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Part of the Alexander Mosaic: Alexander ghting on his horse Bucaphelus against Darius III, King of Persia (333)

Alexander the Great

- Conqueror and Demigod
Alexander III. (356-323 BC), King of Macedon, was one of the most successful military commanders in history. He most of the world known to the ancient Greeks without losing a. At the time of his early death he was only 33 Alexanders stretched from Greece to what is now Pakistan. Even in his lifetime Alexander became a legendary gure reaching the status of a . Alexanders life is a great example of how one powerful man can shape history.
empire n: a group of countries controlled by one ruler or government; battle n: a ght between armies; demigod n: powerful person treated like a god; half man and half god; conquer v: take land by ghting a war.

Alexander the Great

Copy of a bust of Alexander (British Museum)

The Legend and the Man

It is difcult to draw an accurate portrait of Alexander because most of the contemporary sources have been lost. The most important descriptions of Alexanders life were written hundreds of years after his death. Even in his life time myths and legends surrounded the great man so it is often difcult to distinguish between truth and legend. If a modern reader or historian wants to explore Alexanders character and to interpret his behaviour, he is often forced to speculate. Alexander ghting a lion. 3rd century BC mosaic. Pella Museum, Greece. famous Greek hero Achilles became a role model for the young prince. The Greek philosopher Aristotle was in charge of Alexanders education from the age of 14 onwards. What famous epic poems did Homer write? At the age of 16 Alexander had his rst direct experience with war: During his fathers absence he negotiated with a Persian envoy and led a campaign against a neighbouring tribe. From that time on Alexander became one his fathers most important helpers.

other parts of Greece, which had a great inuence on Alexanders character. For centuries the Macedonians had had to ght against aggressive neighbouring tribes. These constant ghts shaped the Macedonian culture: ghting, horse-riding and hunting wild animals became a central part of a young mans education. You were not regarded as a real man if you had not killed a wild boar on a Early Life hunt or a man in battle. Drinking parties Alexander was the son of King Philip II (382- (symposium) were also very popular, being 336)1 of Macedon. The Macedonians lived in able to hold your drink was highly regarded.2 northern Greece and spoke a Greek dialect. They were, however, regarded as barbarians Intellectual education concentrated on studyby their southern brothers. As a matter fact, ing literature. The heroic deeds of the heroes life in Macedon was a little rougher than in in Homers epics inspired Alexander, the

The Rise of Macedon

For centuries Macedon had been in the shadow of the powerful Greek cities of Athens and Sparta. The ancient rivalry between the two most important city states culminated in the Peloponnesian War (431-404). This epic struggle ended with the defeat of Athens, whose power was forever destroyed. Sparta had won the war but was seriously weakened. This caused a power vacuum which was lled by Macedon under Philip II. The Macedonian king conquered the northern part of Greece and then formed the League of Corinth, a confederation of Greek states controlled by Macedon. Macedon had become the most powerful of all the Greek states. Alexander had led the cavalry in the Battle of Chaeronea (338), which played an important part in the Macedonian victory. He was only 18.

Symposium Symposium originally referred to a drinking party (the Greek verb sympotein means " to drink a lot " ) but has since come to refer to any academic conference whether or not drinking takes place. Symposia were an important social institution in ancient Greece. They were a forum for men to debate, plot, boast, or simply to party. They were frequently held to celebrate the introduction of youths into aristocratic society. A youth would attend as the companion and beloved of an adult with whom he was involved in a pederastic relationship. Symposia were also held by aristocrats to celebrate other special occasions, such as victories in athletic and poetic contests. Symposia were usually held in the men's quarters of the household. Singly or in pairs, the men would lie on couches positioned against the walls of the room. Food, wine (usually mixed with water and served by nude young men), and entertainment was provided, and depending on the occasion could include games, songs, utegirls and slaves performing various acts.

accurate adj: correct, precise, true; contemporary adj: happening or existing at the same period of time; source n: documents etc that give you historical information; distinguish v: tell the difference; tribe n: group of people who have the same beliefs, customs, language etc; boar n: male pig; deed n: action; role model n: person you admire and want to imitate; negotiate v: verhandeln; envoy n: Gesandter; campaign n: a series of military actions; struggle n: long ght

1 2

All dates are BC. They were perfectly right, of course.

