. A hy estahlishing

and

|)lace

shown l>y the same mnnher

it a,s

|) an.l

1 >'

XU.

'

I'.

242

SHEET METAL WORK

arcs intersecting at c; then

draw d B, which represents the points in and D\ draw Unes parallel Through to their respective moulds, as shown, intersecting the miter-line B d
by describing
the miter-hne.

and the base-line C C^ For the pattern for the

to

hip, draw any line, as E F, at right angles upon which place twice the stretchout of D, as shown by the divisions 6 to 1 to 6 on EF. Through these divisions draw lines at

C,

PATTERN FOR
--.HIP

RIDGE

D'

^ ^^^
5 6

hP

MANSARD

SURFACE OF

DEVELOPED ROOF

K
Fig. 331.

right angles to

right angles to

E F, intersecting similarly numbered lines drawn at B C from the divisions on B and C C^ Trace a line
(Z

through the points thus obtained. for the hip ridge.

Then

will

G H J L be the pattern
it is

When
at

bending

this ridge in the

machine,

necessary to

know

what angle the line 1 in the pattern will be bent. A true section must be obtained at right angles to the line of hip, for which proceed as shown in Fig. 330. Directly in line with the elevation, construct a
part plan the angle

L M N O, through which, at an angle of 45 degrees (because L O N is a right angle), draw the hip line O M. Establish at

M, from which erect the vertical line pleasure any point, as P^ on into the elevation crossing the base-line C at P and the ridge-line

CB

at

R.

shown.

O^ P^, equal to O PS as Extend P^ P^ as P^ R^ which make equal to PR in elevation.

Parallel to

M in plan, draw

;iii:i:r

mktat. ^voRK
It' 1*^

243

)r;iu

;i

liii.

iM-iii

ll'toO'.

'I'lR-nO'
|>)int,
sls

rt-prfseiiLsa tme.sertioiion
ri;,'lit

Ol"

ill

j)laii.

Thnnitfli any

a, at

aii^'les to

hv, cutting

LO

and
at d.

ON

at h

ami

respettively.

(JM, Jraw Kxteml b c until it

Fntin d, at right angles to ()' K', ilraw tlie line d as center, and dr as radius, draw the arc r ', intersecting d e. With in plan, draw a )' P- at f', fn)m which point, at right angles to
interset'ts
(

O' 1"

OM
i-"

line intersecting OM at

r".

)raw a

lii'

>

fnjm b

to

to c,

whidi reprein Fig.

sents the true section of the hip after

which the pattern shown

'XM

is

fornietl.

The
the apron
riilge

same way

H in Fig. '.i'M) is ohtaintHJ in the pattern for die deck mould as tlie s(|uare miter shown in Fig. 277; while the pattern for D' in Fig. 331 is the same as the one-half patteni of tlie hip
;i

shown hv

II

0.

In Fig. 332
tills

is

.shown a front elevation of an eve-l)n)W dormer.

In

view

ABC represents the front view of the dormer, the arcs being

Fig. 332.

struck from the center points I), K. and F. line II J in elevation is shown at the right; L

.\

section taken on the

shows the roof of the

in

donner, indicated
elevation hy
Ill
(

in the section

hy X; while the louvers are shown

P and
is

in section l>y

HT.

I'ig.

333

.shown

how

to ol>taiM the various patterns for the

various j)arts of the doniicr. repre.sents tlu' half-elevation of the is the line of the of which donner, and KF(1 a side view, donner^
AI'ii

FO

KF
the

that of the n)of,

and (IF the line of the pitched n)of against which

lu-ing j)lacel in dicir pii>pcr relative

donner

is

re(|uired to miter.

The

fn)nt

and side views

at right angles io FF. positions, the first step is to obtain a true se<'tion Divide the curve .\ to ]\ int< a number of etpial I'roc-ee<l as follows:

spaces, as
figures oil

to shown from A H, draw liiu-s

I

[).

\\ right angles to

.\ (',

and from the

intersecting

(i in

.*idc

view as .shown.

244

SHEET METAL WORK

these intersections,

From

and

parallel to

the roof-line

GF at

P, 2^ 3^

etc.

Parallel to

EF, draw lines intersecting EF, and from the point

'

ONE HALF TRUE PROFILE ON LINE E-H IN SIDEVIEW

6 5 4 3 2 ONE HALF PATTERN FOR SHAPE OF

7

_9
1

OPENING
Fig. 333.

IN

ROOr

G, draw any line indefinitely, as G H. At right angles to EF, and from the point E, draw the line EH, intersecting lines previously drawn,

Slll.l/l

METAL WORK

245

at

1',

2',

;>',

III.,

a>

^iiiiu n.

Now
tluTeiii,

tlif

various iiitersectious
K.T.

take a dupHcato of the line EH. with ami placi- it on the center hnc AC

extended as
ete.,

At

ri<jht an<,des to

KJ, and from the

fif^urcs 1", 2^, 3*,

draw hues,
angh's to
a

whieli intersei-t with those of simihir

numbers drawn

at right

CH, and from

A H. 'i'race Then K L.M.I

hue

simihirly niunhered points on the cur\'e through tlie points of intersection thus obtained.
|rofile

will

be one-half the true

on the

line

K H

in side

view, from which the stretchout will be obtained in the development

of the pattern.

For the
to

j)attern

for the roof of the

dormer, draw

at right angles

KF

in sitle

view the line

one-half the tnie profile

r.
'2\ 3*, etc.

upon which place the stretchout of on the line KII as shown by the snuill figures
( ),

draw

lines,

Then, at right angles to X O, and through the figures, which intersect with those of similar numl)ers drawn at

right angles to

EF

from intersections on ECi and GF.

Trace a

line

through the ])oints thus obtained. half the pattern for the roof.

Then

will

PKST

represent one-

the
to

obtain the jiattern for the shape of the opening to be cut into ro(f, transfer the line CIF, with the various intersections thereon,
vertical line, as
1',

To

any

UV,
3',

as

shown
In
line

by the figures
.similar

2,

etc.

HALP PATTERN FOR LOUVRE *'4

7

manner, transfer the

on same,
to

C'H in fn)nt view, with the various

intersections

the

line

ZW, drawn
as

at right angles to I'V,

shown by the figures 1, 2, 3, etc. At right angles to \'\', and fi-om tile figures, draw lines, which intersect with

those of similar
at

numY'A.

bers

drawn

right

angles to

Through these points, trace a line. Then will LX^'Z l>r die half-pattern for the shape of the o|>ening to be ctit into the main nnif.
the |)uttern for the ventilating slats or louvers, should thev In thi.s iii|uircd in the donner. |)ro(rrd as shown in Fig. 331. figure, A H ( is a repniduction of tlie inside opening shown in Fig. X^i.
I-'or
111-

Let
uill

1,

2, 3,

},

.')

in Fig. .331 represi-nl the srrtions of the louvers

which

be

in tliis plnci.*<l

opening.

As

the mellutds of obtaining the put-

246

SHEET METAL WORK

No. 4
will illus-

terns for all louvers are alike, the pattern for louver
trate the principles

employed.

Number

the various bends of louver

No. 4 as shown by points 6, 7, 8, and 9. At right angles to A B, and from these points, draw lines intersecting the curve A C as 6^ 7^ 4\ 8^ and 9^ On B A extended as E D, place the stretchout of louver No. 4 Since the miter-line AC is a curve, as shown by the figures on ED.
be necessary to introduce intermediate points between 7 and 8 In this instance the point marked 4 has been added.
it

will

of the profile, in order to obtain this curve in the pattern.

Now, at right angles to DE, and through the figures, draw lines, which intersect with those of similar numbers, drawn parallel to AB from intersections 6' to 9*
on the curve AC.

A line

traced through the points thus obtained, as FKJH,

will

for louver

be the half-pattern No. 4. The

for the face of
is

pattern

the dormer
onto the

pricked
direct
in

metal
in

from the front view

Fig. 333,

which

A8

B C

is

In laying
^^"^'^'^-

the half-pattern. out the

patterns for bay window work, it often happens

projection, as is shown elevation of an octagonal base of

that each side of the

in Fig. 335, in

window has an unequal

which

DEE shows an

All that part of the projections. bay obtained by the method shown in Fig. 290, while the finish of the bay shown by ABC in Fig. 335 will be treated here.

a bay

window having unequal

line

above the

AB

is

In some cases the lower ball

section through

is

a half-spun ball.

A^ B^ F^

is

a true

A B.

It will

be noticed that the

lines

drawn

respectively at right angles to ab, be,

and

cd,

Ca, Cc, and Cd, are each of different

lengths, thereby maldng it necessary to obtain a true profile on each of these lines, before the patterns can be obtained. This is clearly explained in connection with Fig. 336, in which only a half-elevation

and plan are required as both

sides are symmetrical.

First

draw the

SHEET METAL WollK

center line
a-s

247

Ml, oi\ whicli ilraw the lialf-elevution of the hase of tlie shown hv (T>E. At ri;,'ht unfiles to All Iraw the wall line Imv, and in its proper position in relation to the line CD in in plan, as FK; From the elevation, lra\v the (lesire<l half-|>lan, as shown hy (lilM.
corners
II

ami

draw the

iiiiter-lines

IIF and IF us shown.

.Vs

DF

'

'I'L'

j^

HALT PATTCRN
R

FOR

3
FiR.
:vM\.

F(l in |)lan. tlien divile the profile represents the^iven profile thronj,'h to 1.? of spaces as shown ly the lij^ures 1)1'' into an eipial uumiIkt
I

Fmrn these j)oiiits drop vertical lines intersecting; the initer-line Fll From these intersections, parallel to III. tlraw in plan, a.s shown. line's intersecting' the miter-lines IF. fn>m which points, parallel to 1.1.
draw
points
lines
intersecting'

the ciitcr line

I'l-,

I'M

Thnm^h

the variiuis

of intersection in
as .shown.

draw hori/onlid

lines indelinitcly ri^'ht

and

left

248

SHEET METAL WORK

If for

any reason

it is

desired to

show the

elevation of the miter-

line

development of the patplan (it on FI, tern), then erect vertical lines from the various intersections To avoid a confusion in the intersecting similar lines in elevation.

FI

in

not being necessaiy in the

drawing, these lines have not been shown. Trace a line through D' 13, which is the desired miterpoints thus obtained, as shown by
line in elevation.

The
and IJ

next step

is

to obtain the true profile at right angles to

HI

in plan.

To obtain the true profile through No.

3 in plan, take

a tracing of J F, with the various intersections thereon, and place it on a line drawn parallel to CD in elevation, as J^ F^ with the intersections
1 to 13, as

shown.

From
line

these intersections, at right angles to J'

F^
in

erect lines intersecting similar lines

elevation.

drawn through the

profile

DE

by

1'

through the points thus obtained, as shown to 13', which represents the true profile for part 3 in plan. At

Trace a

right angles to

IH

in plan,

draw any

line, as

ML,

and extend the va-

rious lines
13, as

drawn

parallel to

IH

until they intersect

LM at points

1 to

shown.
tracing of

Take a

LM,

with the various points of intersection,

and place it on any horizontal line, as L^ MS as shown by the figures 1 to 13, from which, at right angles to L^ M\ erect vertical lines intersecting similarly

numbered horizontal

lines

drawn through the

profile

DE.
1"

Then will through the points thus obtained. 13" be the true profile through No. 2 in plan at right angles to HI. For the pattern for No. 1 in plan, extend the line FK, as NO, upon
line

Trace a

which place the stretchout of the profile DE as shown by the figures 1 to 13 on NO. At right angles to NO, and from the figures, draw which intersect with lines (partly shown) drawn parallel to FG lines,
from similar intersections on the miter-line FH.
the points thus obtained; then will
in plan.

Trace a

line

through
1

IP

13 be the pattern for part

At right angles to I, draw any line, as U, upon which place the stretchout of profile No. 2, being careful to measure each space
separately, as they are all unequal, as shown by the small figures 1" to 13" on TU. Through these figures, at right angles to TU, draw lines as shown, which intersect by lines (not shown in the drawing) drawn
at right angles to I

H from similar points on the miter-lines HF and FI.

SH KKT MK'IAL
'I'ruc-e

WOHK
Then
will
\'

249

a line thruu^li the points thus

uhtuiiic*)!.

\V

l>e

the pattern for part 2 in plan. F'or the half-pattern fr part 3 in j>lan, extend the center line A H in plan as H K, ujK)n which place the stretchout of the true pmfile for
.'i,

hein^ careful to measure each space separately, us shown by

tlie

li^'iires

to 13'

on BR.

At

ri^'ht an^'les to

H K draw

lines throuj^h

the fi<;ures. which intersect hy lines drawn at ri^'ht angles to .1 I fnin A line trace*! similar points of intersection on tlie miter-line V I.
tlironj,'h

points thus obtaine<l, as

T S

13', will

he the half-pattern

for part 3.

DEVELOPMEINT OF BLANKS TOR CLR\LD MULLUlNuS

Our
it

first

attention will he <jiven to the

hcinfj necessary that the blank can be laiil out.

methods of construction, we know the methods of construction before

For examj)le,
in Fi};.

337

is

a part elevation

of a donner window, with a semicircular top whose profile ha.s an ogee, If this job were undertaken by a finn who had no fillet, and cove. circular

moulding machine, as is the case in many of the smaller shops, The metluul of c-onstructhe mould would have to be made by hand.
tion in this case woulil

then be as shown

in

Fig. 33S,
a.

which shows an enlarged section through a b in Fig. Thus the strips a, b, and r in Fig. 33S would be 337.
cut to the retiuired size,

c^
^^KP

// X(-^
/

than straight strips angle, tlie lower side

and would be nothing more of metal, while d d' wovild be an

d'

s^^

being notchetl with the shears

and turned
/.

and

It

The face strips r, the re<juired circle. would re|)resent arcs (f circles to correspond
to

to their various
elevaiiiiii.

diameters obtained from the

face and

full-size<l
I'iK.

sink strips would all be sohh-rcd togetiicr, and fonn a succession of scpuire angles, as.shown. in whit'h thcogfc, as shown bv y, and the cove, as shown by m, wttuld lie
'!1ic>c
(

Xi7.

In obtaining the patterns for the blanks hammered by hand, the averaged lines would be drawn as shown by h I for the ogee and
fitted.

no

for the cove.

The method

or principles of averaging these and

other moulds will be explained as we jroceel. In Fig. 330 is .shown the same mould as in

th" previous figure, a dilTerent mt-thod of <-nstruction being employnl fnm thene nuide bv hand and the onehannnered ui) bv nuichine. In nutchine work this

250

SHEET METAL WORK

in

mould can be hammered

sheets in use,
if

one piece, 8
is

feet long or of the length of the

such length

required, the

machine taking

in the full

Fig. 338.

Fig. 339.

A to B. The pattern for work of this kind is averaged a line as shown by CD. This method will also be exby drawing
mould from
plained

more

fully as

we

proceed.

SHOP TOOLS EMPLOVED

in the

working any circular mould by hand, all that is requirerl way of tools is various-sized raising and stretching hammers, mandrel including raising blocks square stake, blow-horn stake, and

When

made

of

wood or

lead.

first-rate

knowledge must be employed

of these small tools. In by the mechanic in the handling and working a thoroughly up-to-date shop will be found what are known as "curved

moulding" machines, which can be operated by foot or power, and which have the advantage over hand operation of saving time and labor, and also turning out first-class work, as all seams are avoided.

PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED FOR OBTAINING APPROXIMATE BLANKS FOR CURVED MOULDINGS HAMMERED BY HAND

The
same

governing principles underlying

all

such operations are the

as every sheet-metal

worker uses

in the laying out of the simple

In other words, one who understands how to patterns in flaring ware. out the pattern for a frustum of a cone understands the principles lay of developing the blanks for curved mouldings. The principles will

be described

in detail in

what
is

follows.

Our

first

problem

shown in Fig. 340. half-elevation of the mould, as

that of obtaining a blank for a plain flare, First draw the center line B, and construct the

DE

F.

Extend

DE

until

it

inter-

PLAN OF RESIDENCE OF DR. FOLTZ. CHESTNUT HILL.

(imirtfxT.

I'HI L

ADKLI'HI
III
I

A.

PA.

tVamon, Arohltoct,

rbtlntlFltiliU.

Pu

InlTliir WiiiMlwork UTrpt<-<1 In Dulrh Hlylr. of !

tniit

SllEK'l

MI.IM. Wol'.K
Ai ri^ht angles
as shown.
to

Of ol

st'cts

the center line

AB

at
'

( J.

AH

fnun any
is

[xiint,

as
II
(,'

II.
1

draw

11

to I't^niA

1),

I'sing II as center,
I

and with

as radius, descrihe the <|uarter-circle

7,

which

a section on
(i as center,

l).

Divide

7 into e(|ual spaces, as shown.

i

Now usinj;

with radii et|ual to (J E and < D, describe the arcs 1) 7' and K E. Kn)in any point, as 1', draw the radial line 1' ( I, intersecting the inner
arc at
K"^.

Take

a stretcluuit

<tf

the (piarter-section; place

it

as

shown

Fir. 310.

I'Hi.

:u\.

from r to
lit

7';

and ilraw a
will 1-?
If
I'

line fn)m7'iii (i, iiilcrseetin;,' the

inner arc

\y.

Then

in elevation.
if

V he the .|uartcr-pattern for the Hare 1) K tlw pattern is re<|iiin'd in two halves, join (wo pieces;
7'

rc<|nireil in

one

piece, join four pii-crs.

In

Fi;;. ."Ml is

shown acnrvnl

nioiihl
Ik-

whose

pn)(ile contains a (^>ve.

To work
hannner.

this

|)rolil<>.

the hiank innst

stretclu-d with the stretching

tlir

W'r

mm/ion

this lurr so that

.slmlnil will piuj

attrnhan

ht Ihi- riilr fnr (ihtniiiini/ imltrru.s fnr .itrrlrlud unniltit.

First

draw the

nnrcr
I

line

.\

H;

als tin- lialf-elrvalion

F,

of the moulding, as
spiuf.s,
h.s

(1) K

F.

>ivide tin-

cove

1) into

an

><|nal

lunnhcr of

shown

fn)ni

252

SHEET METAL WORK

e.

a to

Through the center

it

of the cove c

draw a hne
at

parallel to e a,
is

extending

until

it

meets the center line

AB
c e'

G, which
c a'.

the center

strike the pattern. point from which to

Take
and
a'
e'

the stretchout of the

cove

c e

and

c a,

and place

it

as

shown by

\Mien

stretchtoline

ing the flare a' e' , c

remains stationary,
at right angles to

and

being hammered

wards
and

and a

respectively.

Therefore, from

c erect

a vertical

intersecting

1,

drawn

A B, at 1.
7,

as radius, describe

the arc

Using H as center which divide into equal

spaces as shown.

With

G
V

as center,

and
a".

radii equal to

a'
e",

Gc, and
7',

e' ,

describe the arcs e"

and a"

Draw
and
a".

a line from e" to G, inter-

secting
1'

the center and lower arcs at

Starting from 1', lay off the stretchout of the quarter-section as

shown from
HALF
'ELEVATION .^
,

1'

to 7'.

Through

7'

draw

a line towards G, intersecting the inner arc at a"; and, extending the line

Then
PATTCRN'

upward, intersect the outer arc at e". will a" e" e" a" be the quarterin elevation. pattern for the cove E If the quarter-round were re-

NO

fjuired in place of the

I

s
Fig. 342.

as this quarter-round

E D, then, would require to

cove

be raised, the rule given in the former Instruction Paper on Sheet Metal

Work would be

of raised mouldings. applied to all cases In In Fig. 342 is shown a curved mould whose profile is an ogee. this case as in the preceding, draw the center line and half-elevation, and divide the ogee into a number of equal parts, as shown from a to h.

Through the flaring portion of the ogee, as c e, draw a line, extending it upward and downward until it intersects the center line A B at G. Take the stretchouts from a to c and from c ioh and place them reon the line h' G. Then, in workspectively from c to a' and from e to h' ing the ogee, that portion of the flare from c to e remains stationarj^;
the part from
e to h' will

be stretched
to

to

form

h while that part shown

;

from

c to a' will

be raised

form

c a.

From any point in

the stationat right

ary flare, as d, erect a line meeting the line

1,

drawn

SlIKirr

MKTAI.
a>

WOKK
ami
II
1

253

angles to
till'

H. at

1.

l^iii^' II

<'iitT

a.-.

ra<liu.s, ile-sc-rilje
jts

(|iiarti*r->t'(tioii,
(
I

and

tlividt*

saiiH-

into

i-iiiial

.s|iacfs,

.shown.

With
the

center anil with radii e<|ual to ( i ', ( J </, and (i h', descrilie Knirn //"draw a line to G. ares a" a". I' 7', ami //" //".
II.S

.^tartiiij;

at

!',

lay off the .stretchont of the sei-tion

7'

jls

shown from

1'

to

"'.

Through
<

draw

line to
.serihed.

i,

as

liefore dewill
//"

Then
tl

"

n"

It"

he the

(|tiarter-j)at-

ItTIl

for

le (u'ee

Kl).

In

Fii;. ;{4;^ is

shown
di"-

iiow the hlanks are

velojHil
inonltlinj;

when
is

hea d

enij)loyed.

.\s l)ef)re, first

draw the

^\
A|

center line A' R' and the

half-elevation
.\s
.\

B C D.
ii|)

HALF
^CLEVATIOfjl

the head takes

of a circle, as
n c c
j,

shown hv
he
then
the
will

and as the pat(

tern

for /

will
c,

same

as for r

the patteni

for r r only he shown, which can also

he use<l for
(I

/
(
,

/.

Hi.sect
^.L/

PATTERN

<

an<l

'

ohtainin;:
h
>

the

points
r

mid
f
II
t

f/_
I

which

p If

the

.stationary

points
^.

in

the
tin<*

patter
/'

Take
l>

stH'tchoiits of
to
' .

to

(/

;ind
3i:v

KiK and place them as shown from to d' and fnun to r' also take the stretchonts of ({ to and (/ to c, and jihice them fn>m d to r' nnd froni (/ to ' on
I, t>
;

<

lines
'/.

drawn
.V H'

parallel

respectively to
'

<i

and

c r

fn>m

|Miints

and

Kxteiid the lines

at
!'

c'

and

<'

' until

ihev intiTsii-t the cvnter

the
at

line
erei-t

and

respectively.
(J
1.

I-'mm

points

nnd
to

(/

lines intersoctinj; the line

drawn

rijjht

angles

A'

254

SHEET METAL WORK

and
1 respectively.

B', at 14
eciual to

Using

as center,

and with
to 14.
,

radii

14 and

1,

describe quarter-sections, as shown.

7,

Divide

both into equal parts, as shown from 1 to E as center, and with radii equal to E c',
arcs c" c", d'
d',

and from 8
d,

With

and

describe the

and

e"

e".

From any

point on one end, as e",

radial line to E, intersecting the inner arcs atd' and c". take the stretchout of the section from 1 to 7, and, starting at

draw a

Now
d' ,

lay

off the stretchout as

shown from

1'

to

7'.

towards E, intersecting the inner arc at c' Then will c" e" e" c" be the quarter-pattern for that part of the

Through 7' draw a line and the outer one at e".

bead shown by

c e, also for

e f, in elevation.

For the

pattern for that part shown by a c, use F* as center; and

with radii equal to

Fig. 344.

F a, F

b,

and
and
b' b'
,

F
as

c',

describe the arcs

a" a",

h' b',

c" c".
8',

From any point

8 14,
as

on the arc
out
of

lay off the stretch-

the

quarter-section
8' to 14'.

shown from

Through
towards

these

two points draw

lines

F', in-

tersecting the inner arcs at a" o"; and extend them until they intersect the

outer arc
c" a" a" c"

at c"

and

c'.