Famous LIves

Alexander Becomes King (336)

In 336 Philip II was murdered. Because Alexander had had a serious quarrel with his father, suspicion fell on Alexander. It is not completely impossible but rather unlikely that he was involved in the murder of his father. What reason may Alexander have had for killing his father? The succession to the Macedonian throne was not automatic but it was clear that Alexander would follow his father. Philip only had two sons and Alexanders brother was physically handicapped. Alexander was proclaimed king and immediately had all his potential rivals killed. Soon afterwards he led several campaigns against various tribes in the Balkans, traditional enemies of the Macedonians. Why did Alexander attack the Balkan tribes? When the Greek city of Thebes heard the rumour that Alexander had died in a battle, they called on other Greek cities to stand up against the Macedonians. Alexander heard

about this treason, marched with his troops to Thebes and stormed the city. 6,000 Thebans were killed, the rest were sold into slavery. He then ordered the city to be razed to the ground (335). He spared, however, the city of Athens, which had joined the Theban rebellion. Why did Alexander punish Thebes so drastically? Why did Alexander spare Athens?

In 334 Alexander crossed the strait between Europe and Asia with 40,000 troops. This was a monumental event to Alexander so he marked it with a number of symbolic acts. On landing on Asian soil, for instance, he rammed a spear into the ground and jumped off the boat in full armour. Afterwards Alexander went to the place of ancient Troy, made some sacrices and put down a wreath at the (alleged) tomb of Achilles. Why did Alexander celebrate the crossing to Asia? Why did Alexander go to Achilles tomb? The Persian side was prepared. The satraps (governors) of the provinces in Asia Minor were waiting for Alexander and were willing to face him in battle. The Greek commanders of the Persian troops advised the satraps to avoid direct confrontation against Alexander. They suggested using scorched earth tactics instead. The Satraps rejected the advice. What are scorched earth tactics? Why did the Persian governors reject them?

The Campaign against Persia, Part One: Asia Minor (334-333)

Persia had been an enemy of Greece for more than 150 years. In the sea battle at Salamis (480) Athens had defeated the Persian eet decisively and saved Greece from being conquered by the Persians. However, the Greek cities in Asia Minor had become part of the Persian Empire. These cities were Alexanders rst target in his campaign against Persia. Ofcially, he was leading a campaign of revenge against Persia but at this stage Alexander was mainly trying to strengthen the Macedonian power in the Mediterranean Sea.

quarrel n: ght, argument; suspicion n: feeling that sb is guilty of a crime; proclaim v: say publicly; rumour n: information that may not be true; treason n: Verrat; spare sb v: not punish; defeat v: win against; eet n: group of war ships; target n: object of an attack; revenge n: Rache; strengthen v: make stronger; strait(s) n: a narrow part of an ocean; soil n: ground, earth; armour n: metal protection worn by soldiers in battle; sacrice n: an offering to a god; wreath: Kranz; alleged adj: believed to be; tomb n [tu:m]: place where sb is buried (usu above ground); governor n: person in charge or running a country that is part of a larger empire; avoid v: vermeiden; scorched adj: burnt; reject v: not take, not accept.

Alexander the Great

Part of the Alexander Mosaic: Darius on his chariot In May 334 the rst battle between Greeks and Persians occurred. Alexander used unusual tactics: He rode at the front of his cavalry and attacked the enemy frontally. The element of surprise helped the Greeks to win the battle but Alexander almost fell victim to his own courage, just barely avoiding being killed. After the battle the Greek mercenaries ghting on the Persian side were all killed. Why did Alex have the Greek mercenaries killed? Why did he not integrate these experienced soldiers into his own army, which was relatively small? In the following months Alexander brought the western half of Asia Minor under his control. Alexander had to lay siege to some cities, others joined him without a ght. Because he could not be present everywhere, he usually handed the government of the cities to old Greek families. The incredible success of the young commander He was only 22! led to the creation of many legends surrounding the Macedonian leader. Alexander supported this development because he loved to be regarded as a hero like the great Achilles. The most famous legend was the story of Alexander cutting the Gor- ius. The Great King standing on a gilded dian knot3 . chariot surrounded by 2,000 guards for proThe Persian Great King Darius III (380-330) tection panicked and ordered a retreat. It had come to power in 336. After the defeats of was a total victory for Alexander. The Greeks his satraps against Alexander Darius was also captured the royal household, including forced to take control of his army himself and the war chest and the ladies of the Great to move to Asia Minor. Alexander expected King. that. Moving south towards Cilicia, the Macedonian commander knew that he would meet the main Persian force. Alexander sought the direct confrontation with the heart of the opponent, in the same way as he frontally attacked the strongest part of an enemy during battle. Darius was looking for the great battle too. As the Great King of the largest empire the world had ever seen to that day, he could not simply sit back. He had to defend his country personally by crushing the enemy. It certainly helped that Darius army was two or three times as large as Alexanders.4 At Issos the two armies met. Why were chariots used in these battles? What were the advantages and disadvantages? The reputation of Persia and its king was seriously damaged. Alexander, however, let Darius escape. He decided to consolidate his power in the Mediterranean. He needed to bring the harbour towns on the coast of modern Lebanon and Israel under his control because the Persian eet was based in these ports. Most ports offered no resistance and capitulated when Alexanders army appeared outside the city gates.