Then

will

be the desired pattern. In Fig. 344 is shown an illustra-

tion of a

round

finial

which contains

Fig. 345.

in principles of which have already l^een described The ball is made of either horizontal the preceding problems. or vertical sections. In Fig. 345 is shown how the moulds in a finial

moulds, the

of this kind are averaged. The method of obtaining the t;i:e length of each pattern piece will be omitted, as this was thoroughly covered
in the preceding

problems.

First

side of

which draw the section of the

draw the center line A B, on finial, as shown by C D E.

either

The

blanks for the ball a will be obtained as explained in the Instruction Paper on Sheet Metal Work. The mould b is averaged as shown by
the line
e f,

extending same until

it

intersects the center line at h, e /

representing the stretchout of the

mould obtained,

as explained in the

SIIKK/I'

MK'IAI,

WOUK
//

2.-..'

papff
railii,

i>ri

Slii'ft

.Mi-i;il

Wnrk.
li^.

siim h as ceiiUT, with

ami

//

as

<le.srril)r
tilt"

tlie

Maiik

In

next iiuHild, c

c',

st'aiii is
'

localnl in suine as shuwii hy

Thfii avera^'e < Ity the line /;', extending same until it meets the center line at k: also averaj^e r' hy the line / m, extending this also until the center line is intersectel at ti. Then / and / m
the clotted hne.
/

represent respectively the stretchouts of the mould c r', the blanks c anil c* being struck The muld respectively from the centers k and n.
b'

b" also has a

averaged by the lines

center line at
r

seam, as shown hy the dotted line, the moulds being n and /, which, if exteiule*!, intersect the /> and //. These points are the centers, respectivelv, for
.v

striking the blanks b

and

6*.

I'he llaring pieces/

is

struck from the

center

with radii e(|ual to .r w and .r r. thus ol)taining the blank d. referring to the various rules given in previous pnblems. the true length of the blanks can be obtaineil.
jr,

By

The
to

princi|)lcs used for

blanks hanuncrcd bv hand can be applie<l

almost any form that

:i4(i.

will arise, as, for

example,

in the

case

shown

represent circular leader heads; or in that sh(wn in Fig. .'MT. in which .\ and H show two stvles of balusters,
in Fig.

in

which

A and H

a and

}>

lin i)t)th)
is

example
which

that of a round

.\nother representing the s(|Mar' to|)s and ba.ses. litiial. as in Fig. .'Ms, A showing the IumhI
roof.

slips

over the apex of the

While

thesj-

forms

'an

be

l)ouglit. yet in

some cases where

architc<t,

it

is

a special design is lii-ough.f out bv the nc-cessarv that thcv be made l>v li.ind. cspeciallv when

but one
'I'lu-

is

nipiired.

that of |tniblem on handwork is shown in Fig. ."MU the blanks for the bottom of a circular bay. The cunitl obtaining moulding \ will be hammerni bv hand or bv nuichine. as will Ik* exlast

256

SHEET METAL WORK

while the bottom B is the problem before us. The plained later on, it will be seen, is the arc of a circle; and, to obtain the various
plan,

B blanks, proceed as shown in Fig. 350, in which a plan view on bottom of the bay, of the being

is

the elevation

UK

A C,

showing the

Fig. 347.

In this case the curve struck from the center H. of the bottom of the bay is given, and front view taken on the must have the shape indicated by It therefore becomes necessary' to line I J in plan.

ABC

establish a true section

on the center

line

in

.^
<
)

plan,

from which

to obtain the radii for the blanks or

Fig. 349.

Fig. 348.

patterns.

To

obtain this true section, divide the curve

AB

into

any

number

of equal parts, as

shown from

division, at right angles to

the points of lines as shown, intersecting the C, drop

1 to 6.

From

wall hne I J at points

1'

to 6'.
3',

equal

to

6',

5',

H 4', H

Then, using H as center, and radii and H 2', draw arcs crossing the
to 6".

center line

DE

shown from

1"

At any convenient point

SHRKT MKTAL WORK

op|)site
tlif
liiu's

2o7

llif

fnnt elfvatioii ilraw

tlif

any

vcrlu-ul line,

a.s

Ivxteml
interseet

fniiii

spares
\'

in

the

profile

A H

until

tiiey

the \ertical line

as shown.
plan, take

Now,

inea-surinj; in

even- in.stunce

from the point S

in

the various distances to the nuin-

TRUC SECTION
Kl
.

ON 3- K

1'

E
Fig. 350.

hered points in plan ami place them upon lines of similar nnmhers, meitsuring in every instance from
the line

l'

in

section.

Thus

take

tlie

distance
\

and place it as .shown from the line T r to K'jthen aj^ain, take the di.stance fnm S to 2" in plan, anl j>lace it as shown from the line T \' to
in
|)Ian,

L'"

on

line 2 in .section.
in

Proceed

in this

manner

until all the |M)ints

the

true

.section
("

have been ohtaineil.

to

Trace a line as
tin-

shown, when 1" to line S K in plan.

It

will

he the true section uu

should

l>c

understood

that

the usual
is

method

for

M
As-

making
tlie

the hottom of hays n)und in plan

to diviile the profile nf

niouldinj^ into such parts as can

lu* licst

rai.si*<l

or stretchetl.

suming

that this has heen done, take the distance fntm 1" in plan to
11,

the center |>oint

.

and place

it

a.s

shown from
M,
;us

l" to

in section.

I, the|>oint L, draw a vt-rtical line I" 2", average a line tern for the mould

From

a.s

shown, and cxtcuil the same

until

it

Kor the patthmu^h the cMn-nu- points, meets I. M ;ii N. Then.

.shown.

with

;ls

center,

and with

r.idii

etpial

to

2"

and N

1'.

dcscril>e

258

SHEET METAL WORK

The
length of this blank
is

the blank shown. ing on the arc

of the blank.
1'

1" in plan,

and placing

this stretchout

obtained by measuron the arc 1"

The
is

manner.

Thus P

other blanks are obtained in precisely the same the center for the blank 2" 3"; R, for the blank

3" 4"; O, for the blank 4" 5";

The moulds

1"

2",

2"

and M, for the blank 5" 3", and 3" 4" will be

6".

raised;

while

the blanks 4" 5" and 5" 6" will be stretched.

APPROXIMATE BLANKS FOR CURVED MOULDINGS HAMMERED BY MACHINE

The principles employed in averaging the profile for a moulding be rolled or hammered by machine do not difFer to any material extent from those used in the case of mouldings hammered by hand. Fig. 351 shows the general method of averto

aging the profile of a moulding in determinIt ing the radius of the blank or pattern. will be seen that A B is drawn in such a

manner, so

to speak, as to average the in-

C required to be distances a and b are equal, as are the distances c and d, and e and /. It is
equalities of the profile

made.

Thus

^B
Fig. 351.

very difficult to indicate definite rules to be observed in drawing a line of this kind, or,
in

other words, in averaging

the profile.

Nothing short of actual experience and intimate knowledge of the material in which the moulding is to be made, will enable the operator

SECTION

Fig. 352.

to decide correctly in all cases.

There

is,

however, no danger of

making very grave errors in this respect, because the capacity of the machines in use is such, that, were the pattern less advantageously planned in this particular than it should be, still, by passing it through the dies or rolls an extra time or two, it would be brought to the required shape.

SHEi-rr

MKTAl.

\v< 'i;l.

J.-i9

III

Via.

vvouM
arising

<cciir id
ill

sliowij a part t-lfvalinii jf a circular iixiuldilig as it a segiiKMital peiiiincnt, wimlow cap, or oUicr structure sluvt-inetal cornice work. H shows the cun'wl iiiouKling,
^'''*

joining;

two horizontal pieces

I>.
it

A and

( ',

th'

tniestH-tion of

all

the

moulds

licin^

shown hy

In this connection

may he proper
l)laiiks,

to

remark

that in practice,

no miters are cut on the circular

ilie

the miter-cuts heinj: place*! on

it

horizontal pieces,

aii<l

the circular mouldin<: trimmed after

has

iieen fonne<l up.

In Via.

i'hi

is

shown

the

method of

ohtainin;; the blanks for

mouhlinirs

cuned

in elevation,

no matter what their radius or pnjfile

.nav
IS 15,

lie.

Kir>t

draw the center

line

U, and, with the desired lenter.

descrilie the outer cur\e A.

.\t ri:ht

angles to

H, in

its

pmper

Fnun the a section of tin- profile as shown liy (1). position, ilraw various nienil>ei-s in this .section, project line> to the center line A H
a.s

1, 2,

3,

and

and.

iisin;,'

elevation as <-oniplete the

diown

in

Fijj.

{')'i.

In

H as center, descrilie the varituis arcs and shown l>y .\ H (' in Fi^. .T)2. only partly the manner liefore ile>crilnl, averap* the
extciidiiij^'
it

prolileC

liv

the liner./,

until

it

intersects the lim-

drawn
e.sial>-

through thccent'r

at ri^hl anj,'lcs to

M. at F.

Then K

is

the center

from which
lish f

to strike the |)allern.

Centrally on the stHtion

intersects the
|),

('

D.

on the
from

line r
*

</.
'

wlu-rc

it

mould, and take the

it

stretchout fnun
tivelv
<

to

and

fiimi r to

and phn-e
line c
</.

to <

and fnm

to

(/

on the

a.s shown n>r*jM'Now, u.sinjj K h.s

2t)0

SHEET METAL WORK

E
(^,

center, with radii equal to

e' e",

E
e'

e,

and

c,

describe the ares d' d",

and

c' c"
e'

Draw
and
d'.

a line from

c'

to E, intersecting the

middle and

inner arc at

The
to

then becomes the measuring line obtain the length of the pattern, the length
arc
e"

^:
ELEVATION

being measured

on the arc 2

in

elevation,

which corresponds to the point e in section. In Fig. 354 is shown the elevation of a

moulding A curved in plan B, the arc being struck from the given point a. This is apt to
occur
FIT

PLAN

the moulding or cornice on a building whose corner is round.

ft^hen

is

To

placed ob-

tain the pattern

in plan,

when the moulding is curved Draw in Fig. 355. proceed as shown

Fig. 354.

C bethe section of the moulding, as A B, the mould for which the pattern is desired. ing CB
after

represents
it

straight strip

which

is

at-

tached to

the mould

is

hammered or

rolled to shape.

In

At pleasure, below the secis not required. practice the elevation draw the horizontal line E D. From the extreme or outside tion,
edge of the mould, as h, drop a line intersecting the
horizontal
line
to

ED

at E.

Knowing
on the

the radius of the

it

arc on h in section, place

line

D, thus ob-

With taining the point D. as center, describe the

arc

F, intersecting a line
at right angle to

drawn

from D.

Average a line

through the section, as

H, intersecting the line D F, drawn vertical from the center

D,

at J.

Establish

at
Fig. 355.

pleasure
point
center,
a,

the stationary
line cutting

from which drop a

ED

at a'.

Using

D
is

as

and with

a' as radius,

describe the arc a' a", which

the

measuring line when laying out the pattern.

Now

take the stretch-

111.1-.

MhlAL UOUK
pluc-t*
tlieiii oti
I

_'til

outs
liiif

fruiii fntiii

(J

to A u> (i

and

fniiu a toe. aiirl

to II

tl'e
!

averagwi
-"*

and fnnu a ami

tlie

respectively.
[M)int.s

J^iiif?

feiiter,
th

with nulii extendiiij; to the varioas

ares

O.

a.

and

II. ilesfrilx.'

(]\ a '",

II IP.

On
is

the

urr

<i'

a'",

pattern
to

inea-sured

to

eoiTe.sj)ond

the

arc a' a" in phm. In Fig. .'i.")( i.s .shown a front

view of an oniainenta! huH'.s-eye

window,
inouhi

showing the circuhir D, which in this case we desire to hiy out in one

A H (

piece, so

that,
in

when hammered
it

or

rolleti

the machine,

will

have the

desire<l diameter.

Tlic

same
used

principles can

to the up|)er
in
I

mould K

he aj)plicd F, as were
witli

connection
.{.-..i.

Figs.

l''-

352 an.

3^^iiot?

To ohtain

tlic l)laiik

tor ilie hull '.^-cve winiiow .sht)wn in Fig.

I>et

proceed as .shown in Fig. 3o7.

AR

(' 1)

repre.sent the elevatio

of the l)uir.s-eye struck from the center F.

Thnuigh F draw the

lior

SECTION
FiK.

ELEVATION
3.'>7.

/ontal

and perpendicular

lines

shown.
li\
I''

In il>
<i.

pro|M'r position,

draw n
of the

H'ction of the

window

lus

shown

I'hrough the
it

Uuf
it

mould,

as II

I.

average the line

II'

I',

extending

until

intersivLn

262

SHEET METAL WORK

B

the center line

D at J.
to

Where

the average Hne intersects the

;

mould

at a, establish this as a stationary point

and take the stretchouts from

on the
to
line

a to

and from a

H, and lay them

off

H* T from a to P

and a

H^

respectively.

As

5 in elevation represents the quarter-circle on the point a

in section, divide this quartercircle

into

equal

spaces,

as

shown.
to

Now, with
a,

radii equal

J r, J
in

and J

H\

and with and

Fig.

358 as center, de-

scribe the arcs

I I.

H, a

a,

From any
side,

point, as

H,
in-

on one
Fig. 358.

draw a

line to J,

intersecting the middle

and

ner arcs at a and

1

the stretchout of the quarter-circle from to 5 in elevation in Fig. 357, and place it on the arc a a as shown
I.

Take

from

From
at I

to 5. Step this off four times, as shown by 5', 5", and 5'". J draw a line through 5'", intersecting the inner and outer arcs and H. Then will a a be the full pattern.
1

O
iH

p.

!3

;>

PLASTERING
TIh"
siilijrct

of plastiTiii;; in
into

relation

to
first

iii;Mli'ni

<lwr||iii}^

Is

iK'ie.s.sjirilv livitl'l

two

st-ftions.

Tin-

treats of the plaster-

in"'

of walls on

tlie tlu-

iiitrrior

of the lions*-;

tiie

seeonil will lirielly ilein

st-rihe

some of
exterior.

various ways of

linisliinj^

eenient plaster

tlie

house

INTERIOR PI.ASTERING
The
installation of interior plasterin>^

marks the division hetween

the very

the eojnpletion of the roiu/li work on the residence, and of the jiiii.sli that is to follow. hef^imiitii; of the plaeinj;

The
lathinj;

plastering;

cannot he started until

ceilinjjs

the walls

and

ceiliiifp

have been lathed, and the

can he
l>e<,Mni.

must he furred hefore even the

is

When

the huildini;

ready for

lathinj;, all set

in

of the roui^h studdinj;, framework, and

])lace;

partitions
in

must he

and the

lifjhtinj;,

the |)hnnl)ini;, heating, wirin<; necessary piping; etc.. of the lwellin<;, nnist he installed and t'sted hefore the

and

lathinj; or furrin<;

can he started.
in

The apparent hreak

plaster,

ami <lryout a house.

the proj^ress of hiiildinj; nece.s,sary to lath, nee<l not he altoi^ether time lost f)r any

of the various trades,

nieliarv pnwe.ss

'i'hose

unahle to resume work until

this interne<r.>vsiiry

has heen complet'd, can he secnrin<; their

materials and

fi.xtures

and

arran<;in<:

tlitiii

niuly

for

installation.

The carpenter can he

to

t;'ttinj;

out his mill

work and

linish.
in

Iw ready

put

in

his window-.sash, set

his standing; finish

place

anxmd
tin*

diMirs

and windows,

lay

the upper floors, etc., and

complete

remainder of
their

his contract.

The

[)ainliT

and

pa|M'rer tlu-n

commence

work; the electrician^,

ic-

|>luniliers,

and

healin'^ <-ontracttrs install

ilnir >cr%

fixtures,
(tf

and the

tlwcllinj;

is .s(Mn

n-ady for o<cupalion.

Si)

a huildin^ are spaced sixt-<'n inches apart on centi rs. I''a<'h end of the lath n-sts that ea<h lath ree'iv's four nailin^s.

The studs

U|Min the leiitiT of a stud;

and the two intermediate

in
its

sluls proviiie

fiLstenin^s at spaces ctpiallv distant

length.

The

vilin^

art-

PLASTERING
four and in better work, customarily furred to provide lath nailings, with furrings seven-eighths of an inch thick five nailings to the lath,

and one and one-quarter inches or more wide, running crosswise of the This furring is intended to level up the bottom of the floor joists. and distributes the unequal result of their skrinkage or uneven
joists,

settlement from the weight above, thus preventing plaster cracks. Before beginning lathing, the carpenter should see that each at its intersection with another wall, is started with a stud
partition,

This makes it imposnailed directly against the crossing studding. sible for the lather to run the ends of his laths in behind or over the
partitions

a careless practice that provides a very unstable internal

The
all

plaster angle.

carpenter also sets plaster furrings, three-quarters

of an inch thick, around

window and door openings and around

the

walls at the height of the top of his base skirting, so as to mark the work of both plasterer and lather end, and to provide points where the for the finish woodwork. It is essential for the carpenter to nailings
for cornices, door-caps, etc., before the place any necessary furring is begun; also any other furring blocks that may be required lathing to secure the setting of his fixtures or to support and the

by

plumber

carry his pipes.

LATHING

Wood

Laths.

Wood

laths are put

up

in

bundles of 100 laths;

and upon the studdings of the wooflen frame, with a space This distance is sufficient to of one-(iuarter inch between them. or swelling, and still provide a firm clinch allow for lath
are nailed

shrinkage

for the plastering.

If the

space
If

clinch will be weakened.

is much much more,

less

than

this,

the plaster

the laths

may

down on
an inch.

the ceilings with the extra weight of plaster.

possibly sag In no instance

should these spaces between laths exceed a width of three-eighths of

clinch, or key, of the plaster is formed by the mortar being through the spaces between the laths and then spreading out pressed back of the laths upon both sides of the crack, so forming a tie, or clinch, that holds the mortar firmly and securely in place.

The

to cover over

becomes necessary to lath on very thin furrings a heating pipe, a brick or iron support, or .some other such exceptional instance of construction. In that case a wider space
It occasionally

>>

V.WIJ..

T}

?'o

>
te Id

"J

< o

-a

P
en

a s 6 ^ o u. o -: '* o z w a
M K
lO

PI.ASTl.lMNC
ln'twttii
ilii.

laili^

iii.i\

-^iM-n^tlini tlu' j)la.stT t-lincli;

ir,

iMttrr

still,

a strip "f
ti<)n>.

m.iim!. ! metal

may

In- iisnl ovi-r <r

around

siic-h

ohstmo-

The
kiiiits.
iiii^

l)fst

wcmmIcii laths an- iiiatir

<f

[lartially sfusotu-d.

Tlioy sliouM

In-

frc'

pine KPspnicc, aiul are only frnm sap, Imrk, ati<l doail

Hotli

hark and knots urv

likely to loosen fntni the

snrround-

\voo<l
ii.'

and so

plaster

di-stroy the hold of the plaster; while the faee of the occasionally stained from pitchy knotholes, hark, or sjip.

All laths are

not heen in the market for

If

now machine-sawn. The now more than

and
if
it

old-fashioned
fiftv vears.
is

split

lath

has

the laths are too dry, the wet niortar

twist;

likely to

cause them to

warp and

hardi-ns or sets before the laths Ix-come

likely to |)ro(luee parallel plaster cracks.

saturated, their swelling;

is

Better results can he ohtained hy i\s\u^ wet laths, and laths <lry out to<,'ether.
In spccifyinj; the nailin<j of

when

hotli

mortar

wood

laths,

it is

sometimes

thou},'ht to

nailinj,'s are recpiired at each end of the lath, cither upon the eeilinj; alone or upon lioth wall anl ccilin<^. It is more than doubtful if this re(|uiremcnt produces the desireil ri-sult, as two
I

ensure xtter work

if

two

nails in the lath

eml arc

likely to start a split,

which

may

he incnnise*!

hy the pressure ncccssjiry in ap|)lyinfj the mortar, imtil the entire end of the lath is partially or wholly loosened fn)m its sup|Mirt hefore the
|>lasterinj; is all Ujjon

the wall.
it

the

work more secure, w'aken

Larjjc lath nails, instead of tnakinj; in the .same The commonway.

sized inch-and-one-i'i;,'hth lon<;

"three-peimy fine"

nails

fasten

the

laths M'curely, ven the ceiling nails rarely AIout five pulling out. pounds of nails will lie necessary (o each one thousmd laths.

This means
ii[M)n

The joints of laths are ordinarily hroken every ei>,'ht courses. that not more than eij,'ht adjoining lath ends are naile<l

one stud or

furriu;:, the next ei;;ht laths, in lM)th directions, U-inj;

carri-l

hy, endinj^ u|H>n the next wall stud or ceilin;^ furrinj; to either

ri^'ht or left, thus alternatin/.,' the hreak an<l ohvialinjj the |K).ssihilitv of an ext-nd'd crack iM-eurrinj,' at the line of lath jointure. Some lathers find a small hatidful of these laths more convenient to handle

than a
to
(

larjjer

hundle,

in

which case

it

is

simpler and easiT for them

e<|ually j^ikkI construction.

hreak joints every

six laths
is

which

is

placed twelve inclu-s apart, and the lath Such pnvautlon.s. however, urv joints hroken for every othr lath.
Kcasioiuilly studdinj;

PLASTERING
not necessary in the ordinary dwelling.

They

increase expense;

and

the closer spacing of the studs, especially, provides more undesirable weight to be carried by the house frame.
partitions comes up against the or a terra-cotta or brick wall, strips of expanded brickwork of chimneys rnetal or wire-mesh lath should be employed, extending seven or eight

Wherever the wood studding of

inches over
in

upon

either side of such a joint; and,

if

such a joint occurs

an internal angle, future cracking from a difference in settlement or shrinkage may be prevented by cutting through each plaster coat,

when

soft,

with a sharp trowel.

Metal Lath.
placed upon on boiler-room
heat.

Of

late years

many varieties of metal

use of such lath
is

lath

have been

the market.
ceilings,

The

generally required
artificial

and

in other places

provided by the studding, nine inches being generally considered the best distance. This necessitates either a closer spacing of studs than is otherv\'ise necessary or
is

require supports at closer intervals than

Many

varieties of metal lath

including

exposed to strong
all

those

made

of wire

desirable, or a series of furrings fastened to the wall studding.

There are some metal laths

sufficiently stiff, in one direction, to allow of a spacprinciple ing of supports greater than nine inches but, for ordinary wire cloth, no wider distance should ever be allowed, unless the cloth is itself
;

that are

generally those made on the expanded

artificially stiffened.

All metal lath should be securely fastened

nailing, to increase
its stiffness

by

staples,

and stretched before

as

much

as possible.

In using metal lath, care should be taken to prevent plaster cracks along the line of jointure. The use of metal lath also requires three
coats of plaster, in order to stiffen the lath sufficiently to resist the pressure required to finish the last coat.

materials are

Lathing and plastering are generally estimated, and the various all figured, by the square yard. In small work, no openIn
it

ings are deducted unless they exceed sixty square feet in area.
figuring

is up plaster by quantity, sometimes customary to add half of the contents when measuring

when openings

are allowed for,

closets ; while small triangular wall pieces are figured as in order to make for the extra amount of labor

up

though square, required in plaster-

ing such restricted or odd-sized surfaces.

The

use of expanded metal or wire lath

is

frequently

demanded

PLASTKUINO
by the
hiiildiiij;

laws of soimi)uililiii^'.

cities, aiiid is

always re<|uintl on a
tiie

fire-

proof or lirst-elass
Sevi-ral

makes

of pliislcr hoard are in

market and

Ix-iri^

extensively advertised.
lartre o

Tliev
inehes,

eomc

in

eitrlit

inch

wide lM)ards or

shwts of 32 hv
*

3(>

framinjj.

One

coat of [)laster

and are
in

nailetl <lireetlv uiK)n tin- wall I

tliree-coat

work

may

then

Ix*

dispensed with. These hoards .save time, heinj; r.ipi<lly set in j)hiee even hy unskilled carpenters, and the plaster it.self drys out mnch more They are, however, fre|U<ntly the cau.se of cracks that rapidly. appear in the hnishcil plaster where the (^lixes of the lK)ards come
together

sometimes even after the wall has heen pa|)ered.

PLASTER MATHRIALS
is

Plaster

Lime

is

obtained

principally compo.sed of lime, sand, hair, and uHiter. in dilVerent .sections of the country from calcine<l

limestone, the

carbonic acid and moisture contained

in

the stone

being tirivcn ofY by the burning process. The wliole theory of plastering is based upon the re<luction of limestone to limi-, and its chemical
recombination, when distributed

upon the walls of a house,

into

something approaching its original state. The slakimj of the lime provides the moisture nece.s.sary for the process of crystallization that
while the .sole purpose of applying it prcMluces the sei of the mortar; is to present that much more surface uj)on the wall in .several coats
to ab.sorb the carbonic acid

of which
thinner

it

was

originally deprivetl in
tlu'

burning from the

total ex|K).se<l

air.

The

tin-

coats and

larger their

constituent.

surface, the greater the absorption of this strengthening For this reason- and solely for this reason is three-

coat plaster

work

to be considered as better than two.

I'asily

Properly burnt lime slakes

and completely, w hen water

its

is

addnl,

until

it

is

convt-rted into a line dust, which, in

turn, is

moistened and turned into a paste iniijer action of (he waltr, which This is bubbles and hi.sses with the heat generate<l by the process.

what

is

called the slakiiuj of lime.

\'ery rich

and pure lime

the U-st

for plastering
slaked,

increases to about

twice

its

original bulk by U-ing

and

is

then almost pure white

in color.

Lime should always U'

us fresh as |M>ssible, and nnist be deliverel in tightly seal>l barn-Is. Can- should also Iw taken t( u.scertain that it ha.s Urn burneil with

W(mh| and not with coal.

PLASTERING
Sand
is

broken or rotten rock which has become decomposed

spontaneously or by the action of running water. That made by running water, or from stones worn small by rolling over and over

upon the beach, and so lacking

necessity.

is

composed

in

of particles so nearly round in contour angularities of surface that they are not good

material for mixing in any mortar where strength is a recjuisite or The particles of rotten rock decomposed by exposure are better adapted to make good sand for mixing with mortar, their

shape being more irregular, with many sharp and angular corners. Sand obtained from ledge stones contains the essential elements of
those stones, quartz, feldspar, and mica being present in granite formations, and lava, obsidian, etc., in volcanic sand. The sand
is generally more thoroughly disinteso rotten as to be entirely unsuitable for use grated, being frequently in plastering. In most parts of the country the principal supply of sand now comes from the beds of ancient lakes or rivers, and is called

coming from the

softer stones

pit

sand.

True sand, no matter how

fine,

may

always be distinguished

from dust by dropping it into a glass of water, as it will invariably sink to the bottom without leaving any appreciable dirt upon the surface.

For plastering purposes, sharply angular sand

essential.

is

not absolutely

Good

river sand, the coarser the better,

is

obtained so easily,
it is

and

is

so clean and free from dirt, clay,

for plaster.

and earth

stains, that

most

generally employed

The
market
of
is

third necessary constituent is hair. The best hair upon the cattle hair obtained from the tanneries. The hair should be

good length; and, if too lumpy or clotted, it should be separated by soaking in water the day before mixing it with the mortar, as this method of separating the hair is less dusty and more healthful than

beating or whipping it dry to obtain the same result. Occasionally brick dust is added to the mortar for coloring, when it is likely that the mortar will set more rapidly especially if the dust

mixed in shortly before using and is dry at the time of mixing. All brick dust should be sifted through a fine sieve. Besides brick dust, a
is

variety of colorings for mortar are used

such

as lampblack, ivory

black,

powdered charcoal, Spanish brown, raw umber, burnt umber,

red aniline, Venetian red, Indian red, vermilion, ultramarine blue,

indigo
blue, chrome yellow, and, occasionally, pulverized clay. Mineral colors should be preferred to earth colorings. The latter

PLASTKItING
weahi'ii
uliiii

the

plaster,
Ik-

ami

faile

rupiilly.

Xariously colored

saiui.s

they ean

obtainedthe

make

the

In-st aiul

most diirahle ma-

terials j)ossible for

It

tiiitiii<;

iiiial

plaster coat.

is

to state arbitrary, set, hard-and-fast y)rf)portioii.s im|)ossil)h-

for the iiiixin;^ of plasterinj^ for either exterior or interior

work.

The

dilVerent maki-s of

sand, alone, vary sufficiently to make any such statements exceedingly inadvisable; while tlu* purand conditions under which the plaster is to be usctl, fre<|uently
(f

lime and <;rades

jH)sc

occasion considerable chanj^es in "Working" the IJme. The

is

its

prop<jrti(jns.

first

process in the making;

.sail,

tif

plaster

the ulakiiifj of the lime.

tlie

This

consists, as aln-ady

in

simply

hanl, brittle hnnps of its orij^inal form to a sm(M)th [)aste by mixiiii; it with water. It is of the utmost imj)ortance that the limi- should be entirely and completely slaked, antl the jKiste smoothly
ritlucin^

and evenly
'I'he

irorkcd, before ad<lini^

is

lime

slaked

in a iitortur-hcd, a

any of the other in;,'redients. box )f boards about

.set

4 feet

wide and 7

feet lonj;,

and

a foot to ei<;hteen inches hi^h,

in .some

convenient location with

1k)X

its

bottom about

level with the top of a

second

in ^rade. Both placed at o!ie end, and about two feet lower beds should have tif,'ht bottoms and stronj; mortar and lime-slakini;

sides,

when

thev are

well braced to resist the j)ressure that will come U|)on tluin .\ (luantitv of .sand alreadv .scrt-ened shouM full.

also be near at hand.

Toorly scn-ened sand

lat'r

cau.ses extra tn)ul)le

and work.

(Iravel in the mortar delays

workmen

whiU- plastcrintj

and

^'ood plaster material will Iw lost in hnrrii'dly floatinj^, throw in<^ or pickinj; out these <^ravel stones in the rush of aj)plyin^ the mortar on the wall.

and nnich

barrel lime is em|>tied into the upper lox, ami water is on while a workman breaks up the lumps and works the mass |)oured Tin- thorouj;!! workbiick and forth in various directions with a hoe.
inj;

The

of the material at this stap"

is

m-cessary to jMisure

its

compl-t' slak-

ing.
in the

The

tendencN of

tln>

can-less

workman

is

to

hoe back and forth

up
are

till-

centtT of the beil without any repird as to whether he is stirring mortar that isdrtwn on tin* bottom bojinls.or whether thM"orners
into the mixture
If

drawn

and worked as

-venly as llu*

remainder of
i'^\\u\\

the Intx.

the past-

is

not thonU|,'hly
if

and

'venly worketl to an

consislcn'V throughout,

of lime, or

if

not conlucltl to every particle the other in^'redienls are mixed in l>cfon- the paste 'm
is

the water

PLASTERING
the lime will be apt to blister and slake out unevenly, evenly prepared, If the corners, for instance, trouble after it is upon the wall. causing lime will afterward appear. are imperfectly mked, lumps of clear under the hoe of the workMany of these lumps will pass unnoticed will not be found until they are flatthe mortar, and man

tempering

tened out under the wall trowel of the plasterer. If too much water is used in slaking the lime
great amount that slake too tardily.
is

added

at

once

the

especially
When

if

a too

pile

is

chilled
is

and forms

into

lumps
so

If too little

water

added, the lime

is left

small particles entirely call it) that dry (burns, as the plasterers too much lack of sufficient moisture. fail to slake through

many
it

water drowns the lime in the

chilled

becomes so thoroughly place, a considerable portion of its strength is lost; and the procthat
first
is,

ess of slaking
is

by the very excess of water, much retarded.

if

The

the very cold water is added, although up process water soon becomes heated from the reaction of the lime. At the water should be put on to initiate the slaking process.
also slowed
start, just

enough

After this, as the slaking proceeds, more water should be added as all times. needed, taking care to keep the lime thoroughly moist at

lime should be covered with water very active and quick slaking from the very beginning, to guard against the possibility of burning. If the lime once burns, it will afterward be impossible, by any amount out all the fine lumps that are then caused. Rich to of
get working, lime will afterwards work cool,
is

little

likely to crack,

and bears
off, blister-

troweling when ing, or staining.

If

being finished, without the surface peeling

lime

is

the screen when the lumps of unslaked lime escape through into the mortar, it becomes very difficult run off, and get mixed

to eradicate

them afterward.

It is

not possible for the plasterer to

the mortar when working it on the wall; and get these lumps out of of their afterwards slaking out will continue to appear long the results If they occur in the first coat, at various after the house is finished.

times after the

the entire
first

completed frequently extending throughout these lime lumps suddenly or expand, year
work
is

will

bloiv

outside them and making a large forcing out the surface plastering blister or lump, generally about an inch in diameter, which, if upon If this unslaked lime gets into the ceiling, almost invariably falls off.
the final coat,

much

the

same

result occurs, although the particles

i'i.A.^ii':Ki::G

il liti. >-Mii -iiiallT in size. In.st(*al of U-in^ larj;-, tlu* resulting holes an- then eoniparativcly small, running; generally alnjut the size of the head of a j)in, and the entire surface of the plastering is frei|Uently j)itte<l, the particles thnjwn olf ap|x'aring uUjut the room in

art-

the sliapf of a white dust. In the hruwn nuigh-coat, the s|M)ts of white, unslaknl linu- are How(|uite easy to see, as they are often the size of a Uaii or jx-a.
ever, in the final white coat, the.se
.sjxjts,

In-ing smaller

and of the same

color as the rest of the mortar, do not show.

After it has once iHgim to warm up, the lime should U- worke<l or s'irred thoroughly during the process of slaking, .so that, after the action has heen completed, it will l)e (jf the consistency of a pasty

cream.

{No. 5 screen) put at the end of the slaking compartment, or niortar-hed. The screen is

After slaking, the lime should he run olf through a fine sieve ho.x, into the ne.xt lower
inten<le<l to

keep out any

lime lumps too large to slake before the mortar is u.sed, or anv flintv settlement that may he found in the lime, and to allow only a pure and

thoroughly mixed hydrate to he admitti'd to the hed. When drawing or ruiming off the lime, a large supplv of .sand alreaily .screened shoidil he at hand to scatter in the bottom of the

mortar-bed and to
gradually
to
in
fills.

u.se

for .stopping leaks that

.screened

may appear
sufficient

{is

the Im)X

This

sand .should be

in

atnount

complete the mortar mixture. .Vii ani|)le su|)|)ly of water, either barrels or in ho.si- piju-d from a hy<lrant, should also In- n'aly at

hand

to avoid

anv
(tr

i)ossibilitv of the

lime burning.

For the pudi/

befon- running

oil',
it

finish coat, the paste shoulil be made even thiimer and may be of tin- consistency of milk. The sieve

through which

is

stniined should also be finer, of alntut the

mesh

The paste for this coat is often of an ordinary flour or meal sen-en. obtaineil by rumiing off the lime a second lime, as by this means a
c(Mt|er

working putty

is

seeun-d.

leiigtli of lime that mortar for |ilaslering bi'fore bi'ing u.sed, is a mueh-li.seu.s.sed ipiestion.

The

shouM
It is

!<

mi\el

stated

generally architectund specifications, that "the mortar shouM U* mixed ten ilays or two weeks before using." .\s a matter of fact, this
in
(r

re<|Mirement is not always either wisold English work, lime mortar wils

desind>l'.

It

is

true that, in

left

covered ovi-r with earth in

stand for long peritnls of time, often six months to three years elapsing

10

PLASTERING
it

before
to

be expected.

was used. In this country, such slow-going methods are not While lime does gain in strength by standing in this

thin putty state before sand or other materials have been mixed with it, yet three or four weeks, at the least, are necessary before the increase becomes very apparent. It is also necessary that the paste should

remain moist, by being kept covered all the time. At the end of the fourth month its strength will have increased about one-fifth, and
this gain has been made during that month. From then on the gain continues, but gradually decreases in amount. It is more economical for the plasterer to use a lime that has been

most of

slaked for some weeks, as,

with the admixture of a

when tempered down, it will work freely much larger proportion of sand than is taken

up by lime mixed as soon as it can be readily worked. This extra amount of sand does not add to the strength of the mortar; but, as it causes the lime to cover a greater surface, it is a considerable economy
for the contractor,

made, however,

at the expense of the quality of his

work.
left standing only long enough for all its be thoroughly slaked, and, if properly mixed and wet down in the first case, a great deal of time need not be required to

Lime mortar need be

particles to

effect that result.

This once secured, the quicker the mortar

It is further

is

mixed

and put upon the building, the better and stronger will be the plastering
that
is

obtained.
is

limewater

which

it

from the properties much better suited has already absorbed from the lime
also very harmful, as this water
is

claimed that the accompanying loss of

for carrying

Yet,

if

on the process of mixing than newly added clean water. the lime has been long standing, it may be necessary to add clean

water to replace the water lost by evaporation or seepage, although mortar mixed with clean water never becomes so hard as that mixed
with the water obtained in slaking the lime. The sand and hair are next added, the hair being put in before the mortar becomes too stiff to work readily. After the sand is mixed, the mortar should not be left to stand for any length of time, as it

would become considerably set and a loss of strength would result. If the mortar does become set in the bed, reworking woitld be necessary
before
it could be put upon the walls. The strength then lost bears a direct relation to the length of time it has stood, and the solidity it has attained, before this final working up.

PLASTEIUNG

11

In plastt'riii^ mortar wlun- hair is rc|uirf<l, a still furtliiT loss of as tlii' hair would Ix- s<j rottwl or eaten by its strt'Uf^tli wmilil H'sult,
loii;j e.\|M)Siirt*

to tlie action of the wet lime as to Ix- almost or (juite

worthless.

The

hair

v-aiiiiot

well
olT,

Im- mi.\e<l

when

the mortar

is first

run

while

it

is

evenly, except at the time in a very thin paste. If.

after a liine-anl-.siin(l nii.xtun'

had

lu'en stanilin<; for .some

months,

it

were attemptinl to

ljrlii<^

it

to a sudieiently lluid state to receive the

hair properly, hy wettinj; it down a .<econd time a consideraMe pn)[K)rtion- varvini^ from a (|uartrr u|) (o ..'most a halt- of its .strength would
Ik-

sacrificed.

Bearinir these facts in

it

mind

once certain that the lime

It is

is

slaknl

the

would appear better that not more than a week .should elapse U-fore u.se of this mortar; and a less time than that is, under many circumevitlent that
timi-

stances, unilouhtedly desirahlc

no more lime-andu.sed

sand mortar should

Ik*

mixed

at

one

than can he

within a

few days at the most. The lenf,'th of time that mortar .should Ik* allowed to stand, is deteniiined more or less Ity the dryness or moisture
as the
of the atmo.sphere. The <lryer the atmosphere, the .shorter the time, mortar is, in part, a chemical result of the <lrying .setting of the

out, or eva{)oration, of the iratrr of rrystallizotioti, as it is called. It has already been .said that limes made in dill'erent parts of the

country vary extensively in their chemical composition and pntjMTties. A knowledge of the chemical comj)osition of lime mortars and the
individual pecnliariti<'s
t)f

the lime l(cally used,

is

neces.sary In-fore
.set

."^^tates, the limes friniuently contain from half of carbonate of magnesia; and the mortar in which a third to a

ap]lving cir attempting tiic eastern part of the I iiited

to utilize the principles here

forth.

In

sut-h limes an- employe<l .sets v'ry readily.

To

SIMM

u|),
It

the lime should be slaked as evenly

Ix'

as jHKSsible. sieve into the Jnortar-lied

lutely nTe.s.san*;

should

nm
It

nil"

froiu the slaking

lie

should

and thoroughly bed through a line there no longi-r than is ab.s>-

and

if

it

could be possible to add the hair and siunl

is

while
tlif

tin-

original mixture

suflieiently moist to take

up and

W(rk

ntire

amount

mixture would
durable.

of the latter material to be ailded. the residting undoublrdlv !>< that niueh the stronger and mor>

.Mixing the Mortar.

The amount

of sjind to

Im- nnx'l

in

with
it.self,

the lime pa.stc

is

a variable (piantity, lepeiiding

the sand ti|Mtn

12

PLASTERING

upon the quality and thickness of the lime paste, and also upon the nature of the work for which the mortar is intended. With excepamount of about two times the bulk tionally rich limes, sand to the of the lime measuring the slaked lime in the form of a rather firm

may be added. paste

tion, for

As will be seen, this is a most uncertain propora great deal depends upon the firmness of the lime paste alone. Allowing for variation in size of the lumps of lime and their closer or
looser packing together, it may perhaps be better to say that the sand should bear a relation to the lime, before it is slaked, of from three to

four and one-half times

its

bulk.

finer the particles of sand, the more The of the latter should be employed, although the finer sand does not make as hard or as good mortar as the coarser variety. If both are

richer the lime

and the

clean and sharp, the finer and coarser varieties of sand may be mixed together with good results. Most laborers are apt to stop adding sand,

merely because the mortar mixture becomes hard to work when the mixpaste becomes too thick. This is poor policy, inasmuch as the
ture

becomes much harder

to

work when
is

the tempering

is

partly

com-

pleted, a day or two later. The fineness of the sand

an important

factor.

rather coarse

as well as sharp sand is considered best, as the amount and capacity of the voids left in such a mixture would be of such size as, without any

doubt, would provide space to contain lime sufficient to cement this granular mass very firmly together. The close pressure and contact
of the sand particles would also lessen the possibility of settlement or shrinkage, with accompanying map-cracks. The hair may be mixed
in either before the adding of the sand or when but a very small proportion of the latter has been worked into the lime mixture. The hair is generally mixed with the mortar by means of an iron rake. It should

to find

be thoroughly mixed, and enough should be used to make it impossible any small sections of the mortar in which the hair cannot be

seen.
to

This

will require

from one and one-half

to

two bushels

of hair

a cask of lime.
If the

mortar

is

to

be used as a

first

coat on stone, brick, or similar

is

surfaces,

it

will carry

more sand, and hair

not considered so essential,

a half-bushel to the barrel of lime being generally ample. If too little sand is used, the plaster is liable to dry too quickly when setting, and, after it is dry, will crumble very easily, showing up too white, or ashy

PLASTKKING
j^ray, in
is

13

appcanincv.

If

Unt

mudi
on

.saml has \)cvu usfl, the pla.sk*ring

liabk' to fall off,

and

will cniinhli-

when
lath

nil)lxtl iK-twci-n the fingers.

Ik?

Mortar

for a secoiul coat

may

of uixjut

tliLs

same

consistency of niixtun".
finitli)

For the
is

final coat

(the putty c<jut or hard

finish, the less the

hut very

little

sand

used.

The

hanler the
is

amount
putty
is

of sanil.

For

this coat, the .sand

finish,

mixed

at the
lust,

time when the

hrick ilust, or

run

off.

For hard
is

when marhle

anything of that sort

mortar-l)oard
Paris,
is

it is genenilly mi.\e<l together on the hefore applying. Stucco, or plaster of immediately never mixed with putty until immi><liately U-fori' using, on

added,

account. of
mixing,

its rapid .setting, whidi occurs in a few moments after ^^^len once set before being aj)j)lied, it Ix-comes useless.

No more

water than

is

nccessiiry .should be added, either in the mix-

ing of the mortar at

first

or in

its
it

sub.secjuent tempering, as

over-much

wetting of the lime dej)rives

strength,

and

of a considerable projMjrtion of its also retaRls the setting process by giving that much more
is

moisture that
zation.

necessar}' to be disposeil of

by evaporation or

crystalli-

A bushel of lime is standardizeil to weigh SO pounds; 2(H) |>ounds allowed to the barrel; a l)ushel contains about one and one-<juarter cubic f<vt of A barrel of sand is .supposed to contain cubic feet.
is
.'}

sand, and a bushel of .sand weighs about 120 pounds, and wet mortar 130 or 132 pf)unds. When hard, mortar is figured to weigh alniut 110
pfHinds to the cubic foot.

To summarize

one

a cubic yard of .sand.

barrel of lime, 200 |M>unds, will take alK)ut In most localities a load of .s;ind is supixi.sitl to

contain twenty-seven cubic feet, or a cultie yard; but it is friHjuently To the less than this, extending down to two-thirds of the amount.
barrel of lime should
al.so

be

u.sed

about two barrels of watTand

first c)at.

as we
This

have seen
in pa|M'r

upwards of two bushels of hair for a

In-at

IIair<Nnu\s

bags wi-ighing generally something inuler eight pomids and

uj)

containing enough hair to

into a

nieasun-d

bu.slu-l.

amount

when the lime has Ik-imi slaknl and the whole or 10 yanis (aUiul barn-Is) of mixjHJ together, will amount to and tin- amoimt shoid<l covc-r about 10 .s<juan' yards of mortar;
of material,
.!.')
.'

latlud an a. reipiiring about (KK) laths to surfaiH". The final skim coat is mixel mughly to the following pn|Hrlion.s: A a^k "f lime to a half-tub of wafer, which should fake up aUnit a
<

14

PLASTERING
Generally

barrel of the hard, clean sand used in the surface coat.

the plasterer uses a larger barrel or hogshead for water, than the cask in which the lime is delivered. Also, in some localities, the lime will

Rockland being supposed

run somewhat more than 200 pounds to the barrel, Maine lime from to average 220 pounds. Rockland lime is

considered in the East good lime for scratch and brown coats, but many masons prefer Jacob's lime for the finish coat.
It should be remembered that the bulk of the completed mortar mixture does not equal the total combined bulk of its various ingredients, but is less than the aggregate bulk by about one-quarter.

PLASTERING
Interior plastering
ings.
first
is

now

Three coats are always necessary on metal or wire

applied either in two or in three coatlath, the

to allow

coat being required to stiffen the body of the material sufficiently thorough working of the remaining coats. Even upon wood

laths, three coats

make a

better job of plastering than two.

Extra

strength

and body are obtained by the addition of the extra

coat, pro-

vided time be allowed to dry out each of the coats thoroughly before the next coating is added. It has now, nevertheless, become the general

custom

to

employ but two coats on the

is

less

expensive grades of

resi-

dence work.

The

plaster mortar

applied to the walls with a hand trowel of

steel, about four and one-half inches wide by twelve inches long, having a wooden handle that is parallel with the back of the blade. After the

mortar

is

the darby, a long

in length, is

put on and roughly smoothed out with the steel trowel, wooden trowel, about four inches wide and three feet
taken by the

workman and used

and work
it

to level the plaster surface

to

with a scouring motion an even thickness and uniis

form density. The flat part of the darby half-inch or slightly more in thickness.
to

generally of hard pine, a

Three-Coat Work. The best interior plaster work always used be put on in three coats, and was worked to a final thickness of about seven-eighths of an inch. Of the three coatings, the first is the

when dry, it may be strong enough to resist the A large part of the pressure of working the coat or coats to follow. advantage of three-coat plastering is obtained by thoroughly drying each coat out before applying another, thus securing the added densthickest, so that,

I'l.VSTKUlNG
ii\

15

ami

.strt'ii^tli

iiiadf jwissihlc \t\

futvin^

tlit*

suhsitjut'nt

c-oatinj^

tirinly

and

strtnijjly a<;aiii.st tlu*

tlir

|{iill)iii;,'

or trowflin^' up
it

surfafe u|H)n wliicli it is Ijcin^ placetl. n)ii^h mortar U-fon* it finally dries and

M-ts, also niakfs

it

much
it is

mori'

compact than

is

jH>.ssill'

fn>m working

at the time

when

first

aj)pli-|.