There was one exception: Tyre, the most important and proudest town in the area. The Issos (333)5 and Its Consequences citizens of Tyre refused to allow Alexander to Again Alexander tried to attack the centre of enter their town. They felt safe because their the enemy forces. After some initial problems town was located on small island off the coast he nally managed to appear in front of Dar- and had never been conquered before. It was,

occur v: happen; victim n: person hurt or killed in an accident, battle etc; mercenary n: professional soldier; siege n: Belagerung; support v: help; development n: Entwicklung; force n: army; sought v: looked for; opponent n: enemy; crush v: destroy; initial adj: in the beginning; gilded adj: mit Gold beschlagen; retreat n: movement away from the enemy; war chest n: large box of wood lled with gold, money etc; reputation n: Ruf; damage v: hurt; resistance n: ghting against sth.

An ancient ox-cart, often shown as a chariot, was kept in the palace at Gordion. It was tied to a post with a complicated knot nobody had ever been able to untie. According to a prophecy the person who would untie the knot would become the king of Asia (Asia Minor). When Alexander arrived at Gordion he simply cut the knot in two with his sword. The story is probably just a legend but it is typical of Alexanders way of solving problems. 4 The Persian king was travelling with a huge train including a harem. We understand. 5 Ein Vers aus guten, alten Schulzeiten: Bei Issos 333, grosse Keilerei.

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of course, a bad mistake. Alexander was furious and vowed to take Tyre. The following siege lasted 8 months and Alexander had an enormous dam built to connect the island with the mainland. In August 332 Tyre was nally conquered. Alexander made an example of its inhabitants and punished them harshly. 2,000 men were nailed to the cross along the coast.

a ght. Alexander then paid his respects to the Egyptian gods, showing everyone that he did not intend to replace Egyptian traditions with Greek culture. Egypts elite therefore accepted Alexander as their new ruler and even crowned him as the new pharaoh. Alexander ordered a new town to be built in the Nile delta and called it Alexandria.

The Decision: The Battle of Gaugamela (331)

Alexander then moved towards the heart of the Persian Empire. He marched through Mesopotamia and crossed the river Tigris, knowing that Darius was waiting for him on the other side. The Great King was seeking the decisive battle, bringing scythed chariots and Indian war elephants into the battle. The Battle of Gaugamela ended like the Battle of Issos. Again Alexander was able to push forward and reach Darius, and again the Great King lost his nerve and ran. Alexander let his opponent escape again. Still on the battleeld, Alexander had himself proclaimed King of Asia. It was not simply Alexanders aim to weaken his opponent or even defeat him, he wanted to become the new ruler of the Persian Empire. But ruling a country is usually a lot more difcult than conquering it.

Why did Alexander found a town in Egypt? Darius began negotiations with Alexander. Why did he call it Alexandria? Their details are unclear but it seems that the Alexander then travelled into the Libyan dePersian ruler made the Greek commander a sert to visit the oracle at Siwa oasis. As phargenerous offer. Typically, Alexander was not aoh Alexander was the son of the god Amun, satised with merely keeping what he had one of the most powerful Egyptian gods. The achieved. He wanted more, he wanted every- Greeks identied Amun with their own god thing. He was ready to ght Darius for the Zeus. By visiting the Siwa oracle which was ultimate prize: the Persian Empire. It is likely dedicated to Amun Alexander showed the that Alexander was already thinking of ruling whole world that he saw himself as the son of the entire world, which meant the whole in- a god (Amun-Zeus). It is not known what habited world as it was known to the Greeks questions Alexander asked the oracle nor (oikumene). what answers he received. It is, however, quite possible that Alexander asked whether he should try to conquer the whole world, Alexander marched his army to Egypt, which and that the answer was yes. belonged to the Persian Empire as well. He met with no resistance, the Persian satrap Where was the most famous oracle of ancient handed over the province without putting up Greece located?

Alexander in Egypt (331)

vow v: schwren; inhabitants n: people who live in a town, country etc; generous adj: grosszgig; rule v: be the master of; desert n: extremely dry area; dedicate v: widmen, weihen; decisive adj: entscheidend; scythe n: Sense.