The

first

coat,calle<l the scrutcli cixtl, contains the grt^atest pro[)or-

tion of hair, that lein<; useful in strcnj^thenini,' the key or clinch of the

of the wixnlen laths, throu;^h the crevices plaster hehind the edijes Mefore this coat thon)U^hlv dries, Itetwirn which it has In-en forced. the surface
purj)ose.
is

scratched (hence

its

name) with

a tool di-signed for that

is

The

surface of the secoiul coat also

sometimes scTatchetl

a wo<Mlen float or darhy like that used to ruh over the surface, before adding the finish coat. When one coat is entirely
witli nails set into

dried out before another

is

ap|)lied. this scratchintj

tie

is

always necessjiry,

the scratches forming: a clinch or

to unite the

permittiu',' the sul)se<|uent coat

more

firmly to the prece(lin<;.

The .second coat generally contains and much less hair than is nece.ssary in
of this second coat-

the
is

a larger pro[)ortion of sand first coai. The surface

calKnl

or

brown
at

coat, as
all

it

njust he

l)n)U(:ht

up
and

true

and even, especially

Hefore the finishing
other imju-rfi'ctions

walls.
all

and he |)lumh ujmhi the coat is applied, lumj)S must he removinl corrected, and the mortar must iR-come
angles,
Ix-

sufficiently set to allow the entire surface to

nihlud up with a

float

or darhv and so

mad compact and

*

firm.

To

.save time, the plasterer

first

sjrond coat on over the

comltinetl

while the hitter was

adopted the custom of putting his still green. 1 he

treated the

(practically one thick coat) was then darhied and same as in twu-<<ial work, over whicli about the onlv advantage of this method was in pntviding a rougluT .sand surface on the second coat than was |)ossible when more hair (always necessiirv in first coat) was included. ()therwise, substantially the .siiine ri'-

mass

sults as are secured

in

by thus working two coats

tig'ther

are obtaineil

the

first

anil time.
neiit

<oat of ordinary two-i-out work, at a saving of lH)th Iai>)r While this method do<'s not furni.sh .so giMxl or .so |MTmait

a job of plast'ring,

is

mMlernly c>nsileml as meeting the

rt^-

of three-<-oat work, (juireini-nts

The

saving

in this sort

when .so s[M'eifi'l. thnnwoal plastering

by the plasterer, in the ex|H'nse of doing his work.

is made chiellv The owner |>ays

16

PLASTERING

more money than a two-coat job would cost him, and actually receives of work. The second coat, too, dries substantially the same grade more slowly when applied before the first coat is dry and hard, and
there
If three-coat
first

much saving in time as is generally believed. attempted at all, it should be insisted that the coat be thoroughly dry before the second is added. The final coat is generally composed of lime putty, with a small
is

therefore not so

work

is

This of white, clean sand, gauged with plaster of Paris. proportion If a color is considered desirable, surface. gives the whitest finished
a colored sand

may

be used.

All lath cracks or settlement cracks

cut out and patched before occurring in the previous coats should be The final coat is about one-eighth of an inch the last coat is applied. thick, and the surface is burnished with the steel trowel to an even and
straight surface,

and worked

other surface defects.

The

or sufficiently to free it from chip cracks lime for the white finish mortar should be

run through a sieve of not

less

than ten meshes to the inch.

thus combining the first two coats when green, the next step in the development of methods of work, was to apply but naturally, one coat, making it of increased thickness, and scratching it ready to

From

receive the finish

finish the plaster

skim or white coat, except when it was desirable to with a rough surface, or to sand-scour it, as the last
called.
If the

process

is

sometimes

Rough

Plaster Finish.

mortar

is

to

be finished with a sand

or rough finish, two coats are applied. The second coat which should be put on only after the first is thoroughly dry is substantially the same as the brown coat described

being secured by working the surface of the second coat, before it dries, with a soft-faced float and a mixture of sand with some lime added. Sometimes the surface of the float is of carpet
above,
tlie

rough

finish

sometimes of cork or other soft wood. Only so large a surface as may be readily covered at one time, can be floated, darbied, etc., In this case no hair whatsoever is put in the before it has time to set.
or
felt,

second coat, as the hair destroys the evenness of the surface that is obtained by the scouring action of the particles of sand rolling around between the surface of the float and the face of the plaster. K long
float is generally

used for scouring, and the surface

is

worked

to

an

even and true face, care being taken not to leave any marks from the instrument itself.

PLASTERING

17

While it is m*iR'rally tlii' custoin to a<i<i niu^h plastrr finish on the seeoiul coat, in inexiK'nsive work, e.s|H-eially for .siinuner residenei-s, artistic etFect can Ik.- ol)taine<I \>y rou<;h-\v(rkin<; the surface n{ a
very the first coat.
If oiie-<oat finish is

employe*!, hair must

Ik- use<l,

and

the consistency of the coat must remain nuieh the same, whether it is In that case, however, it is not jxjssihle to surface-finishe<l or not. work the surface as true and as even as the surface of a second coat.

Two-Coat Work.
coats.

Most

j)!aster

work now

consists of only

two
of

The brown mortar employed

fresh lime used as soon as
well-<listril)Ute<l cattle

for the first coat should he

made

it is stiti"

enou^'h to

he wijrked, with

stronj;.

hair and coarse, clean sand.

<tn

The

first

coat of

mortar must always be put

plaster throuj,'li face of this coat

with sullicient pressure to forc-e the The l)etween the laths, and so ensure a i,'oo<l clinch.

must be made as true and even as possible on surfaces and plumb on the walls. After the first coat is sufficiently and angles, float consisting of a piece of lianl set, it may be worked again with a about the size of the trowel. Sometimes the faci- of this float is
pine covered with
felt

ment on the

plaster

or other material to produce a rough textural treatThe first coat should run a stnjiig fivesurface.

should be thonnighly dried out. eighths inch in thickness, and It is generally inadvisable to attempt to trowel a two-coat job If the attempt is made to float the first coat when it is verv smoothlv.
too thin or insufficiently
.set,

the instrument

is

likely to leave

marks

on the wall, and the plastering is itself likely to crack. It is In-tter to err on the side of caution, as, if the jilaster has become .slightly t(H) dr^-. water upon it with the plasit easily be dampened by sprinkling

may

terer's
float.

broad calcimine brush and following it inuneliat'ly with the The use of water in this way has accompanying alvautages
it

in

that

tends to harden the j)lastering and to prev>nt the hairs

when otln-rwise tlu-y would have gathering along the edge of the float, to l)o shaken off every few moments to jirevint their rolling under the
instnmient and Iwing pressed into the surface of the plaster and rolls, in such a waiy as to .show through ven the finish e)at.
(

in tuft.s

taken to see that each coat invariably is al).solutely drvaiwl hanl Infore the addition of anotlur coat is atteni|(tl. ( )therwise the later e<at will fall olT, in great<r or less part, ami it will Ikare shoiiM
l)e

(piite itniHissible

ever to obtain a giKnl surface finish; while,

if it

should

18

PLASTERING.
first coat is only partially dry when the second be seriously injured by the pressure brought upon
is
it

happen that the

applied,
it

will

when

floating.

Its clinch to the lath is

thus often partially or wholly

off,

broken, sometimes the plaster falling entirely

exposed.

leaving the laths

The

finish

second coat in two-coat work

work.

is

the

same as the

final

skim coat

in three-coat

The Finish Coat.

it

The

finish, skim, or white coat

should never be

applied until the earlier coat or coats are

is

liable to

crack

if

put on before
first-coat
set.
is

quite

thoroughly dry and hard, as

aside from the possible of troweling

danger of injuring the

before
it

work by the pressure

is

entirely

dry and

simple putty coat should carry

hardened by the addition of plaster. If plaster is used, the mortar should always be gauged (that is, plaster should be mixed with the putty) after it is placed on the mortar-board.
the finish

more sand than when

The

usual process of gauging consists in making a hollow with the trowel in the midst of the pile of lime putty lying upon the mortarboard.
is filled with water, and the plaster sprinkled the whole then being mixed rapidly with the trowel and put it, the wall immediately, before the plaster has time to set. The

This hollow

upon upon

proportion of lime and plaster, while variable, averages probably onefourth to one-fifth plaster.
finish is skimmed in a very thin coating that is generally than one-eighth of an inch in thickness. It is immediately troweled several times, dampened with a wet brush, and thoroughly
less

The

troweled to smooth

up the surface and prevent

it

from chipping or

cracking. prevents the steel trowel staining the surface, but the plaster should not be too wet, as it will then blister or peel. The whole surface of the finish coat, whether of putty or hard finish,

The water

should finally be brushed over once or twice with a wet brush while, if a polished (or buffed) surface is required, it may be gained by brushing without dipping the brush into the water until a glossy surface is
;

obtained.

joints

Especial care should be taken, in the final coat, to finish all smoothly and evenly so that the point of jointure will not be

apparent. The ceilings are completed first; then the upper part of the wall; and lastly the bottom portions which can be reached from the floor and thus more to the carefully finished

up

joint.

o
00

a;

a
a

o
a

o
o

>

o
g

II
K <
(-1

53
^
^'
S,-' cfl

O
ii

3 O

m
(V

o *

e ^ o d
u.

<
BC

<
tu

!!
;:

o
'^

7
>

<
a. to

u
rt

s:

i'LAsri;ui\(;
M-atFolds
r<MHii
witli

19

I'lii-

plastcnr
lii'ij,'lit

;jiit

rally

tlu'

lMani> al

sulliiinit

to riiahle liiin rasily U*

hi;rh to

n-atli (In-

tt-iliiij^

overliftui

without raising his arms too

work
|)art

'ach of tlu- coats i-wnlv.

Thr
fl(M)r.

phistiT

is

applinl on thf up|)T

rrrnaiinlcr of
tiiiu-

of the walls fntin the siiine

sciitroldin^',

ami the

If too
is

much

joint

likely to
lie

show

tin- work is i-ompK'trd fn)m tinelapses in jo'uiiij; the coats at this jM)int, the wljich is, of course, not serious unless the walls
<

are

to

lift

Miitn-ated.

)ccasionally

two men

workin;^
liiiish thv

alonj:

tot^ether, at the
If

one on the scalVoldin^ ami one on (he Hour,

time.

walls

same
tlie
Ik*

oKl-fashiuneil

wooden

ani^le-heads are used, the plaster

should

neatly cut out from each side, forming a small V-sunk an^le that prevents the thin ed<;e ruiminj; up against the comer-lH'ail fn)m breaking o\L As a matter of fact, the use of a metal (H)rn<'r-bead

makes

afterward

a far truer, sharper, and straighter angle, ti-ar or hreak the papering when it
in the
th'
is

and one
is

that does not

put upon the wall.

Angles

As
if

plaster are generally linishcd with a wcmmIcii paddle. hair is ii.sed principally to insure a clinch hack (tf the lath,

plaster

neces.sary;

and the coat of

u.sed

applied on a stone or hrick wall, a .scratch coat is .seldom l)ro\\;n mortir is very often u.sed without
c-ompositioii of hrick ina.son's mortar.
it

hair

and of nhout the

coat
is

If a

.s<'nitch

under these conditions,

is

i;enerallv mixinl with

more

.sand

and

h-ss hair

than when put ujmmi laths.

mouldings are to Im- used, or when for an mujsually stniight, level, and pluinl) surface of plaster any pur|)o,s' is rn|uired, three-n-oal work, put on in the old-fashione<l manner, shoidd lie demanded. This is necessarv in order to j/et a surfacv
finish wh're plaster

For a

sulliciently

level

and true

to

nvfiid the ine<|iialities that are

run plaster mouldings evenlv, and to almost certain to occur in all twiH-coat

plastering.

The

.s<'cond

and

third coats allow opportunities to ohtain a stniight

ami

level plaster surface.

.surface, the plaster then

Individual s|Mits ar' hrought up to an even Iwing added and carefnilv w(trk>l U'tween
it

and amongst them, hringing

straight

all

to the .saim- faci- ly m'ans of the

edge.

)cc;isionally
filling in is

it

liap|M'ns

that

the nuigh

i-oaf

is

so

tmeven that .some

ahsolulely necessary to
c<tat.

make

the wall

sudieienlly even to receive the last

half plaster

In that ease, a miMiin- of

and half

jtiitty

may

U*

u.seil in

leveling

up

the rt>ugh work.

20
If

PLASTERING
no finish coat
is is

as the mortar

be put on, the surface should be troweled smoothly applied, care being taken to lea-^'e no marks, hollows,
to
is

or uneven places; but if the wall be left with a floated surface.

to

be finished or frescoed,

it

should

Patent Plasters.

Patent plasters, such as adamant,

etc.,

are not

often employed for private dwellings, being chiefly suitable for merThe patent plaster has certain advantages that are cantile purposes.
Its surface as quick drying and hardening. hardens more quickly and resists abrasure longer than the ordinary lime plastering However, a break once occurring, the extreme stiff-

self-evident

such

ness of the mixture

makes
if

it

liable to extend further

and

to

be of a

more

serious nature than

the softer,

more

flexible

lime plaster cov-

ering had been injured in the same manner. The extra stiffness of most patent plasters is caused by the cement that generally forms an important part of their composition. These are sold ready for use, requiring merely the addition of a plasters
of water. They are therefore especially adapted the inexperienced, and are valuable for executing small by pieces of work, as they do not present the liabilities to failure, or loss of time and delay, occasioned by mixing up batches of lime mortar.
sufficient

amount

for use

Back

Plastering.

Occasionally a

wood -framed house

in nailing

is

backof

flastered for

warmth.

This process consists

strip

seven-eighths inch furring against the inside of the boarding on each side of the studs. The space between the studding is then lathed
(of necessity a slow and bothersome job) and plastered one rough coat of hair mortar, which should be allowed to dry before any lathing
is

placed over

it

practice, the efficiency of

on the inside face of the studding. As a matter of back plaster is much injured by the fact

that the studding,

seasoning after the plaster is set, is likely to the plaster, leaving a narrow perpendicular crack on each side of the stud, which permits of the passage of cold air.
shrink

away from

Plaster Cracks.
If the distance

Cracks

in

plaster occur
laths,

from several causes.

between the ends of the

is

where they join on the

studding or furring,

too great, the larger amount of plaster in that out, may cause a short crack. place, Any such spaces should, however, be. filled by the lather before plastering is begun.

when drying

Sometimes, too, especially in the first coats, cracks are caused by the shrinkage or expansion of the wooden laths after the mortar has

I'l.ASrKRlN'G
I'lu- rr.siilt is a sfrics of narrow cracks wholly or partially st-t. paralU'l l^ath crackn art- or<iito racli otIuT ami tlif wiiltli of tlit- laths apart,

in an<l coveriHl riarily fillrd n|) ly later coat.s,

in the iinishnl
pla.sti-rin;,'.
it

and

.s

do not )ftfnup|H'ar
float-

Tlii-y

may,

tiK),

he workcti out when

ing

ii|>

the coat before

finally sets.

If

slionld

he cut out

to a widtli of

an

iu'-h

wide or deep, however, they or so, and fille<l in with new

mortar hefore adding the last coat. Cracks of a like appearance are sometimes cause*! hy the rough mortar heing too rich, or ly draughts of air fn)m o|)en d(M)rs or win-

dows drying out portions

raj)i(l

of the plastering too <|uickly. The too of plaster with stoves or salamanders, oft'n prcHJuces a drying

fn)m similar causes. An experienced plasterer should Im? uhle to determine the rcsponsiblecau.se and take measures acconlinglv, using more siind if the mortar is too ridi, .screening openings to prevent
like result

draughts, and using

less fire in his

drying stoves.

In green work,

damage already done may he rej)aireil hy refloating again before the work becomes too dry, softening the mortar with water if necessim*.
Tracks sometimes wcur
the room.
in the

angles at the ceiling or corners of

When

in this location,

they

may be cau.se<l by

the shrinkiige

or settlement of the partition or floor. In the j)erpendi<ular angli-s, esj)ecially, they may extend only to the depth of the finishing ix)ats.

In that

ca.st

the causes are likely to be either too thick

jilaster, insuffi-

cient troweling, or

coat

of |)laster in the piugetl cati.ses whicli are easily n-miHlied in the remainder of the work.
insufficient
jtartition,

an

amount

Cnicks running diagonally across a

tlie

or radiating fnmi

comers of doors and window openings, are

llie

cau.sed

by the unetjual

settlrment or shrinkage of

buiMing.

They

fre<|Uently <H-cur at a

perp<ridicular angle wliere a wood partition is brought up apiinst a briek wall, r)r at the ceiling line where a woo<len floor comes up agiiin.st
a brick sup]Ktrting wall. f racks inrur in the final finish

when
used.

the putty
it

is

not gjiup"*!

enough or not troweled or brushed enough, wlu-n

is

|>ut

on

t>o

thick,

and when

tiwi

little

sand has

be'n

'I'he.se

rliipjiid rrtuks.

I'laster.

wlu-n apparently jK'rfect

<'ither

cnuks an- calletl and without cracks,

will
f>f

sometimes crumble,

fn)m

tiM

t(K)

much

.S4ind.

Hither too

much

nipid ilr%'ing or from the us*or tM) little .sand materially

injun-.s the

strength of mortar.

22

PLASTERING

If unclean sand, dirt, or clay has become mixed with the mortar, not only weakens the lime but prevents its adhesion to the sand no real set of the mortar ever occurs. Of course, particles, so that
it

at all times,

poor materials

sand, lime, or hairmay be responsible

Plaster occasionally falls off even

for defects in plastering.

when

apparently hard and good, if the laths are too near together, if there is insufficient hair, if the mortar is too rich or too sandy, or if it had not
sufficient force when being applied; loosened by the springing of the laths under the On brickwork the mortar requires pressure of floating it too hard. considerable more sand than for application on laths.

been pressed against the laths with

it

or

may become

last well,

to set before it dries out. Therefore, to should dry slowly. A stiffer working mortar makes better and harder plaster than thin or wet material, provided, of course, it
it

Lime must have time

is

thin

to brick

enough to clinch well to the lath in first-coat work, or to adhere and dry scratched surfaces, and to spread evenly, in second-

coat work. Stiffer mortar can safely be applied upon wet mortar than on dry; and wide-spaced lathing will take stiffer mortar than
close-laid laths.

When two

the last coat falls from the

first, it is

coats of mortar have been put on, and generally because the first coat

was not wholly dry when the second was applied.

either

The

coats

must

be entirely dry or quite green to be successfully combined. If possible, it is better to have the workman use makes of materials,

especially lime, having those properties with which he is acquainted. Attention has already been called to the fact that different makes of

vary considerably in their chemical composition. It is not even same make will always run even in production, after year. Of course, lime that has been slaked by exposure year to air or water while in the barrel, and before it is used, is worthless.
certain that lime of the

hme

As

this occasionally
is

such bad material

happens, it is well to be watchful and see that never added to the plaster bed.
last coat of plaster
is

As a

final

warning, be certain that the

has

dried out hard and strong before any wood finish wise the wood will absorb the moisture from the
swell

installed, as otherit

plaster, causing

to

and therefore opening cracks that are never

All

to

be altogether closed.

wood

likely afterward finish should also be kept out of the

house while plastering is going on, as it will absorb moisture from the air around it. The reason that sash are not ordinarily set until after

ri.ASTKUIN(i
th'
is

23

j)la.stt'rin<j

ruiislittl,

is

luraiis*'
>\v'||

tli*y

altsorl)
It

.si

imu-li nf the

moisturt' as to t-aiisr the sasli lo

sidt-rnl prrfi-ral)!*'
tit
till

in j)la<<-.

tlu- \viiitii)w

()|M-iiiii^s

p-MHTally c-onor ihwirs with scrvenij

is

of

c-ottoii

cloth, as

tliis

prevfiits <lirft draughts anil

still

allows of a
artificial

cirnilation of air that ilrics phtstrrin^

lit-at, r

much

nion-

ra|)iilly

than

than

it

would dry
if

and

t'la/cd sash.

these opcninfrs wen- cIosihI ly .s<j|id do<rs In vcrv hatl weather the scn-en cif cotton inav Ik*
if

sli;,'htly

stRMiffthenetl,

nect'ssary, l)y the a|)|)lieation of a coat

to wliat niij^ht
!><

if

white-

Contrary suj>[>osed, thedrjth window-screen is almost as gool a |)ntection a^^ainst external cold and fn)st as is the tjlazed window, althoiij^h the current of air passinj^
thnni;^h the cloth meshes of these screens into

wasiion the inner side.

and out of the house,

to the exjH-nsj* for fuel

causes a
re<|uire<l

slif^ht loss of heat, addint;

somewhat

to

these screens

In ^oh1 dr^'iiji; weather, dry out a j)lastered l>uildin<;. shouM he taken out and left out durinj; the <lay. hut

should he replaced at nij^ht or in dani|) weather, when the |)laster otherwise is likely to reabsorb moisture from the air ami so delay the

time of

its final

drying out.

If avoidable, the artificial dryiu'j of plaster

by salamanders should

not be employiil; natural dryiii}; by sun and air is. und<-r all cin-umThe salaman<ler not only dries the room in which stances, preferable.
it

is

jilaced,

inci

(|uickly
itself

especially the
to

riling al>ove

but

fills

the air

and the and

j)laster

with

the cause of the rottin<;

life.

jjas fumes, and, by steamini;, is fre<|Uently of plaster or hair, thus reducing its vitalitv

Heating

house

regularly installed heating plant,

dry out the plaster by means of the is prefcral)le to the use of salamanders,

the chief objection iti this ca.se being occasioned by the unduly nipid drying-out of wall j)laster back of or above registers and nidiators. The situation is help'<l if the radiator is set out from the wall and sonu'

scTcen

is

|)laced

U-tween

it

and the

plasicr.

.\

screen

may

also

Ik*

the wall over a hot-air n-gister; but tlH-n* is no einployi-il against means of protecting the plaster on either side of a partition thnuigh .*^uch plaster is Unnid lo Ik* which a hot-air or steam pi|>e passes.
.s'verelv
If

strained by In-ing dried loo (|uickly. i.s fro/en when wel, it is likely to loosen up and injure The elTecIs of the whole iiiavs so that il may eventually fall olT.
jdaster
fre<'/ing are less

troublesome

if

the wall
frosleil,

is fn/.i-n afl'r it

is

drini and

has (Mice

set.

If

only slightly

and ihawetl inuneilialely and

24

PLASTERING
it

floated again,

may

much

different

from what

often be saved, the effect in that case being not it would be if the wall had been surface-

moistened and refloated.

Plaster

Moulding.

Plaster mouldings

upon

ceilings

and walls

are less frequently employed now than a few years ago, when, espeof wall and ceiling, a heavy cornice of plaster cially at the intersection

was the common method of

finish.

Nowadays a

cornice of

wood

is

more commonly
as follows:

used.

moulded plaster cornice is or screeds, are run on the ceiling and parallel strips, the side wall, with their nearer edges evenly straightened. These edges
Briefly described, the running of a

Two

are then fitted to the

mould

a piece of metal cut out

The mould
it,

to a reversed

section of the cornice outline.

fastened to the wall for guiding

fitted to

run along the strips the lower edge being cut out and
is

run upon them.

The plaster necessary to fill up the mouldings of the cornice may be tied back to the wall and ceiling by rows of nails driven so as to stand at about the location of its greatest thickness; while a strip of
metal lath, filling in the angle upon projecting furrings, will offer the best possible clinch, and will help to reduce the thickness of the
plaster

and render

its

drying and shrinkage more equable and

its

sur-

face less likely to crack.

When all is ready, enough putty and plaster are gauged in about equal parts to run the cornice down the length of one side of the room. The moulding form is then rested upon the supporting and guiding
along from right to left, pressed the mass of mortar which is thrown into the angle against just ahead of it by the trowel, the space immediately in front of the moulded strip
strip against the wall,

and drawn

being kept sufficiently

entirely at all times.

full of plaster

mortar to
is

When

the length
is

out the moulding completed, or the gauged

fill

material

is

used up, the mould

moved back and

forth along the

length of cornice that has just been run, scraping away all the plaster except that included within the outline of the mould.

Where hollows
mould should

at once be

occur, the gauged material scraped off by the thrown on again at these places, so thai they

may

be immediately filled and brought up to the right section outline by again running the mould over these portions. The gauged putty will set in a few moments, and each side of the room or section of the

PLASTKlUNt;
lUDiiltliii^

must

\h'

mil

iiiwi

cuniph-tt'*! or

fillt**!

ciiniers at tht- aii^K'S of tht-

nunu may
luii

In- fillnl

in l>y

out very rapidly. Tlif hand, or a section

fU>or,

of

tin-

Im)X, niitrnl

mould may Ik* separately and fitted in j)laee

nioidtlin;; heinj;

upon the

sawn

in a

mitre

U|>on the wall, the joint Ix'tween the

off.

east

and run

then earefully patihe<l and evened

The

extra

amount

is pntjectin;^ mouldinj^s other cracks are oc-casionetl hy the settlement, shrinkage, and movement of the house frame. Vnr these and other n-asons, it is now gen-

of plaster included in the thickness of extreme the cause of occasional surface craekinj^; while

erally considereil that a woo<len cornice, chspite is better suited than plaster to this purjxj.se.

its

defects of shrink-

age,

Finally, the mouldinj;

may

he sprinkle<l with the hrush and the

several times more, endinj; hy finishing with a hrush so as to give the moulding a gloss just as on the wall
it

mould may he run over

plastering.

The same
.set

pnK-ess

is

repeated for dilferent kimls of plasto

ter

moulding, merely varying the metluKl

provide for the ditferent

conditions

hy circumstances, a circular niouliling aroimd the lighting outlet in the middle of the nxtin, for inslance, heing swung from a peg driven into the center of the gas j)ipe or outlet Ih>x. ( )ther
kinds of plaster mouldings are run hy unimportant variations of the
proces.ses

dcscrilKnl.

Cast ornaments are

is

made

.separately in

moulds, into which the

Most of these sepanite moulds are made of jilaster pnired. plaster hardened with glue or shellac, or surfaced with heeswax, and are
gem-rally oile<l hi'fore heing usetl. IMaster ornaments are fastened in place with fresh plaster or glue; (K-casionally a few .screws are u.sel,
in

which case the heads .should

.so

Ik'

countersunk ami covered

in

with

pla.ster

as not to show.

liXTI:RI()lv>

PLASTIiRINO

for dwellings has Keen in use has hut reii-ntly met with favir in this many years, Ill llalv, plaster, or stucco, a|)plied in large, imhroken COlintrv. a >loiie or hrick huilding, has long U-en a favorite e\|>aiise> upon

.Mlhonyh exterior plaster surfacing

it

in l'hiro|M' for

niethiMl

of

construction,

l-'reipu-ntly,
ii|>

Iik>.

this

|>la.s|er

.surface

is

stainetl or col(rrd

and worked

iiilmlith-n'nt ''signs.
Ix-en

In l\ngland.
usetl in

France, and

<

iermany, plaster has

more fntpiently

con-

26

PLASTERING

contain instances of
In

nection with a half-timbered frame, although these countries also its use in large, unbroken, simple surfaces.

modern American work,

it

is

not often that a brick wall

is

covered with plaster, as the aesthetic possibilities in the use of rough hard-burnt brickwork have now long been recognized; and when
this

the

cheapest
it is

dwelling,

itself utilized for

brick-building material is employed upon a the exterior surface and to obtain the

exterior effect of the structure.

Plaster has been used in this country in imitation timbered houses

for

some years but

;

recently

its

employment

in large,

simple surfaces,

unbroken by the cross-barring

treatment

strips of

dark wood, has become popular

much more

possess

some examples

of brick

appropriate to this country. We also and stone houses, two hundred years

old or thereabouts, that were covered

ing; but in the

and surfaced with white

plaster-

most recent of American plastered dwellings, this effect has been simulated by applying the plaster to a wooden frame lathed
with a fine-meshed wire cloth. In any plastered building, the cornices should be projected sufficiently far to protect the walls and all exposed upper surfaces of
the plastering. The farther this projection, the safety of the plaster, especially in the northern
country.

more

certain the

sections

of

the

The
in

essentials for successfully-wearing exterior plaster applied

modern

fashion, are:

well-seasoned, shrunk, and settled frame;

a solid, immovable foundation; and a carefully applied and thoroughly worked job of plastering. The framework should be somewhat better

constructed and more carefully arranged to prevent movement or settlement than on an all-wooden l)uilding. Other than this, the

dwelling to be plastered outside does not differ, in any part, from the ordinary house, until the structure has been framed and boarded in.

For

plastering, the boarding

is

then covered with a slightly better and

if shingling or clapboarding Outside of this papering, the house is furred with strips of furring, seven-eighths of an inch thick by one and one-eighth to one and one-quarter inches wide (for metal lathing they are to be

more waterproof grade

of paper than

were intended.

placed nine inches apart, for wood laths twelve inches, on centers), and the lathing is applied upon these strips.

PLASTKUIN'O
A\i:r\i.
I

11

\in
is

TIh'

Ix'.si laili

fur exterior pla.stcriii^'

pndmltly

tin-

No.

I'.t (

'linton

win- cloth.

The

wire

is

>iiHicieiitly hirp- to

In* ihinilih',

ami the mesh

suffieieiitlv ojx-n to
fill

allow the mortar to press through aiui completely over the hack of the wire, thus prot<ftinf( it from e.\p>.sure to the elements or ilamaf^e from vater and rust, even if the pla.ster

and

clo.se in

surface should leak sufficiently to admit water hehind this covering. is also u.se<l for this pur|xise, hut it is not generally E.\paiide<l metal
consi(lere<i so gocnl a material,

from the

fact that

it

is

im|>ossihle to

cover entirely and

therefore there
is

the hack of this lath with plastering, and j)rotect no means of certainly pn)tecting it from the jxjssi-

of rusting. hility
)ver a story and a-half f Occjisionally.on a small, low hou.se of not may heomittetl altogether. The metal lath

wall height, the hoarding

is

and

then place<l din-ctly upon the furred studs, and plastered ImkIi outside Howin to insure its ahsolute protection from damage hy water.

ever, the .shrinking of the .studs

opens a small crevice along each side whicli has already been mentioned as occurring in l)ack |)lastering and it is thus possible that water may enter from the hack and do considerable damage, even through the narrow space that this shrinkage The omi.ssion of the outer Iniarding aLso .somewhat injures provides. the stiffness of the hou.se, as a frame constructtnl in this way is not so
well brace<l as
in

when

the hou.se

.so

second air-.space
plastering
hou.se

Neither are the dwellers applied. from the exterior weather, as the completely protected obtained between the papering and the exterior
the iMtarding
is

This extra air-space is of a.ssi.stance in keeping the is lost. more e<|uably warm in winter and c(m)1 in summer.
it

In the use of metal lath,

is

always

to l)e remi'inberetl that

tin-

the

ah.vilitlf e,s.sential is to protect the lath from This once done in whatever fashion nist.

action of wat'r and

pTmanent and
is

la.st-

ing plaster surface

anil fasteneil
tin-

is

cnsure<l.

Sometiujes the metal lath

winti

I"

|ier|M'ndicular

iron furrings of tee-irons or angles,

held to

anv

|X).ssible

w(km1 frame with staples or.soim* similar fastening, allowing movement of the fn;me lo i>c< iir without affecting <r
plaster surface,

.straining the

which

is

by

this

means

disas.s(K-iatel

("nicks anund from, while directly sup|)orled by, the house fniine. the windows and the angles of the buildings an- thus pnventi1 l>ut
;

28

PLASTERING

it is a more expensive form of construction, and is not now employed except in the larger and more expensive residences. From the use of wire lath, there are occasionally obtained small

surface cracks, especially

if

the lath joint happens to

it,

come

at

a place

where some strain

it is

is

afterward placed upon

and particularly where

weakened from the movement of adjacent portions of the buildFor instance, if a perpendicular lath lap is made on the line of ing. the edge of the window finish, a crack on the line of this joint is almost
certain to appear in the plaster, extending both

above and below the

to cut the strips of

wood-surrounded opening.

Care should be taken

lathing so that the joint will come at least nine or ten inches on either side of the edge of the window or door finish. All furrings should also be kept away and back from all angles, internal or external, upon the
walls, so that a certain clinch

may be effected by the plastering at these

important points.

WOOD LATH
Wood
lath
is

occasionally used, and, in certain sections of the

It may be country, apparently with good results. employed in two ways one, in the ordinary manner, only spacing the laths somewhat

would be advisable on the interior of the dwelling. other method consists in laying the laths diagonally over the building in such a manner as to form a criss-cross lattice-work. In this
further apart than

The

case the distance between the laths

is

from three-quarters

to seven-

eighths of an inch, so as to allow the plaster to enter easily and form a solid clinch behind these lattice openings. The purpose of the diagonal
criss-cross lattice
is

to provide

more or

less flexibility for

the wall

covering, so as to take up, without injuring or cracking the plastering, a certain amount of the movement that may always be expected in a wooden-framed This method of employing lath, by the dwelling.
localities almost as expensive as the use of wire or metal probably a safer and surer material to employ. As large and as good a quality of heavy wood lath as can be secured, shoukl be provided for exterior work. Lath cracks are also then to be expected, from the same reasons that apply to interior work; while the mortar should be somewhat softer and slower drying when used upon this material than when a metal surface. employed

way,
lath,

is in

most
is

which

upon

advisable so to arrange the work upon the house that, after the completion of the frame, some time will still elapse
possible,
it is

If

l'LA.STi:i{I\<i

29

iM'forr tlu" plastjT

tlic

is

u|)|)lii-<i.

If tin-

fniiin-

can

Ik* l)iinl'<l

in, aiuJ

iiitrriiir

nf

tin-

lioiisr plastcn-tl

ami

fiiii.slt<*<l

imhUt

urtiiidal heat
|n)l>-

t|iiriii;j tlu'

winter,

and

tin-

exterior

|>la.ster
(

ai|ile<l in

the sprinjj,

ahly ihe
for the
|)hic-etl

l)e.st

resiiUs are to

he

exiMfti-tl.

)|)|x>rtunity is tlien |>n)vi(lel

frame

to shrink, settle,

and eontraet.
is

^h)St of the \vei<;ht to

Ix*

insi(h' of
is

the huilihn<;

then also

installe<l

before the exterior

Ix*

surface

a))]>lie<I,

so that iniieh less strain

it

and movement mav

\n-

exjM-ete<l

afterward to atleet

than would

|>n)ijal>le

under the

opjxtsite ctMiditions.

iM TTI\(i

ON

fir

PI

\Sli.k

coat

Exterior plaster re<|uires thn-e-i-oat work. is indis|)ensal>le when metal or wire lath
hitli.

The
is

lirst

or seniteh
Imt alm<tst

usel,

ecpiallv im])ortant over wo(m1

This

first

coat should

i)e

seratehe<l

or rou<:hene<l while drvini;, and must

second coat

is

ap|)lied.

thorou<;hly dry before the <;reater time ou^lit to elaj)se hetweeii tlie
Ik'

applications of exterior than of interior |ilaster coals, inasmuch as it then heconn'S jM)Ssil)l' to cut out many of the larijer and more im|M)rtaiit

cracks than have had time to

is

a|)jH'ar,

and

to j)atch

them before
is

the seconil coat

put u|)on the

huu^c
if

Tlie second or lin>wn coat

then the

less likely to
it

plasteriiif^ to dry.

crack; and, can also he patchctl

a further extra
at the last

time

is

allowe| the

moment

before the

or finishini; coat is put u|n)n the walls. This slower sla|)-<lash aids in <,'ivin<j a more permanent job ami one that is at the pro^'ress
final

.same time less likely to ^ive annoyance from surface cracks aftt-rwanl making' their appearance in the fhiish plastering.

The

i|uestioii
ais

variable hen'

in

of pro|M)rtion in mixin;; th' plaster is tpiile as the ca.se of interior ])laslerin;;, and it is e4|ually

im|>ossible to n'lvv ab.solutely definite dinclions.

hilferent j>lastenTS,
in dif-

each beinj; piided bv the experience obtaine<l from working;

ferent .se<-tionsof thecoimtry, j)refer their individually ditTerent

ways of

or mixing; tlu-ir materials. In tin- lirst ("oat. cement is |)n>|)ortionin;,' added to the lime mortar in prn|)ortions varyin;,' U'twet-n ten and forty
|M'r

cent of the mixture,

le.vs

."^omc
ci

that |)lasterers preh-r

the

first

eat

.shoidd be

stilTened with

inent than the sretind.

With others

llic reverse is true; uliilc, contrary to the p-neral sup)>osition, the exterior coat a|)pears to contain only that in the majority if eji.ses amount of cement n-<'e.s.sary to provide the lone or color that is d(*sinil

30

PLASTERING
Conditions also greatly affect these proporadded last on a well-seasoned and shrunk
stiffer

for the exterior treatment.

tions.

When
far

the plaster
it is

is

frame, for instance,

worked

than when the building

is

newer

and

still

from

finished.

dash

applied as a slapthe throwing of handbeing given by fuls of variously sized pebbles or gravel upon the fresh outer coat, thus The smaller the size of the particles pitting or marking up its surface. for this purpose, the more likely they are to stick and remain employed
finish, the surface texture

The

final coat for exterior plaster is generally

in the fresh putty, slightly tinting the surface with the color

if

any

of the gravel employed. The coloring of exterior plastering as when it is used inside the dwelling.

is

done in much the same way As a rule, it may be said that

not sufficient consideration

possibilities
It is
is

is bestowed in this country upon the provided by the use of color for exterior plaster work. agreed that the utmost care to prevent absolutely any leakage

necessary on the part of the workman in the carrying out of this class of work and it is here that the success or failure of exterior
;

most often hinges.

tion of the
offer

Of

plastering course, the joints occasioned by the juxtaposiplaster

wood

finish

and

many

opportunities for leakage.

if

carefully flashed; and,

possible,

around window and door openings The plaster should here be an outer architrave backhand should

afterward be put on so as to cover and protect this joint. Otherwise, a key should be provided for the plastering, by cutting away or hollowing out a space near the inner edge of the wood facure, into which the plaster may be pressed by the workman, and leakage thus prevented even if the wood, as is quite likely, shrinks slightly away from the
plaster after
it

has been put in place.

of making tight this exterior plaster wall is comand rendered more difficult when it is divided into panels by a plicated
so-called half-timber treatment.

The problem

In this style of design, a great number

between plaster and wood are occasioned where the wide wood boards are almost certain to shrink away from the
of joints
plastering,

and where,

too,

it is

battens in any

way

impossible to protect these joints by outer applied capable of covering such an opening as may occur.

Thorough

on all upper exposed surfaces, assisted by protecting overhang of the roof eaves, and broad keys provided for the entrance of
flashing

ri.\s'n:in\(;
the piaster at

3i

all

|m r|H-iiilicuhir

ami

ln\vi-r iinri/.oiitul juiiils,

must

uiinu'

Ih- rrliitj ii|xiii.

I'lidcr

III)

c-ircuiiistaiKTs, so far as tin- lasting valiu'

(f tlu-

work

is

coiiffrriiil, (joi's tlu' iiiixtiiri' play vi iiii|M)rtaiit a part as tlic f.\|M-ii(ling

of {jreat cantill-

ii|)<)ii

tin- tli<n>iiijli .siirfa<iii^. wtirkiiij^, aiitl iiiiisliiii^

it

of

iiitorvcrv cn-virr provi<lc<i to nfcive it. Hashing tlioroiiijlilv every expose*! <ir upper surface |)rovi(le<l l>y the finish, an<l takiiij; everv j)reeaution to work out all piiilioles or other tlef<fts where
ninrtar, prrssiii^

water could
is

|>ossil>lv jMiictratc

tlu'

surfa<

c.

I'lvery

care and endeavor

directed to proviijiu^ a sohd, 'Venly workc*!, and jM'rinanent (.-oating

will, in

which

every

|M)ssil)le

ailniitt*-*!

into the space

its

way. throw oil' ami prevent nioistim* In-ing hack of the plaster coating that vulnenihle

|)ortion

where

attack

is

most enVctually

con<-eale<l

and most

to l)e

drcadc<l.

exterior plaster trealment of a cenn'ut or concrete wall is u that from now on will lontinue to he of rapi<lly increasing prohleni Here, however, it is hut necessary to use the cement as impfirtaiice. nearlv tiiat as adding lime or a make of whit' cement in case
fM)ssille,

The

a brighter surface color

is

desirahle.
is

'I'he

prohleni of the a-sthetic

re<|uires se|)ante

treatment of concrete construction

|)articular

one that
has.

and

consideration.

Its

solution

as

yet.

heen

hardly

Hollow terra-<'otta tile is another mat'rial that is JM-ing attempted. nKwlernlv u.sel more and more as a .structural hase to take an exterior
linish. plaster surface

The
suhjci't
lishe<l in

student desiring to ohtain a wider knowledge of tin- intricate of exterior plastering, may he refcrrel to several articl-s pul>the
l'.M)7

numix-rs of Tlir Arrhitrrtiiral l{iriru\ Hoston.

For
>f

a work treatintr historicallvand practicallv of iheenliri-art and cnift

without the dwelling plasteringwithin and

treatise

see Mr.
It
it

\\ llliam

Millar's
to

"IMastcr,
in

I'laiu

.iiid

)e<-orativc."

would he as well

n-memher,
and

consulting the latter voliuue, that

was

i.ssu-l

in 1S07,

is trcateil from the |)oint of view of an Knglish accustomiil to methods and materials Munewhat dilTcrent workman,

that the subject

from those conunoii

in .\uierican

practice

PAINTING
IntrcKlucton.

Tlic

first

thiii^
is

tii.iii

wishes to

know

wlu-tj

he

eoriteiuplatt's painting

a house,

the

cojil.

Tliis will ohviously

(le|M'iii|

on

tiic

f/st of lal)or, of materials,

is

and

tin*

kiml of materials chosiMi.

;

The <jutsi(le of a house

paintnl, 'ithfr in whoU- or in part the interior Some houses havr tlu-ir walls partly luav Ih' painteii or varnished. (overitl with shinj^les; these shinj^les are sometimes |Kiintfi|, and

sometimes
that
is,

in faet,

often

left

unpainte<l

hut what

is calltil

the (rim

the boanlint; about the eaves, windows, doors, the l)ase-l)oard,

and

eorner-jjiec'cs

is

painte<l.

Shirifjles, either

wall or roof, are often

iliss<j|ve<l

staintnl with a ereosote stain eonsistinj; of a eolorinj; matter

or susjhmhKhI in a litpiid ealh^l crronotc,

whieh

isapplii-tl for the purf)oso

of preserving tiiem; and thouj^h instanees ean he eiteil in which wallshinjiles that were never slainrd are still doinj; <;ood service althou^'h
ijelievi-d to

he now two hundn-d and

lifty
lifi-

years old, yet the

\\i>L'

of

creosote will undtnihtitlly prolonj; tinit

of nKHlern,

sawn

shinf;les.as

is

noxious to insirt

life

anil a j)owerfnl ileterrent of natural di-cay.

shin<jles
is

The

color of unpainted

new

jjenerally dislikitl; hut aft'r

'I'he

four or five years wall-shin<'les take on a beautiful, soft color.

of staininj; shinfjies is a matter of taste. (jue.stion Mo.st hou.ses are exteriorly painte<| with paint basnl on white lead
(tr

zinc.

Some
is

idea

of

the

co'^t

may perhaps be
:i

jraiiuil

fn)m the

followitifj c"onsilerations:

Wliitc lead
Icsw

coinnionly

in

sold cither Rrouinl witli

thi

littli- oil

to a tliick paste, or
">

dry state
Kallons of linseed

A mixture
nil,

make.s

wiiito load wit li of KM) pountls of dry K^llons of paint, weinldiiR 21.3 ll)s. jM'r unl. .\pi>ro\itiiate fiKiires an*: 15 n*s. paste lead and )>..')
tij

(1 gnl. oil

A
oil

ll).><. oil equal.s 1 ^t\\ e<|uals 7.7 ll>s.); II lbs. dry lead and 7J ll>s. oil ei|iinlH I gal. niixtun^ of 100 pounds of white zinc and S\ )!iU. oil, inaki>s U)\ i;al of

paint; 12

make made from

l>ut

and K'>I- "! niake 13 i;al.. or <.t.*> Ihs. xine and .'i.7 ll>s whito zinc pnint weiKhin^ l.'i.'J ll>.s. l>ark-co|on>d paints iron oxides, orhers, and the like, wei^h I'Jto poutuls |M'r gallon, exact Jiunn"" i;iiitiot he given, as thi> raw m.'iterial.s dilTer >;rejlly.
ll>s.

zinc

i;al.

Here shoiiU

Ih-

noted the dilTrrcnce U'twcen

,\

tin*

priming

et>at

and

the suc<'i>elin^ ones.

primiiuj coal

is

the

first (x)at

applietl to the

PAINTING
clean
oil,

wooden

surface;

it

diflFers

from the other coats

oil

because the wood will soak up the

in containing more and leave the coloring matter

of the paint

on the outside.

paint for the priming coat, take a gallon of the paint already described and mix with it a gallon of raw linseed oil. Paint thus made is, of course, lower in price; it is also much thinner; but

To make the

such

power of the wood, that the priming paint does surface as the succeeding coats per gallon. gallon of this thin priming coat covers 300 to 400 sq. ft., while a gallon of second or third-coat paint, well brushed out, will cover about twice
is

the absorbent

not cover as

much

this surface; this

is

because the surface for

all

but the

first

coat

is

hard

and non-absorbent.

Priming coats are used for both outside and

inside work, as will be described later.

The

from lead and

;

dark-colored paints are usually cheaper than those made zinc, and if made of good materials are not inferior in

durability the extraordinary claims

facturers are to be received with

colored paints are the

chief cost of painting
to locality

made by the zinc and lead manumuch doubt. Some of the darkmost durable that can be applied on wood. The
however, that of labor, which varies according less than twice that of

is,

and other conditions, seldom being

it is

materials.

For

light-colored paints,

better to use

raw linseed

oil

to

which

pale japan dryer may be added, as described later; for dark colors, either this or boiled oil, boiled oil being darker in color. The cost is
practically the

On

inside

same; also the durability. work may be used either

oil

or enamel paint, as

described later, the former being the cheaper, the latter the handsomer and slightly more durable; or the wood may be finished in its natural
color,

by varnishing

it

either with

an oleo-resinous varnish or with

wood very while white shellac varnish keeps it more nearly in its appreciably, natural color; although the latter does not prevent the natural darkening action of light, it may retard it. Shellac varnish is the more expenshellac varnish.

The

oleo-resinous varnishes darken the

sive finish of the two,

finish

if

well applied.

\Miat

is

sometimes called

oil

generally consists in the application of a

cheap varnish called

oil,

hard
zine.

oil,

which

Its

is usually made of common rosin, linseed merit is that it is cheap. only

and ben-

FIDOT
acAi.E.

FL(2)B
? ? ?

PLAN
-

OECOND TLGDE PLAN

ocALB
J. B.
y
I

?.i.f.?-> y t

'p

v'f

?aET
DR.

?i

t;r?

? f'l

>
'r

feet

SUMMER HOME OF
Frame House

McFATRICH, LAKE GENEVA, WIS.

W. Carbys Zimmerman, Architect, Chicago, 111. Built In 1906. Plau is Conditioned by Narrowness of Lot Overlooking the Lake. The Interesting Feature is the Screened-in Porch, which, by a Series of Folding Doors, can be Made Part of the Living Room. The High Frieze in the Living Room is Decorated with Woodland Scenes Showing the Lake and Hills in the Distance. Exterior and Interior Views Shown on Page 328.

I'AINTINC
It

would

imli'ttl

Im--

j)Oii.siltlf

to apply lu'itlitT
oil,

|)aiiit

nor vuniiiih,
Ik*

but iiunly to s;itunite the \vo(kI with

oil

and

this

would

truly

an

finish;

it

would, however,

make
is

the woj*l <lark

and

dinj^y,

and

would nadily retain sometimes on

floors

dirt,

ami

esix-cially

kitchen

a pnietiee sehloin followed exeept floors and sink shelves.

These are
boiletl oil
It is

at frequent

intervals oile<l with a mixture of e|Ual jMirts

and turpentine.
till"

j)urposf

of this Instruction l'a|Mr to ih-scrilu- only

It

{:km1

anil

apj)roved

methods.

will

readily

he understtKxl, and

will

viatetl

that these methods may certainly he ohservetl in practice, hy the omission of some details that are here sj)ecifieti as desirable.

\w ahhn'-

For instance, it is diflicult to get interior finish .siindpajxntl or nihUeil lutween coats, even if so contracted; hut this is the ri^'ht Two coats of varnish often have to scr\e in the place of practice. four. No one, however, neeils to he told these things. The methods
herein descrihed are not lu.xurious or extravagant; they are, on fairly and we are not considering temp<jrary giMxl hou.ses, truly economical;
structures.
It is

not
in

uncommon

to find part of a hou.se, as the living

nK)ms,

varnish, and the kitchen and pantry paintinl with oil which are lighter in color and more easily renewe<l. The paints, are often fini.shed in enamel paints, sleeping rooms, on the other hand,
fini.shed

hecau.se color effects are desired to

harmonize with the furnishings;

and hathrooms are almo.st always done in enamel for .sanitary conThe taste and inclination of the owner are to Ik; considerations.
sulted in regard to
all

these matters.

PAINTFIRS'
Pigments and
\ chicles.
ti

SUPIMJIIS
is

Paint

a mi.xtun"
sj)ri-ad

I'f

(inely-<lividt^l
soli<l

solid .suhstance with

lii|uid

which, when

on a

surface

with a hnish or otherwi.se, will adhere and

evnjKinition, or

in

more connnonly hy oxidation

divided solid
is

a .sonu'what
is

a short tinu- fonn

hy hard and

tough

film,

'i'he finely

caUetl the piijnirnt: the liipiid

part, the

vrliirlr.

The most couunon

vehicU-

linsntt

oil.

This

is

an

oil

When
in

ohtained hy pressure (or cxtnictitui hy .solvents) froni fla.\.seel. lin.seeil oil is ct>nspread out in a film an<l ex|)o.sed to the air,
all

verted into a tough, leatlu n-, <lastie .suhstance calletl linnxiti, in.solnhh-

water and

eonnnon

.solvertts.

This <-hangr

is

hnMjght

alxiiit

hy

PAINTING
absorption and chemical union of the oxygen of the air, whereby the weight of the oil is increased about one-fifth or one-sixth. It is therefore a mistake to suppose that oil paint gets dry as whitewash does, by the evaporation of the liquid. Instead of that, it gets heavier.

There are some other vegetable oils which have this property in some degree, but none which are used for paints to any considerable extent; some are used a little for artists' colors.
Linseed oil should stand at least a month or two before usino-. should then be perfectly free from sediment or cloudiness; if it is not so, this is a sign that the oil has not been properly aged, and such oil is not fit for making paints. In this natural state, it is called raw oil;
It

Boiled

and the price of linseed oil as commonly quoted refers to raw oil. oil is this raw oil which has been heated, usually to 450 or 500

F., with the addition of a small

amount

of oxide of lead or oxide of

manganese, or a mixture of the two (occasionally some other lead or manganese compounds are used). Boiled oil is darker (browner) in color than raw oil, but differs from it in that it dries five to ten
chiefly

times as rapidly.
will

oil on a glass or metal surface dry at ordinary temperatures in five or six days, so as to feel no longer greasy; but boiled oil will do the same in a or half a

thin film of

raw

day

day.

Oil dries best in

paint of steel, but the best have a pair of mill-stones, between which the
paint is ground and most thoroughly mixed. Paints manner are much better than those which are mLxed
niLxed in this

stirring the two together. done by power, in a vessel called a usually paint mixer. The mixture should then be run mills are through a paint mill; some

warm, dry weather and out The pigment is mixed with the oil by
is

of doors.

This

only by stirring.

Besides oil and pigment, paint sometimes contains a volatile thinthe most important thinners ner, being turpentine and benzine. Turpentine is a well-known essential oil, volatile, boiling at about 320 F., but evaporating at ordinary temperatures when exposed to the air. Benzine is a mineral oil, lighter than kerosene and heavier than gasoline; the kind used- in paint and varnish is called "62-degree

benzine,"

its

specific gravity

lighter than water.

tine, 7.2 lbs.;
oil

being 62 on the Linseed oil weighs 7.7

Baume
lbs.

scale for liquids

per gallon; turpenis

and 62 benzine, 6.1 lbs. But makers and dealers on the basis of 7.5 lbs.

linseed oil

sold

by the

per gallon.

PAINTfN^;

A
A

ilrytT,
is

ill

somr

finii,

is

an

cssriitijil

in^nilit-iit

of

oil

jKiiiit.

dryer

in oil,aiil

a coiuiKdiiKl of K-ail or niaii;piiu'st' (i;nirrally Unlij, solulile is usually soKI, umliTtlir iiaiiR' ui paint dnjtr ar paint japan,
tur|x-iitiii<-,

asii soluti<J!i of sui-li material in a mixture* of oil,

ziiif.
It is

and

Im-ii-

|H-r

usually of such streiif^tii that an atlilition of from 5 to 10 cent of it to a raw-oil |)aiiit will mtke it ilry in from six to twelve
I'aint.s

hours sulHeieiitlv to he carefully handled.

to use, until they

are not <lrv enouirh

have stood four times as

lonj^ a.s this;

tinue to harden for months.

color; hut such are

The

stronj^est dryin;; ja|)aiis are

and they condark in

more injurious to the diinihility of the jxiint than those which are paler, es[H'cialIy if the latter do not contain n)sin. The huver should always ask for a 'guarantee that the dryer is free
from

Not durahility in the j)aint is needtil. of aiiyilryer or japan should ever he use<l in 10 [HT cent Slowly drying; jKiints are more durahle than '|uick ones.
n)siii, if j^reat

more than
any paint.

In

house

puintinj^,

the white pi<,Miients arc the most important,

all

Infause they are the base of

li<;lit-colorcd

paints.

The most

lead. This is sold cither as a dry imj)ortant white j)ii;ment is irliitc or (more commonly) as paste white li-ad. which is made of j)owder,
(H) ll)s.

dry wiiite
to

leail

and 10

ll)s.

linseed

oil.

This can
is

l)e

thinnetl

with

l)f)iled oil

make

a white

j)aint.

White lead

of oil, more of it pif^ncnt; and with a fjiven (piantity It has jjreat than of any other pij^uent, except red lead. opacity, It is discolored hy ^a.ses ct)iitainin<j sulphur, f)r covering j)ower. hecominj^ hrown or hiack; and unless exjx).se<l to fairly stronj; lifiht. it

a very heavy can he mixetl

hecomes yellowish even

with the
oil for

in

.some timi
a

pure

air.

It is

better

if

it

has been mixcxl

a year or more.
whiti- lead; not so

ll'hitr zinc is
o|)a(pi<-.
It
|i

somewhat purer white than

lead, but
is

Three coats of

lead arc reckoiu'<l npial to live coats of /inc.

becomes hanlcr than

and

somewhat

liable to [kcI otf; while

ad, aftir<'X|X)sure to the air fur a Imi;^ time,

its

becomes dry ami |M)wdery

likitj.

on

surface,

rlialk.i.

of two parts of h-ad and ono of zinc is much VAnr-lvad, however, is the name of an entirely dilfen-nl |)ii;ment, by fiirnacinj^ ores containin;; alM)ut eipial parts of lejul and

\ mixture

made
/.iin-.

in

which the lead

is

present as a sulphate.

This pigment

is friH"

frtin

the liability to (urn

brown

if

ex|Ms'l

to

not (juite

.S4

pure a

\\\\'\\.v a.s

the prc'elinj;.

sulphur pises; it is .sjiid to In* It is a coiii|Kkni(ively new

PAINTING
pigment, but
the others.
is

coming rapidly
is

Liihopone

Adulterants.

All

into use, being somewhat cheaper than another white pigment of considerable merit. these pigments may be adulicrated with

barytes, or with terra alba (sulphate of lime), sometimes with whiting These adulterants are powdered minerals. (carbonate of lime).

Barytes is a good pigment, so far as protective action goes; and terra alba is thought by some good authorities to be unobjectionable; but whiting is injurious. All of them are transparent in oil, and
lessen the opacity or whitening

power of the

paint.

these white paints, colored paints are made by adding colors, of which the yellow is chiefly c/tro7;ie yellow, or chromate tinting of lead; the blue may be either ultramarine or priissian blue; and the

From

green

The

is chrome green, a mixture of chrome yellow and prussian blue. reds are (in house paints) made from coal-tar colors, and most of

them are now fairly fast to light. Some dull yellow colors are made from ochers, which are clays tinted with iron oxides, roasted and ground.
These are permanent
colors.

dark-colored paints may not contain lead or zinc at all. The deep yellows, greens, and blues are made from the colors already named as tinting colors, none of which are entirely fast to light; the

The

dark reds and browns are chiefly iron oxides, which are a valuable class The blacks are either lampof paints, very permanent on wood.
black or drop-black (bone-black) and other carbon colors; and these are often added in small quantity to secure some desired tone or shade
of color.

The
case
it is

zinc

and lead pigments have some action on

oil,

and

in their

considered the best practice to apply thin coats; but the dark pigments do not act on oil, and, of these, thick coats are best for durability.

Paint and Varnish Brushes.

to

brush that has only a low price

prove a poor investment. If properly cared for, brushes last a long time, and it pays to have good ones. The first sign of a good brush is uniform quality from outside to center. Inferior
it

recommend

will

brushes have inferior bristles in the middle, and some poor brushes are actually hollow. For ordinary oil painting, the bristles on a large

new brush should be

stiff

five or six inches long,

uniformly

flexible,
all

and as
should

as can be found ; they will be flexible

enough anyway, but

be

alike.

PAINTING
I'aiiit

Imislu's an- round, flat,

ir

uval.

favorite brush for

nnlinury Imish with

bridled

out-sitk'
stiff
it is

work

is

hristles six

whvu

new

round jHnind inchrs long. Such a bnish shuulil Im* a "hridh*" hring a piwe of c-onJ wound around
is

what

calh-*! a

brit.ih,ii la rj^e,

tlu' hristles

to sliortcn thoir t'tfiHtivc K-ngth; as tlic hristh-s Ixt-ome

hri(iiis

worn

off,

thi"

may

hi-

rtinuvc-d.

21-inch oval hnish

visv in

('2k

general painting, and is the brush recttniniench-d by the paint cununitte*- of the American It is worth noting that this cjinmittec, S<K-iety for Testing Materials.

inches wide)

a highly satisfactory tool to

made up

e<|ually of expert paint

manufacturers and ex|XTts employe*!

by the large consumers, unanimously agreeil that no larger brush than this should be u.sed in making j)aint tests.

The

use of brushes five inches wide

but wiiile such brushes

and laborious
brush the
used,
better.
it

to u<.v,

is common for outside work; mav be had of the liest (lualitv, thev are heavv and the workman who uses such a brush will not

j)aint sufliciently to get the best result.

3^.

If a flat

brush

i-s

should not exceed

inches in width; and three inches

is

is

gotxl 21-inch oval varnish brush

a most excellent brush

for all large

work

in either

paint or varnish.

The

painter should also

have a go<Kl Ij-inch oval brush for smaller work, and a number >f roimd or oval brushes, called sash tools, of different smaller sizes, for

more

delicate work, such as .sash

b<>en

and frame

jjainting.

Stiff-bristle

brushes, which have

worn

off short, are suitable for

such work as

For varnishing large surfaces, flat bristle brushes nibbing-in filling. 21 inches wide are goinl; also similar ones 2 inches, 1\ inches, aiitl 1
inch wide arc useful.
.Ml flat brushes should
it

have chiseled

inlires.

For flowing vaniish,

bni.shes,

is

nece.s.sary to

have

thick, flat, camel's-hair

inches in width, although most hou.se rumiing u\) (o be done with brushes not over '2\ inches wide. varnishing may
'.',\

Besides paint Itrushes, the smdihiiuj hrushis and one or two

.surface pn)j>erly cleaned.

workman

will

m-e*!

.souu*

onlinary

p.-iinler's diistiiuj hruslus, to have the

Steel-wire brushes, with

like

stiff steel

wire instead of bristles. sha|Ht|

MTidtbing
wires

brusln-s, are used for cleaning off old pjiint

and

for

cleaning structural metal work.

.steel

These are of various

si/^vs;

and the

jire f different
Im*

lengths and sizes, hence differing in stiffness.

ston-s.
bristle

They may Care of

had

at

hanlware

r.ruslics

Hair and

brushes nuist U- kept

dean

PAINTING
soft; this

and

can be done by care and faithfulness.

They should

not be allowed to become dry with paint or varnish in them. To prevent this, wash them out in oil or turpentine as soon as you are

through using them or they may be left in the paint or varnish for a few days. They may be kept over night by wrapping them very closely in paper if they have been used in a slow-drying material in
;

this

they should not be

way

may

be carried

from one place

to another.

Brushes

left to dry with even clean oil or turpentine in them; if are to be put away, they should be well washed first with they soap and water, then with clean water, then hung up until thoroughly dry. In use, brushes are best kept in what is called a brush safe.

deep wooden

pail,

with nails driven in

its

sides at different distances

from the bottom, and with a close cover, makes a good receptacle for brushes. The brushes have holes in their handles, or loops of
cord tied to them, and are hung on these nails; their bristles dip some turpentine or oil in the bottom of the pail; they are so hung
into

that

they do not dip into the liquid above where the bristles project from If brushes are left the binding. standing on the bristles on the bottom of a vessel, they soon become one-sided and distorted in shape. Tin brush-safes may be bought of any large dealer in brushes.

A brush which has dried with paint or varnish in recovered by soaking it in a non-alkaline varnish-remover. in time soften it so that it may be used again, but it is not
such treatment.

it,

may be
will

This

Brushes used

in

improved by shellac should be washed out with

alcohol instead of turpentine or benzine.

clean.
Fillers,

No brush is good unless it is

Fillers are of two kinds Paste paste and liqiiid. are something like a very thick paint, and are composed of some solid powdered substance, usually silica or powdered quartz, mixed
fillers

with a quick-drying varnish thinned with turpentine or benzine. is applied to the dry surface of the wood with a stiff, short-bristle brush, or is put on with a clean, white cotton cloth, and well rubbed into

This

the pores of the wood.

After half an hour or so, the surface of the

wood
felt.

is

with a wad of excelsior or a clean cloth or a wiped piece of A liquid filler is a quick-drying varnish; and most of the
off

liquid

on the market are cheap rosin varnishes loaded with dryers, and should never be used.. Paste fillers are the best in almost all
fillers

cases.

TAIN riNC
UOlSi:
Inside \S (trk.
All wIikIow

l'\l\IIN<i

and

l<Mr

frames, wlu'tlu-r

tlu-y art- lo

1k' fiiiislutl with paint or varnish, .should rrcrive a mMHi c*oat of paint niadi- with some cluaj) pi^'mcnt, such as inin oxidi-, and ljoild <il,

a|)|>liid

to

till-

hatk of the

fniini-, hcfort' tlu-y art"

tlu-

hnjuj^ht fnjni the

shop
ders

tlu'

le('av.

house; this prevents absorption of moisture ami hinto he painted, they shotild receive a priming If they are
if

coat in the shop,

ticahU'.

raw
oil,

oil,

if not, it should he applietl as sK)n as praccoat iscompost-d of white lea<l and hoih-^l oil or I'he priming with five to ten per cent of dryer; and should he almost all

|ossille;

with very

little

])i;,Mnent.

Turjientine
is
a.s

is

not a ^xmI thinf;

in

priming coat, hecause the object

turiH-ntine evaporates.

to

fill

As

.soon

this

is

the jM)res )f the wixKl.and lry to the touch, all holes

is

are to he

filled

with

j)Utty.

The
a
j)aste

hest putty for this pur{M)se

little

white

lead j)Uttv,

made hy mixing
ilry lead

raw

oil

or hv adding
sistencv.

to

leiid

until

with dry white lead, it is of the right con-

This kind of
putty,

i)Utty

hardens <|uickly as compartnl with

common
scratch

the hest for this purpo.se. should not he used on interior woodwork, as it
is
it;

and

A
is

steel putty-knife

almost certain to
u.setl.
.\11

hardwood

stick, suitably

shaped, slutuld he
filled.

cracks, joints,

ami nail-holes should he canfully

.Ml knots

and .sappv places should he varnished with slu-llac varnish; this preThe shellac vents the pitch and moisture from attacking the paint.
shoidd
hefore the priming coat. The applied where it is needed, coat should he givi-n time to get <|uiti' <lry; at least a day two priming Then it is ready for the an<l a week is better yet. (lavs, if
l)e

po.ssihle;

.secontl coat.
If

no turpentine

This shoidd contain a considerable amount of turpentine. is used, the surface is likely to be glossy, ami the next
t>il

coat of |)aint will not adhere well; but by rej)laeiiig part of the

with

what painters call a flat <<)(// that is, )ne which i.s turpentin*', not glossv; if this is ma<le from |)aste lead or any |)ast<' paint, it <'n be pro<hieed bv tliiiuiing the |)asle with a mixture of oil and tur|M-ntine some |>ainfTS prefer one-thini oil and tww in eoual

we

get

j)roporlions;

thirds turpentine.

This

is

for inside
if
it

work

only.

This coat

.sh<ull

be allowe<l

to

dry thoroughly;

takivs

ten hours for the paint to U*

l<-n li)urs

drv enough to

hamlle, then at least four times

is
;

addHumal

a giHxj giMiemI nilc; .should elapse before the next coat ap|)lied If {\\v fmi.sh .shoidd be allownl. and as much mun- time as |)o.ssible
thi.s is

10

PAINTING

to be ordinary oil paint, the next coat may be paint, thinned with about half as much turpentine as before, or with no turpentine at all. In the latter case, when the coat is thoroughly dry, it must be carefully
is

examined, and,

if

glossy,

it

off the gloss; curled hair is often used, or

should be rubbed with something to take a light rubbing with pumice

it,

and water.
applied.

Then

the final coat, which has no turpentine in

may be

But

if

the finish

is

to

be with an enamel paint, the second coat,

when

quite dry, should be very lightly sandpapered with fine sandpaper, and the third coat should be of like composition to the second,

same way; then the enamel paint is applied. For a really when this is quite dry, it should be rubbed down with curled hair or pumice and water, and another coat of enamel put on.
treated the
first-class job,

This may be

left

with the natural gloss

if

desired

or

it

may

be rubbed

with pumice and water to a flat (dull) surface. Painting Plastered Walls. Old plastered walls may be painted with oil or enamel paints as though they were wood, remembering that
the priming coat will have almost all of its oil absorbed by the plaster. New plastered walls do not take paint well, on account of their alkaline
character, which gradually disappears with exposure to the atmosIt is well to let a wall remain unpaintcd at least a year. But phere. if it is necessary to paint a freshly plastered wall, the wall is prepared
it with a solution of sugar in vinegar, the sugar uniting with the lime to some extent; or more commonly by washing it first with a strong solution of common alum and then

by some painters by washing

with a solution of soap. After this is dry, it is washed with clean water, allowed to dry, and then painted. The alum and soap form an
insoluble
tent,

compound which closes the pores of the plaster to some exand prevents the lime from acting on the paint. Outside Work. Exterior paints are more elastic, as they need
lasting,

to

be far more

than those used on

interiors, since the effect of

exposure to the sun and rain, destroys paint more than almost anything else does. Paint on the interior of a house will last almost
indefinitely;

but on the outside the best paint

is

not very durable.

The

new, should be cleaned by ])rushing; knots should be shellacked; after which the priming coat should be applied. This
surface,
if

may be

the

with boiled

same paint which is selected for the finish, only thinned oil (or raw oil and dryer), using one to one and a-third

rAiNTiNf;
of
oil to eiifli

11

giilloiis

gallon of paint.
priiiu-r,
is

Tlir niisoii
tlu*

why onlinarv
tht* oil.

jMiint

mav

imt he ustti as a
pijjineiit

that

wimhI ahsorl)s

leav-

ing the

as a ctinparatively iiori-adhesivr |H)\v<ler on the sur'I'he next step face, from which the next eoat will pn)l)alily jm-^-I off. For the seeml eoat, is to putty np all nailholes and other (iefe<ts. many experts alvise the addition of half a pint of tnrjMiitine to the
'I'he third

gallon of j)aint; others make no a<l<lition to it. second is thonnighly tlry; if a applie<l after the

eoat

is

week or a montli can

is

so much tlu- better. ilapse l)etwicn these coats, If the old Repainting;. paint has heeii on a long time,
Ik'

it

liahle

which admit m<jisture to the surface to jH'rmeated hy minute cracks, If now we paint over this, the new of the wckkI and loosen the j)aint. which shrinks in drying, tends to pull <ff the old paint, and of
paint,
If the oKl pjiint is in this state, course the whole peels off in patches. This can Ikit must he remove<l before tlie new paint is applied. Vor this work a paiiilrr'.s torch is retiuiri-tl, ilone hy burnimj off.

which

is

lamp burning

alcohol, gasoline, or kcro.sene,

and

is .so

con-

stnicted that a blast of flame can be directe*! against the surface. This

melts or

.scjftens

the old paint, which

is

with a steel .scraper. The paint is not by heat .so that it can be .scraped off.
to

then imme<liately .scra|K-l ofT literally burnitl, but is .softenetl

In .some cases
it

is suflic-ient

remove as much as

jxj.ssibic
ste-I
oil'

with a steel bru.sh; this

is

a brush like

a .scrubbing bnish, with vigon)Usly used, will take

(

win-s instead of bristles, and,

when

the loose ])aiMt.

)ld paint,
it

well,

may

and
tlie

wlii'ii it

however, is not always in this condition. If it adhen-s be cleane<l with an onlinary scrubbing brush and water, be applied. ."Nunrtimes is dry. tlu- new paint may
(piite

it has fade<l and lost its lu.ster; paint .seems in goo4l condition, only in such cases a coat of boiled oil, or niw oil with dryer, is all that is

needed.
It
is

casings, corner-pie<es,

well to paint the trinj that is. the window-casings, dtM)rand the like before painting the Ixnly of the

house; then the paint can i>e applieil to the Hat surface's more neatly Paint should be applid in thin than is otlu nvisc- likely to be done.
CfMits, Wi'll

brushed on;

it
it

is

not umisual to M-e |taint

come

>IT
it

fnmt

n-H-ntnint angles while

diHiciilt to

is still

goMl on Hal surfaces. UvaUM*

in thosi|)lnc''s.

was

brush the paint pn>perly dilTen-nce in diimbility lu-tween a thin

Then'

i.s

a gn*t
largi*.

|!iinl

llowitl

on with a

12

PAINTING
brush, and one of proper consistency well brushed out with a brush size. In all painting on wood, it is desirable to brush it on

flat

of

medium

with the grain of the wood; and by painting only a few boards at once, we may avoid laps by painting the whole length. Rough surfaces
hold paint better, and more of it, than smooth. A gallon of paint will cover, one coat (on a painted or well-primed surface), about GOO square
feet,

not flowed on, but well brushed out in a thin film.

The priming
In

coat will not cover

more than 300 or 400 square

feet to the gallon.

measuring the outside of a house for surface, make no deductions for doors and windows; if the trim is to be painted a different color, from
one-sixth to one-third of the paint will be required of that color. coat of dry paint is Paint should be stirred frequently while using. from -^~g to T.oVo of ^^ ^nch in thickness.

Roof Painting.
oil

Roof paints should contain a

larger proportion of

to

Many

pigment than other paints, and less dryer (or none at all). think that the addition of ten to twenty per cent of fish oil to a

paint for roofs is advantageous; fish oil greatly retards drj^ing and prevents the paint from becoming brittle. Tin roofs, if new, should

be thoroughly scrubbed with soap and water, or with pieces of harsh cloth, such as burlap, well wet with benzine. They may then be
painted.

Paint dries relatively fast on roofs; but as a roof paint slow-drying, plenty of time must be allowed between coats.
roof should receive three coats.
treated the
]\Ietal gutters

is

very
to

A new
be
is

and spouts are

same way.

Do not forget that new tin

it

or galvanized iron

difficult to paint;

very thoroughly scrubbed, even though it looks perfectly clean, and then rub the paint on well with the brush.

have

Metal spouts
house.

will usually

be painted the same color as the wall of the

is
it

Sometimes shingle roofs are painted with fireproof paint. This not really fireproof, but considerably retards the spread of fire, after has become thoroughly dry; when fresh, it does not even do that nor
;

does

has been on a year or so. It may be made by adding to a gallon of any good paint about a pound of
it

have much

effect after

it

powdered boracic acid. A\Tien strongly heated, this material fuses and forms a sort of glass, which keeps the air from the wood. It is
after

a time washed out by the

rain.

Canvas

roofs are prepared in the following manner:

The canvas

1*

A I MING
down, care
In-in^
Ik-

13

l()-<)unce (luck is often iisiil) is first iiailttl

it

taken to

draw
to

tight

it

will

show some

wrinkles, hut these are not to

allowed
is

accumulate

to
it

form a

larj;e

wrinkle or fold.
all

Then

the canvas

thoroui^hly wet;

shrinks, and
it

the
it

little

wrinkles

tlisii|)|M-ar.

It is

common

practice to paint

while

is still

wet, this

Ix-iuf?

an

e.\ce[>-

tion to all other practice; hut

some wait

luitil it is

dry.

The

writer

has heen accustonutl to the

latter niethiHl,

and has not found that the

can
Ix;

canvas shows wrinkles on

desired.

dryinj^, while the results are all that

is

well-paintetl can\as roof

very durahle and

siitisfactory.

l>\!NTI\(i
Steel
to
is

STRICTI

ini.

MITM.

paint.

Without
lonj^er

a more perishahle material than woimI, arwl more diflicult rej^ilar expenditure for maintenance, wiMxlen

hriilfjes last

than

steel

ones; there are wocMlen roof In-ams a

are
.so

thousand vears old; and in)n

oidy over furnaces and the

i*oofs

short-lived that thev are usetl

lire.

like,

where wocnlen ones would take

it

The

painting of structural steel is therefore injj)ortant; antl diflicult, if wc are to judge by results.
In the

is

also

we
it

first place comes the prej)aration of the surface. When wo<mI, we have the surface clean and dry: and then we soak paint with oil, so as to have the paint hound to it in the most intimate

manner.

and covered with

Iron and steel, on the other hand, always come to' us dirty, o.xide; and as the surface is not |)on)Us. the |)aint

does not jjenetrate it, hut has to stick on the outside the best way it can. If we paint over the dirt and .scale, and that ever comes olf, the jKiint

comes

off

with

it; if

the metal

is

actively rusting,

and we paint over the

rust, the corrosion is

.\ir iiiid

it does not stop. perhaps made if we can moisture cau.se rust; ket-p tluiii away, the metal

slower, hut

will last; hut,

e.\|)ose<l

unfortunately,

all

to the

weatlur
metal

if

in

an<l if paint is very slightly porous, time deteriorates. The most es.sential
jidiiit
tin

thing

in |.ainling

is

to

'// ///'

thr iintal, not

on an

inter-

niiiliate coating.

There are onlv two wavs

it

to clean sferl

perfectlv.

One

is

l)V

10 to 20 jht cent sulphuric aei<l), (ii.sually jtickling followed hv washinu to niiiove tin- arid; and the other is hv the use
in dilute acid

of thivsjind-hlast. Neither of iluvse pnM'e.s.ses is availidtle to theonlinary who nmst do the next l)'st thing. This is to remove alvsolulely painter, l''irst clean olT the dirt, if any, all dirt and all Iikksc scale and oxidi-.

14

PAINTING
it

with brushes, as

would be cleaned
any new
off.

ofp

with scrapers and steel-wire brushes, clean

any other surface. Then, oft" all the scale which will
it

come

off.

If there is

rust (not mill scale),

must be well
WTien
this is

scraped out and cleaned

This

is

indispensable.

done, immediately paint it, before it begins rusting again. One of the most popular materials for a first coat is red lead in
oil.
it

This must be mixed on the

harden into a cake

spot, shortly before

it is

used, because

will

in the pail or

can

if

From 30 to 33 pounds of dry red lead is long. gallon of oil not less than 28 in any case. This is immediately painted on the metal; if it is put on in too thick a coat, it will run and be uneven.

allowed to stand very to be mixed with each

Some
which

use raw
is

oil,

others boiled

oil

it

does not

make much

difference

paint dries rapidly; and as soon as it seems hard, a second coat of the paint can be Red lead is different applied.
used.

The

from

all

away from

other paints in this, that it will finish hardening just as well the air. This is because it does not oxidation, as

dry by

other paints do, but by the lead combining chemically with the oil, In the opinion of the just as water combines with Portland cement. writer, red lead should have one or two coats of some good paint, other

than red lead, over it. But red lead is not the only first coating which may be used. Any good paint may be used a good graphite paint, or other carbon paint, or some of the varnish-like

coatings containing

linseed oil

and asphaltum which are made

less

important, in using any

for the purpose. It is of these, to let plenty of time for drying elapse

between coats. Not

desirable.

than two coats

is

permissible,

and three are

which

Projecting angles, edges, and bolt and rivet heads are the places first show rust through the paint. This is partly because the

edge angle, with an extra or striping coat; then, when the second coat goes on over the whole, there is the equivalent of two
bolt

brush draws the paint thin at such places. To overcome this, it is now becoming common practice to go over the work after the first coat, and paint all edges for about an inch from the or and all

and

rivet heads,

full

coats ever^'where.

when

Painting on iron, as on wood, should be done in dry weather, it is not very cold at any rate not below 50 F. Full,
all

heavy
to get

coats should be used,

the paint into

and well brushed cracks and corners.

on.

Care must be taken

PAINTING
\

15

Ak.M>ll
appliitl to a surfaci- in a thin

A
that
is

varnisli

is

lii|ui(l

litatlc to In-

film, uliicli,

on

to tin- air, lianlrns into a pnitiftivt- coating rxjx).siirr

classes

spirit and

usually glossy and almost transparmt.

oleo-rr.titioii.s ranii.s/us.

Thcrt- arc two principal

."^[)irit

varnishes, of which

.v//r//r* is

by
off

ilissolvinga resin (or

sometimes some other suhstancej

the most inijxjrtant, arc made in a volatile

solvent, such as alcohol.

They

tiry

by evaporation, the solvent going

and leaving the

ser\'c<l

resin spread out in a thin film, the li(|uid or vehicle

having really
the surface.
thin flakes.

as a mechanical
is

means

of sprealing the resin over

in large,

Shellac
It

ri-sin

which conies on the market

may

be

di.s.solved in

dcnaturtMl (or any other) alcohol

in the following

manner:

Put
of

th>

gum

shellac for each gallon of alcohol.

alcohol in an eartiicnwan- jar, and wi-igh out five j)()Unds Just before leaving at

and gently drop the slullac, little by little, into the jar Do not of alcohol, then put on the cover and leave it until morning. on anv account stir it. In the morning the fiakes of .shellac will be
night, carefully

soaked and swollen; but if you had stirred them in, the night before, they would have stuck together in linnj)s. Now, during the day, stir the ma.ss with a wfxiden stick once every hour or so; do not put any
metal
in
it,

espet-ially iron;

one iron

nail will spoil the color of a

barrel of shellac.
will

Hy

the next

morning

perhaps before the shellac

whole

gum

be realy for u.se. It does not make a clear solution, b<.>cau.se the .shellac contains .some wa.x, which does not di.ssolve, and so the
is

howevir, ready for u.se. As the be kept coven.il; and after it is alcohol is volatile, the jar shoidil made, the varnish should be put in gla.ss lM)ttles or clean tin cans.
varnish

milky or cloudy;

it

is,

of shellac gum, the best being known by but there are others nearly as good, 'i'he common th<' lettTs ('; shellac is brownish y'llow, and is calh-d oniiK/r sin liar: this is the natu-

There are many grades

i>

nd

shellac color.
l)Ut
it

White shellac
of
.s)

chlorine;

is n)t

matle from this by bleaching with good (|ualify as the unbleacheil; it has. tif
is

cf)urse, the

ginn

will,

advantage of Ix-ing much paler in <olur. White slu-llac on long standmg. sometimes Inrome insoluble. Shellac

Tbnro

l4,

N<>T.- Hy <">m' i)nlnior, tho iTm varnlHh' |h ni'Vrr ul lo Imludn nhpllMS. hiiwrvor. ii<> vUtl. (ibjncilvn rrawui (or tbiiH lltnttlU|{ iho uiMof the U^rm.

16

PAINTING
alcohol,

vamish may be thinned with

Shellac
lessens
is

and often

this is necessary.

too often adulterated with

value.
is

common

rosin,

which greatly
test.

its

This

is

easily detected

by a chemical

Damar
five or six

a white resin which

pounds

is soluble in spirits of turpentine of resin to a gallon of turpentine. It is the most

nearly colorless varnish we have, but never becomes very hard. It is used to a considerable extent as a vehicle for white lead and zinc, to make a very white enamel paint. It is not durable if to the

exposed

weather.

More important than spirit varnishes are the oleo-resinous varnishes,which consist of certain resins dissolved in linseed oil, the mixture
being thinned with turpentine or benzine. In making these, the resin is put in a copper kettle and heated until it is thoroughly melted then some hot oil is added to it, and the mixture cooked until the whole is thoroughly combined. The kettle is then taken from the fire, and
;

when partly cool, the turpentine is stirred in. The resin makes the film hard and lustrous, and the oil makes it tough. Thus the larger the proportion of resin, the harder and more brilliant will be the film the larger the proportion of oil, the tougher, more elastic, and more durable it will be, and the slower it will dry. jNIost of the color of varnish
;

comes from the

The
in

pale

gums

resin; the paler this is, the paler will be the varnish. are higher in price than the dark ones, but are no better
color.

any respect except

(except in color) as pale

resins are often harder

ones

Dark

varnishes

may be

just as

in fact

may

be

better, for the

good dark
sort.

and better than the pale ones of the same

The hard and

quick-drying varnishes are suitable for furniture; the medium, for interior house-varnishes; the slow and elastic, for exposure to the weather.
Varnishing.
better,
if

The wood
it,

necessary to clean

should be dry. For this reason to avoid washing as much as

it

is

possible,

using sandpaper instead, which will also make it smooth. Of course the carpenter is supposed to do this, but the painter must not neglect it on that account. ^Mien in proper condition, it first receives, if it is an open-grain wood, a coat of paste filler. The open-grained woods in most common use are oak, chestnut, and ash. The woods classed as

woods are white pine, maple, birch, yellow pine, whitewood, cherry, and sycamore. These latter do not need If filling. filler is used, it should be well rubbed in with a short, stiff brush; and
close-grain

PAINTING
wlu'M
it

17

has

set,

say

in fifteen
rul)l)iiiji

ti>

tliirty iniiiiites,

it

is

nililKil

(iff

with a

haixlful of e.xcfl.siur,

acniss the ^'niin,

ami

ruhhiii'^;

hanl, mj as
it

to force the filler well into the jx)re.s of the woo<l.

Then

should

stand 24 to 4S hours.

When
and must

l)c

j)URhased,a paste filler is too thick to Ik? used with ahru-sh, thinned with ttirpentuie or U'lizine; at the Siiiue time it
to

may Ix* stained

is

any desired cohjr with an

lirst tliin;^ is

oil

or varnish stain,
If

'riir-c

stains can he j)urchase<l of

any desired color.

a close-fjrainitl smmkI
if it is desiri-<l

under treatment, the

it

to a|)|)ly a stain

to

stain the wimmI; hut

is

common

|)ractice

to finish in the natural color.

Stains usually re<|uire a ^(mmI deal of thimiinj; before usinj;; the amount Water stains arc seldom of thiiminf^ will determine the<li-j)th of color.

used, as they tend to raise the ^rain of the wood. In cleaninfjoll" the filler, he careful to clean out corners and mouKl-

hardwocMl sticks; ings, usm<; for this purpose, properly shapcil

use any steel
tool.

do not

Where rooms
it

are to he finished in the natural color of the wood,

is

nevertheless a
lijjht

common

practice to stain the window-.sashes; a

cherry or

maho<;any stain is often U-sihI. Fillers are .sometimes used on close-grain woods; hut this is not advisid)le, as they tend to varnish from getting a good hold on the wo(mI. prevent the

Next comes the varnishing. Window-sills, jamhs, inside

and other surfaces exposed

hlinds,

to the direct rays of the sun, are to

he

treatel as exterior woo<lwork, and are not varnished with the ordinary interior varnish used on the rest of the work. The floors also are left

out of account for the present. first coat of varnish; apply it. as

'I'lie

rest of the

woodwork nreives

its

wood, hrushing
dust free
five (lavs
(/..,

it

as possible, with the gniin of the The varnish ought to dry out well in a thin coal.
it)

much

so that dust will not sti<k (o elapse

lielweeii eoats.

sill

II

lid

When

over night Imt dry, it shouKl he

;

at least

ruhlH-*!

withcurl-<l hair or excelsior

enough

to

remove theglo.ss.so

that the next

coat of varnish will adhere j)ritperly; a lietter result will he had if it is (HI The se<-ond coat is treat"l like p;i|ier. lightlv .santlpapered with
the
lirst.

The

third

is

not siind|)apereil. Imt rulihed with eurletl hair;

thefourtln>r linishing coat may In- left widi the natural gloss, or. ifpn*ferred. it mav Iw ruhl>el with line pumice and water t a sn)(Ktth,hill Kor this pur|Mts' the varnish tiealers .sell felt,al>)Ut an inch .surfa-e.
tliick,

which

is

well wei in

<

lean

water; a

little lry

|iuniee jiowder

is

18

PAINTING

this. The varnish must be it; and the rubbing is done with hard and dry before this is attempted. Varnishing, if properly quite done, is slow work; that is, much time must be allowed for each

put on

coat to dry thoroughly. The varnish which too quickly;

to
it,

is used on interior woodwork should not dry should dry enough over night so that dust will not stick and in twenty-four hours should be hard enough to handle freely;
it

a chair, for example, were varnished with it, it would not be for a week. It should, however, finally become entirely safe to sit on it

but

if

perfectly free

from tack, which

it

will not

do

if it is

a rosin varnish. At

will ever be lower) varpresent prices (and it is not probable that they woodwork are sold, according to color and quahty, nishes for interior at ranging from $2.50 to S4.00 a gallon. It is in the highest

prices

degree inadmissible to use a cheap varnish for undercoats theouter coats A good varnish that dries too quickly, such will crack if this is done.
;

as

what

is

called a rubbing varnish, or one intended for furniture, has

It is economy to use a good not the durability needed for this work. varnish. The writer has in mind a house which was properly varnished eighteen years ago and has been constantly occupied by a large

family, yet the varnish

is still

in fair condition
it

if it

were

papered and one new coat applied,

it

would be

like

new

as good

lightly sand-

as

is

possible for

a surface to be.

Cheap

rosin varnishes never look

well,

even when new, never keep clean, and deteriorate rapidly. Interiors are sometimes finished with shellac. Shellac.
is

This

varnish
iors.

not used on exterior work, but

it is

a good varnish for inter-

shellac

All varnishes containing oil darken the color of wood; but white is comparatively free from this objection; at any rate it does it

less than anything else. Orange shellac is a dark varnish, and even white shellac darkens with age to an appreciable degree. Orange

shellac

is

more durable than white, and should be used wherever

it is

admissible, rather than white; but

shellac for this service.

described

If shellac is

made up

usually necessary to use white as heavy as has been

five

pounds

to a gallon of alcohol,

and

this is the

standard

it

should be thinned considerably with alcohol before using on inte-

rior

woodwork. It must be applied in thin coats, and given plenty of time to dry. It is very deceptive about this; it appears to be dry and hard in an hour, and it is hard enough to handle freely; but if we apply
coat after coat, even six hours apart,

we

shall find that the

wood

is

PAINTING
liiially

19

cuverttl with u

waxy

nu*^s

wliuh

will

U-

llie

.sourff of

nothing

hut tn)uhle.

The

hrst roat sinks ntpiilly into thf wimxI; a stfoml coat

apphttl six hours hitcr; hut aftT that, allow two days at least Shellac makes a very thin coat; so it is necessiiry to a larije numlnT of coats, at least twice as many as of oleoapply Becioise resinous varnishes, to get a suflicient thickness of coating.

may he

hetween coats.

of this

an expensive finish; hut it treatment of it, as regards ruhhing, as has heen descrihcd for other varnish.
lalM)r, shellac is

is

handsome

jmhI

durahle.

'I'he

etc., is tiie

s;ime

\'arnish makers usually a<lvise that shellac should never Ix* used as a priming coat for other varnish; this is prohahly hecause they wish to sell more of their own goods, for shi-llac is really an excellent first
coat, except for exterior work,

where

it

should not he used.

Of course,

w(mmI shoidd he

hefore shellacking, the.s;ime as for other varnish. \'arnish does not, however, wear well over a heavily shellackeil surfilled

face.
little,

Shellac

makes a

gocwl floor varnish, discoloring the

.\fter the floor

and wearing
it,

fairly well,

wmxl very has heen well varnished

applied rather fre<|Uently say every one to will keep the floor in fine eondition four months, f.ccording to use and after applying one of these thin coats (of thinni-il shellac), it will
with
ver)' thin coats,

he

tiry

enough

to use in

an hour.

This can he

ap|)lie(l

with a very

wide,
in a

flat

hrush, and a

few mimites.

over the Hoor of an ordinary room Shellac hnishes should he wasluti out with alcohol

man can go

iimnt-diately after using.

I'xtcrior Varnisliing. doors than within, so that it

al>le

materials.

The
it

much more rapidly out <if praeticahle to use more elastic and durconditions, in fact, are .so .seven* that the In'st
\'arnishes<lry
is

are not giMnl enough.

exterior work;
.shellac; as
hli>ter. will

In the

first

jlace,

do not use any

filler

on

prohahly crumhie

an<l

come

out.

Do

not use

r.se only the U'st

an undercoat exjxtsed to the hot smi.it will soften and spar rarni.ili, such as is matle for vannsh-

ing the spars of yachts; fill the woo<| with it; sandpa|H-r lightly iM'tween coats, just enough si that each sutvct-tling ctiat will take

hold well

fitiish

with a coat well (lowed on; and leave

is

it

with

it.s

natural gloss, whi<'h

more

ladling than a nihU-il surface.

This

is

the treatnn-nt for hand-ntils. outside d*Mirs, inside hlintls, window.sills

rails

and jamhs, and everything 'X|)os'| |i> the din-et sun. Handand outside d(M)rs should he refinisln-tl everv vear; vaniish will

20

PAINTING

not last on an outside door more than one-twentieth as long as it will on an inside door. Never use interior varnish for outside work.

ENAMEL PAINTS
Varnishes are all more or less brownish yellow or yellowish brown. Therefore a coat of varnish applied over a paint obscures and changes
its

color to

some

extent.
oil, is

To overcome

this as

much

as possible, the

mixed with the pigment, as a vehicle. In this way the pigment comes to the surface and displays its color. These paints, if made with good varnish, are durable; the method of
varnish, instead of

do

If application has already been described. necessary to thin them, it with varnish instead of oil; a good interior varnish may be spar used, but it injures the flowing quality of the paint somewhat.

White lead and zinc are sometimes mixed with damar varnish. This makes the whitest enamel paint, but it never gets very hard, never has much luster, and is not very durable. It is very white, is
easily applied,

and dries quickly.

NEW VARNISH

FINISH

A method of finishing open-grained interior woodwork, which has been practiced for a few years, consists in first staining the wood with a water-stain dyeing it, usually and then, when it is dry, filling the

pores of the wood with a paste filler which has been colored by the addition of a pigment. For example, the wood may receive a stain
of any dark color, and the wood-filler be mixed with white lead. This shows the open or porous part of the grain in white on a dark background. By using artistic combinations of color in the stain and filler, very beautiful effects can be produced, and this finish has been used in some of the most handsome and costly public and private buildings.

Thus, if a room is to be decorated in green, the woodwork can be made to harmonize with the prevailing color. An oil stain must not be used
is

on the wood, as it will not work well with the filler. The colored filler applied and rubbed off in the same way that any paste filler is used, and then the varnish is applied over it in the usual way.

FLOOR FINISHING
The primary
trouble with floors
is

they did not, there would be no trouble at

that people walk on them. If all. Four coats of varnish.

i'AlNTING
oi
...
11

21

j.-iiiii,

havinj; an

aij;;;rf;^iitf

tliiikm'.s.s

of less than om* om*-

iuinilritlth uf an inch, will nut last indcliniti-ly

under the

\vi>ar

uf nuil-

shcxl hfcls.
Pn)l>alj|y tin- siniplest treatnu'tit for Htjors
jKiint
shoiilil
is

contain a
oil

larj^e

projjortion
is

of a

painting thenj. The hard oleo- resinous

If

varnish; an ordinary
usihI,
it

paint

not hanl enough.

an

oil

[Kiint

is

must he heavily
twelve hours.

char{;e<l with dryer, for a floor

(juiclvHlryinj;

[)aint

should

dry

in

(Joofl

Hour

jiaints

are in the

niarki-t.

Fl(M>rs of ciioice
Ih'

either varnished or waxetl.

lilled

wood, however, are not usually |Kiinte4l; they may If tlu-y areof oak or other o[X'n-^niinel

with a jjaste filler; otherwise the varnish is Floor varnish is <|uicker in drying, and hardiT than interior finishing varnish, hut should not he so hanl as to
to the wocmI. aifplii-d directly

wool, they nuist he

he

hrittle; ruhhiu}];

varnish
oil

is

too hanl.

If

the floor
if it

is
is

to

he

staiue<l,

this is tlone

with an

stain hefore varnishin;^;

a floor which penetrate the

has previously heen varnished, so that the stain wood, the stain may he mixed with the varnish,
not then so good.

will not

althoiij^h the effirt is

Floor

wax

is

not

made

of heeswa-X, hut of a harder ve<:etal)le wax,

and

is

sold hy all paint ilealers.

fl(H)r

The

Hoor should receive one coat of

stiff

shellac; then the

wax may he
will

ruhluHl on with a

hrush, and
|)olishel

when

it

is

<lry,

which

he

in a

few hours,

it

may he

hv

ruhhinj^ with a clean cicjth or with a heavy, wei<;hte<l floiu- hrush made for the pur|M)se. It should receive another coat every week until f<ur

or six coats have l)een a|)plied; after this a little of the floor wax, thiinied if necessary with turpentine, should hi- applied often enou;;h

keep the floor looking w<'ll. .Alkalies <lissoIve the wax, and in cleaning the floor only a little soap should he usnl in the water with which the flocjr is wa.shcd. A wax finish kept ]H>lished with a |N)lishing
to

hrush,
it

is

the handsomest surface than can

it

h(

ohtainetl for a
It

fliMr;

hut

is

so slipjMTy that

is

somewhat dangerous.
(hut
not

d)es not disct>lor

the w<kh|.
finishe<l.

Interior trim

hand-mils)

is

.sometimes wuxit

This

finish re<|uires a gotnl deal of care, as

it

is

likely to

catch dust; otherwise

(

is

harnlsiime and durahle.

cli

)ld lliH)rs

which

re<|uir-

aiiing

and revarnishing should have

the old varni.sh or paint removed hy u giMnl vanilnh-miiovrr, tme of the niiNleni .sort, fre*- from alkali. This is {Miinttil over the surfac-e, and,

22

PAINTING
removed with a
scraper.

after a short time,

The

last of the

varnish-

remover

is

taken out with a rag wet with turpentine or benzine, care

in the room or any neighborbeing taken that there is no fire of any sort room. This will not only take off the old varnish, but the old filler ing also; and the floor must be treated like a new floor. Any stains on the

floor

may be

of water;

when

treated with a hot solution of oxalic acid, one part to ten the stains disappear, wash well with clear water; let

This treatment

the floor dry a day; sandpaper; and it is ready for varnishing again. removal of old paint or varnish by a liquid varnishremover is applicable to all varnished or painted work. The outside

of a house could have the old paint taken

off is

cheaper and quicker.

way, but burning These varnish-removers are mixtures of

oft'

in this

benzole, acetone, alcohol,

and other

liquids,

and the best of them are

patented.

ALUMINUM AND BRONZE

PAINTS

Radiators and pipes are often painted with aluminum or bronze These consist of metallic powders, in fine flakes, mixed with paints.

some varnish
tion of

usually with a pyroxylin varnish, which

is

a thin solu-

a variety of gun-cotton in a suitable solvent, generally acetate of amyl. If one of these paints which smell somewhat like bananas becomes thickened in the can by evaporation, it can usually be thinned

with acetate of amyl, if some of the special thinner cannot be had; brushes can be washed out in the same. A good aluminum paint is
durable, even exposed to the weather.

One

coat

is

usually enough,

two certainly

so.

GLAZING
are usually expected to understand the art of Glass is classified as setting window-glass; it is not difficult to learn. sheet or cylinder glass and plate glass. Sheet glass is made, at the
painters

House

by blowing a quantity of glass, first, into a hollow globe; more blowing and manipulation, this is stretched out into a then, by hollow cylinder perhaps a foot in diameter and five feet long; this
glass works,

cylinder (whence the

reheating,
is

name
cut

"cylinder glass")

is

cut open, and, after

fiattened out into a sheet,

it is

whence the name "sheet

It is

after annealing,

up

into convenient sizes.

made

glass;" of two

PAINTING
thicki..
...
^

23

.,iiifjlf

thick,

which

is

alxjiit

oiu'-sixtii'iitli

of an inch;

ami

(Iniihlt thick,

onc-cij^hth of an inch;

uniform.
Wirt,

All sluft jjhiss

is

not nni [H*rfiftly contains .streaks, huhlilcs, and specks of

l)Ut it (Iocs

and

more or

less irre},'nhir
first,

or

wavy in

its

surface;

ami

in n*s|>ect
f^lass

to this

it is

"jradetl as

second, and third ijuality; in American

aiul

these

^ades

are usually

marked "AA," "A,"

"M;" and anylhin;^

Forei^i glass is not thus p)on'r than "B" is called stock sheets. each maker having his own arbitrary marks. Single-tlnek markitl, glass is usiMJ for sizes not greater than alxjut 2S hy 34 inches; doublethick,

up

to

40 by

<)().

For larger

siz's, j)late

glass only

is us***!;

but
if

of course either plate or double-thick can be use<l for small sizes,

desireil.

Plate glass
iron table, about

is

cast in j)lates; the

feet

lifjuiil

glass

is

[)oure<l

out on an

1')

wide and

2.")

feet long,

and

sm(Mthe<l

down

to a

uniform thickness of half or five-eighths of an inch by j)assing a roller over it, like n)lling pie-crust; after this it is ground lo\vn with sand, of an inch emery, and polishing powder to a (piarter or five-sixteenths
in thickness.
is

It is

therefore

nmch more

costly than sheet glass, but

also

more
usctl

perfjft.

Cr}'stal is a very thin plate glass,

about one-<'ighth of an inch thick,

and

is

where ordinary plate

all

the finest of

window

glass.

too heavy, as in movable siish. It is There are two grades of plate gla.ss,
is

as glazimj (for windows) and silverinr/ (for min-ors), the latter being the best. In the first place, the sa.sh is prepannl for the glass. It must receive a priming coat; if it is to be painte<l, it is primed with

known

white lead and boiled linseed

turjM-ntine adilcfl;
al()ne.
If
it is

if it is

the mixture liaving very little or no to be varnished, it is jjrimiil with Iniiled oil
oil,

the

oil

not priine<l, the ])Utty will not stick; the wimhI will Next, the glass is out of the putty and Ic-ave it crumiily.
sii.sh.

draw
litte<l

to the

It

is

cut either with a glass-cutter's diamontl

or with a

wheel cutter, the

handle.
If well

replaceable.
plate gla^s
is

being a little shar|w<lgel steel whet'l set in a made, the wheels may be Ixjiight .sejmnite and are The wheel cutters are generally u.sed on .sheet gla.s,s; but
latter

cut only with a diamond, which makes a <lee|>er cut. are kt'pt wet with kerosene; the workman has a little IxttthThe or cup of kero.si-m* on the ImiicIi, and dips the wheel in it. The glass being cut to the right size, a layer of putty is spnail,

wlui

Is

with the putty-knife, along the recess

in the .sash

where the

gla.ss is to

24

PAINTING
This
is

and should always be done. omitted with pine sash but it absolutely must be uncommonly done with all hardwood sash, metal or metal-lined sash, and for all
rest.

called bedding the glass,

It is

not

plate
glass

and
is

crystal glass ;

and

it

ought to be done

in all cases.

Then

the

gently pressed into place, after which it is fastened with glaziers' No. 2 points are used on 'points, which are triangular bits of metal. single-thick, and No. 1, which are larger, are used on double-thick
glass; they are put in 9 to 12 inches apart.

They are driven, not with a hammer, but with the thin side of a two-inch chisel, the flat side of which lies on the glass, the edge of the chisel away from the surface
so as to avoid scratching it. The chisel is also useful for adjusting the position of the pane; if it is smaller than the sash, it is so placed that

when

the sash

is

in its natural upright position the

pane of glass

will

rest with its lower

edge bearing on the wood. The points are comof zinc, which bends easily; and when the monly pane is properly placed, if there is on one side a space between it and the wood, the
is

chisel
is

held over this crack, and with

its

made

in the little triangular zinc point

edge an indentation or crimp which has already been

driven; this crimp prevents the glass from sliding back against the wood. This is the reason zinc is used for the points; it will bend.
Steel points are sometimes used for plate glass, because of their greater

strength, the glass being heavy.

To

drive through the sheet metal of

metal-covered sash, steel slugs are used ; these are about ^^g inch thick, about I inch long, and -^^ inch wide at the wide end, triangular, and
sharp-pointed. There is a machine for driving points, but except on small glass set in soft-wood sash.

it

is

not

much used

by points, it is ready for puttythe professionals set the sash up in a nearly vertical position on an easel; the glass is puttied on the right-hand side and across the bottom; then the sash is turned the other edge up, and the
ing.

The

glass being properly secured

this,

To do

operation

is

repeated.

This

finishes the

work.

The most important

number of points and to made of whiting, which is
oil to

things about glazing are to use a sufficient

give

it

Ordinary (pure) putty is pulverized chalk, mixed with enough linseed the consistence of stiff dough. The workman can make it

use good putty.

from these materials with his hands; everyone can make his own putty. As a matter of fact, however, the putty of commerce is made by ma-

I'MVnVG
fliiiurv;

25

and

also, us a
It

matter of

fact,

it

is

in ^nieral

atlnltt-rattil.

Wdiiltl sofni

as tlion^li wliitin^j and

in reality [)Utty

lirjsti-d oil

uhominably were

inatiTials clu-ap t'liouj^li;

and

can

Ik*

sold for alnnit

three cents a {x^nnd, or sixty dollars a ton; and a dollar's worth will pntty all the glass in an ordinary house. Pure putty, however, is almost impossihle to get. Marhh- dnst is sul)stitute<l for whiting,

and a mixture of
alH)Ut half.
It

rf)sin

and mineral

oils for

the

oil,

and the

c<ist

reducetl

is

the use of this

miseraMe

stuff

which causes ninecannot he sure of

tenths of the tnmhles with windows.

If the glazier

his putty otherwise, he should make it himself. The best putty for glazing is a mixture of pure whiting putty with one-tenth white lead putty. This makes it set a little more <|uickly, and it hecomes harder. Pure white lea<l j)Utty gets too hanl; it is too
dinicult to
If

remove

it

in

case of breakage of glass.

the glass has not been biildeil in putty, it is customary to go around the indoors side of the glass, and crowd st)me putty into the

crack between

it

and the sash.

This

is callel

harkinr/ the glass. I^irge

are held in place with .strijis plates of plate glass are not puttie<l, but of moulding nailed on the .siish, in which case the crack Ix'tween the
glass

and the moulding

is

backed with putty.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.
PRACTICAL TEST QUESTIONS.
In
the

foregoing
illustrative

sections

of

this

Cydo[>ch'a
in

numerous

examples are worked out

show the application of the various methods and principles. AccompanyiuR these are
detail in order to

examples

for practice

fixing the principles in

which mind.

will aiil

the reader in

In the following pages arc given a large

number

of test questions and problems which afTortl a valuable means of testing the reader's knowledge of the

subjects treated. They will be found excellent practice for those preparing for College, Civil Service, or Engineer's License. In some cases numerical answers
are given as a further aid in this work.

!:

\v
Till-:

Q
M
I
I

' (

1-:

s
!
I

i'

<

>

xs

t>

1 .1

K1

<

KLKCT R
1.

C W

K*

XO

Explain the
Ill

tlirrc-\vin> .system of wiring.

2.

ca.sf

te.st

.shows cxcT.ssivc lrakaf(f, or a

locate the trouble
aiu'l

j;rouiiil
it?

or

.sliort

circuit,
;}.

how wouM you

and
use

ren)e<ly

Descrihe the construction

(if

outlet-lxjxes.

the principal ditlerence hetween alternating aniJ (lirectK'urrent circuits, .so far as concerns the wiring system?
4.
is

What

5.

Compare

the advantages of the two-wire

and three-wire

systems of wiring. (). I'nder wliat gi-neral heads are ajjjiroved

cla.ssified?
7.

methods of wiring

A
at

amperes

220

single-phase induction motor is to he suj)plieil with 2o volts; alternations 12,()()() per minute; power factor. S.
is

The
No.

transfonner
1

200

feet

from the motor, the

line consisting of

wire,

inches iK'tween centers of conthictors.

in the ratio 2,.")()(),

The

tnin.s-

fonner reduces

'

has a capacity of 30 amperes at 220

250
volts,

M.

and, when delivering this current and voltage, has a resistance-Iv CalF. of 2. per cent. jxT cent, and a reactance K. M. F. i>f
')
.'>

culate the drop.

s.

(I'.se

table

and chart.)

What

are the distinctive features of the dilVcniit kinds of

natal conduit?
Suppo.se |)ower to l>e deliven-d, :{(M) K. W.; F. M. F. to Ih' delivered, 2.2(M) volts; distance of transmi.ssion, !.').(H)0 feet; size of
0.

wire,

No. 00;

distjina"

Iwtween wires, 21 inches; |)ower factor of load.

Calctilat*- line lo.ss and .7; fre(|uency, KM) cycles [ht .second. ln>p in jM-r cent of \\. M. I', delivered. (I'.se table and chart.)
10.

In installing A.
till-

('.

circuits,

what r'<|uin'ments an-

insistt|

on as

to

11.

placing of contlui'tors in conduits? I)'S(Tilw the mainifactun-, use, and

s|><'eial

advantages of

the dilkrent kinds of

armored cable.

ELECTRIC WIRING
12.

Describe three different methods of testing?

Which

is

to

be preferred?
13.

What

conditions determine whether a two-wire or three-wire

system of wiring should be used? In locating cut-out cabinets 14.

requirements should be
15.
fulfilled?

and distributing

centers,

what

cuss

its

16. 17.

What is "knob and tube" wiring? Explain its use and disadvantages or disadvantages. How far apart should insulators be placed? What tests should be made before an electric wiring equipfinally

ment

is

passed for acceptance?

Give reasons.

18. 19.

20.

What What What

regulations govern the use of fibrous tubing? is meant by mutual induction?

are the advantages and disadvantages of overhead

linework as compared with underground linework? 21. Describe and illustrate by sketches proper methods of supporting and protecting conductors.
22.

Discuss the advantages of running conductors exposed on

insulators.
Illustrate by diagram, proper and improper methods of conductors of two two-wire circuits. grouping 24. What dangers are inherent in the use of moulding? What

23.

precautions should be taken to avoid them? 25. Describe the proper methods of laying out branch circuits,
(a) in fireproof buildings; (b) sketches.

in

wooden frame

buildings.

Give

26.

What methods

of installing wiring are best adapted for the

following classes of buildings,

factories, etc.; (c)

(a) fireproof structures; (b) mills, finished buildings; (d) wooden frame buildings?

is skin effect? Its bearing on the problem of wiring? In selecting runways for mains and feeders, what precautions should be taken?

27.

What

28.

REVIKW QUKSTIONS
ov
TTXta

HcrnJiocx

ok

ELKCTRIC
1.

etc:

ir

I'TXG.

the incandescent lanip

2.

State the current, voltage, candle- jxnvi-r, and efficiency ot most conunonly used.

AVhat do von understand by the

(live the

'

sinasliinir

point

"if

main points of diU'erence hetween the thri-t forms of arc lamp mechanism. ^[ention the three principal parts if the Nernst lamp. 4.
3. 5.

Describe with sketch the anti-j)arallel systeni of fcedin<;.

G.

Prove the law that illumination varies inversely with the

square of the distance.

7,

AVhy

is

arc
'

li^ht

photometrv a mon-

ditli^Milt

problem

than incandescent
>5,

Calculate the illumination three feet above the floor at

the center of a room IS feet square and 12 feet hi;h. lif^hted by four lO-candle-power lamps ! feet above the floor at the center of
the side walls, assumini; the coetlicient of retlection to be
It.

.'o

What

material

is

used for the tilanient of incandescent

lamj)s?

K.xplain why. From the curve given in Fig. 4, ilelermine the etlicieiicy V Jiich coi re.-iponds to the tt-mjK'rature of 1 ;}()() C"entignde. 11. W'liat is the olijeci of ilouble carbons in an arc
10.

lamp?

I'l.
):!.
1

What What

is
is

candle-power? the function of the heater in the Xernst lamp?

sjtherical

meant by mean

I.

l)escrile the liunsen IMiotonieter.

IT).

lii)wdt>ert the lighting of public halls dilTer

?

from that of
tilament uf

residencuri
IG.

Why

cannot platinum wire be used for

{

tlu<

incandenCM'nl lamps

ELECTRIC LIGHTING
17.

In a direct-current arc lamp, which carbon bu) ns away

the

more rapidly ?
18. 19.

How
What

are arc

lamps rated

are the important advantages of the two-wire of distribution ? parallel system Name and describe the most desirable standard for pho20.

tometric measurements.
21.

How many
What

measurements should be taken

?

in the deter-

mination of spherical intensity

22.

23.
24.

is meant by flashing? Explain. Define emissivity. If the voltage of an incandescent lamp be increased

4%

above normal, what and light?

25.

is

the effect on the candle-power, efficiency the

Explain
starting.

the

Cooper-Hewitt

lamp,

stating

two

methods of
2G. 27.

Compare

the open and enclosed arc lamps.

the positive carbon placed above the negative in a direct-current arc lamp?

Why

is

28.

Sketch and

name

the different

forms of incandescenf

lamp

filaments.
29.

Under what conditions can

?

a 3.1-watt incandescent

lamp

be used
30. 31. 32. cent

What What

is

the function of the arc

lamp mechanism?

Why

are the advantages of the three-wire system ? is it necessary to exhaust the bulb of an incandesin their life should incandescent

lamp? At what point 33.

?

lamps

be replaced
34.
in

lamp

What is the object of a resistance in series with the arc constant-potential direct-current systems? 35. Name the advantages of the Nernst lamp.
3G.

What

sort of

lamps and of what candle-power should be

used in residence lighting ?

37. 38.

Give the

characteristics of the

What
?

M'ill

Cooper-Hewitt lamp. be the external resistance on a 110 volt conif

stant-potential

system,

the load consists of

437 lamps

of

16

candle-power

KKV

!:

(J

!:

ST

(>

Xs

ON

'r II

K MlTlUKi'T

CK

PLASTKRINCi
1.

I)f>(ril)c the

prDpcr

int'tlnMl of spaciii;,',

iiailiii;:,

ami joining

wood

lath.
2.

Of what

materials

is

mortar

comixjsttr;:'

\Vliat are the

retjuirements
for

of each to insure

gmxl results?

3. Compare the relative advantages of metal and wcmkI lathing both interior and exterior plastering.
1.

How

are estimates for lathing and plastering

made?
the i)lacing

o.

^Vhat precautions are absolutely necessarv

If

in

of metal lath?
().

wood lathing
if

is

used on exterior work,

how should

it

be

laid?
7.

When,

ever,
in

8.

Describe

wire lath preferable to expanded metal? detail the process of slaking the lime and
is

mixing the mortar

houses.
0.

for ordinary interior plaster

work

in

dwelling-

What

precautions are to be ()b.ser\'txl?

."Should
in all its

mortar be used as soon as mixed?

barings.
for e.xttrior

Di.scuss this

question
10.
11.

How
If

would you mix the mortar

is

work?
is

lime

not thoroughly slaked, what trouble

likely to

develop?
!_'.

njortar?
i:!.
1.

What will b<- the etlect of u.siug too much lime in mixing too much siind? What are the e.s.sentials for lurable exterior plastering?
In
th' relative advantages of three-cojit anl fwiwojit what kind of work are three coats always nece.vijiry? In interior work, what precautions must U- observetl in
l)i.scu.s.s

work.
I.".

laying the

.succe.s,sivc

coats of plaster?

In exterior

work?

REVIET\^

QUESTIONS

ON THE SUBJECT OF

PAINTING
1.
is

Wliat

is

the difference between

raw and

boiled oil?

\^lien

one preferable to the other?

2.

What would you

interior

consider a good brush outfit for painting

and varnishing the frame dwelling?

3.

woodwork and

exterior finish of a

modern

How would

you make your own putty

princii)al ingredients

if

you could not buy

a satisfactory grade? 4. Describe the

vehicles.
5.

used as figments.

As

What

are thinnersf

Dryers?

Fillersf
in

6. 7.

How are painters' brushes kept How are paints adulterated?

good condition?

8. Describe the process of mixing the successive coats of paint for ordinary interior (not floor) and exterior woodwork. 9. Describe the process of preparing the woodwork and

applying the successive coats of paint in ordinary interior (not floor) and exterior work.
10.

What

points require particular attention in the repainting

of

an old job?
11.

12.
13.

Describe the process of painting a plastered wall. Describe the material and methods of work in roof painting. What is enamel paint? How would you do a job of

enameling the woodwork, say, in a bathroom? 14. Describe in detail the process of painting structural metal.
15.
16.

How are varnishes classified?

Describe the method of preparing and applying shellac

varnisn.

INDEX
The page numbers
of Ihia

vulumt

will be

juaud

al

the

buUum

uj the

pages; the numbers at the top refer only to the aectton.

Page

Altcrnatlng-curreni clrcuiw

INDEX
Page Page

INDEX
aK<1

li'iiii III

II

'II

rcKular rpfl>rtlon
unit of
liu'anilcM'i'iii
laiii|>->

urruiiK'n>fnt of lani|M

csrboa
i-omparlson of dIfTcrpnt types of
tlbirihiitliin of IIkIh

i-flUiency of
Intfiuilty fon.stant.s fur

tyiH*. compurt-ain of
MiltiiKo

and caiMlU'iHiwfT
on

Insulators. ir<f> run fX|KJM-<l

lnt<-n.->ity

ron-stant^

InttTfhanBcable arc
Interior pla-stcrinR
Intrin.sir l>ri|{litnr!vs

Irrrgular reflection

INDEX
Page
Plastering
plaster molding

Page
Single-pitch skylight

171

320 312
311

Skin

effect

52
163

rough

finish

Skylight work
bars, various shapes of

scratch coat
three-coat

166
163
167

work two-coat work

I'

310
313
80 63
27

construction
curbs, various shapes of

Poles

patterns

166

Polyphase circmts
Porcelain insulator

shop tools
Skylights

166
171

Power

distribution

140

double-pitch
flat

172

R
RakinK moldings Rating of arc lamps Reactance e.m.f. Reactance volts
Residence lighting
calculation of illumination

extension

172
173
171

hipped

228
114

single-pitch

Slaking of lime
Soldering joints
Special lamps

303 85
121 121

55 55
150 150

mercury vapor

Moore tube
Standing-seam rooflng Steel armored cable

123

plan of illumination

207
16

type of lamps
Resistance e.m.f. Resistance volts

150

55 55
11

Switchboard

65

Rigid conduit, wires run in

Roman

moldings Roof mensuration

flat

234
193

Table
arc lamps, lighting data for

160
18

roof

194
195

armored conductors
conductors, sizes of in fibrous conduit

hipped roof
Roofing
corrugated iron
flat-seam

25
12 13

188

conduit
single wire in

212
197

three wires in one

metal
soldering

192

two wires

in

one

13

202
207
189-191
193

standing-seam
tables
tools required

Cooper-Hewitt lamps corrugated sheets, measurements of

159

214 57
134

drop

in a.c. Unes,

data for calculating

enclosed arcs, rating of

S
Sand
Scratch coat
Series distribution system

flaming arc data

flat-seam rooflng

140
189 106
15

302
311

gem

metallized filament lamp data

Greenfleld flexible steel conduit

intrinsic brilliancies in

140
163

candlepower
148 110
for 156

Sheet-metal skyUght

per square inch

life

Sheet-metal work
cornice

163-294 225
281

of a 25-candlepower unit data

work

Meridian lamps. Illuminating data

metals, meltlnt; pfiint of

curved moldings
miter cutting
rooflng

115

236
188
163
see fool of pages.

moldings, sizes

of,

required for vari-

ous sizes of conductors

22
126

skylight work
Note.

Moore tube

light

data

For page numbers

INDKX
Pagp
Tubl.
N>rii>i lumii iliita
IMili- (lattt

PiM(-

ri-UwllnK power. n-Iatlvo

rcHldi'ntv liKlitliiK (lata
tIkUI
t'liuiiii'ltxl

i-iin<lult (lata

rdoHoK. MtanUliiK-M-ain
Nkin cfTcct, (lata for cakrulatliiK

tantalum lamp data

I

in (ilutc (lutu

tunK-<t<'n

lamp data

VDltaKt*. firects of clianKi! In

Tantalum lamp
Tcrno plate
r<Kj(lnK

TcsitInK clertrlc wiring

Threo-wiro system, electric wiring

TunKstcn lamp
Turret Nash

Two-wire, electric wiring

V'oltaKe

and candlepower

Voltmeter

W
Water-tlKlit outlet box

Wires run concealed

In

conduits

armored cable
flexible

metal conduit

Nnie.

For page numbers see foot of pages.

683017

.f.