Alexander the Great

At the Heart of the Persian Empire (331/330)

After the victorious Battle of Gaugamela Alexander moved east towards the centres of the Persian Empire. The rst major city he reached was Babylon, one of the most famous and historic towns of the time. The Babylonians welcomed the 25-year-old Macedonian enthusiastically as their new ruler. In the opinion of Babylons citizens, Alexander was liberating them from Persian rule. Like in Egypt Alexander paid his respects to the local gods and arranged himself with the local leaders. Military command, however, was given to Greek ofcers. What are the advantages and disadvantages of such a procedure? On his way to Persepolis, the capital of the empire, the Greeks met with some resistance. So on marching into the city Alexander allowed his soldier to pillage the town. Afterwards, however, Alexander paid his respects to Cyrus, the founder of the Persian Empire. It was obvious that Alexander no longer considered himself just as a conqueror but as the legitimate successor of the oriental rulers.

In the Imperial Palace at Persepolis The Achaemenid Persian Empire (559-338) The dynasty of the Achaemenids were the rst to create a centralized state in Persia what is now Iran. The rst Persian Empire was the largest and most powerful empire that world had yet seen. In its time it was a superpower with high cultural and economical achievements. It was also well managed and organized. The 20 provinces were linked with highways, the most famous being the Royal Road from Susa to Sardis: Persian couriers were able to travel 2,500 km in seven days. The Persian Empire was ruled by kings, there was no democratic tradition like in Greece. But the Persian rulers allowed the local cultures to survive if they did not threaten their power. Slavery was outlawed and every worker was compensated unlike in Greece, where slavery was common. The Achaemenid Empire united people and kingdoms from every major civilization in south west Asia. For the rst time in history, people from very dierent cultures were in contact with one another under one ruler.

Alexander stayed in Persepolis for several months. At the end of his stay Alexander himself and a few ofcers set re to the imperial palace. One must assume that the Macedonians were completely drunk. As long as Darius was not defeated, the war against Persia was not yet won. Alexander now decided to pursue Darius and defeat him decisively. The Great King did not engage in battle that time and ed to the east of his empire to organise resistance against Alexander. Darius had however lost a lot of respect because he had twice escaped from the battleeld. On his ight from Alexander Darius was captured by Bessus, his satrap in Bactria and the leader of eastern Persian tribes. As Alexanders troops were coming closer, Darius was stabbed. Bessus probably killed Darius because he was afraid that the Great King would give up and transfer his power to the Greek conqueror. When Alexander arrived, Darius was dead. The winner of the great struggle for the power in Asia was standing above his rivals corpse.

of the Great King. He paid full respect to Darius and gave him a magnicent funeral. Why did Alexander make sure that Darius was given a proper funeral at which he himself was present?

Alexander in Central Asia (329-327)

Alexander took on another important task of a legitimate new ruler: He vowed to take revenge on the murderers of the previous king. Alexander went off in pursuit of Bessus, Darius murderer and captured him in Bactria, Central Asia. Bessus was punished harshly.6

Glazed Relief in the Palace at Susa Immortals Immortals were the elite bodyguards of the Persian King. They always numbered 10,000 men.

Alexander conquered Bactria with little resistance. He then crossed the passes of the Hindu Kush mountain range, reaching Sogdiana and the river Yaxartes. The Yaxartes clearly marked the end of cultivated land and the beginning of the empty desert steppe. Alexander believed that he had reached one end of the world. He therefore founded a town he called Alexandreia Eschate (The Furthest Alexandria). Alexanders great viAlexanders reaction to Darius death was sion to rule all of the inhabited (and known) unmistakable: He was ready to take the place world was becoming more and more obvious.

enthusiastically v: with great joy; liberate v: free; procedure n: the way things are done; pillage v: plndern; consider v: regard; legitimate adj: having the right to do sth; pursue v: follow; ed: past form of ee (escape); stab v: wound or kill with a sharp item, like a knife etc; corpse n: dead body; unmistakable adj: it cannot be misunderstood; funeral n: act when a person is buried; task n: job; previous adj: the one before; go off in pursuit n: follow.
6

Naked, and wearing a neck iron, Bessus was forced to walk along the entire Macedonian army. Later Alexander ordered Bessus nose and ears to be cut off because rebels and murderers of kings were usually punished like that in Persia. Bessus was then sent to Ecbatana, where he was probably decapitated or crucied.

Famous LIves

F At rst Sogdiana had offered little resistance. But it soon became clear that the conquest had been deceptively easy. The Sogdian and Bactrian riders started a guerilla war, which caused Alexander great problems. What is a guerilla war? Why was it difcult for Alexanders army to win it?

When Alexander realized that it would be very difcult to defeat the Bactrians and Sogdians, he looked for a different way to win their loyalty and support. So when a Sogdian nobleman offered Alexander his daughters hand in marriage, he accepted. Alexander married Roxana (Rashanak Little Star) in Hephaistion saves Alexanders life while hunting lions 327. Roxanas father got a high position in Alexander then moved even further east to and offered a sacrice to Poseidon. At least in Alexanders army. reach the end of the world at last. But the this area he had reached the end of the world. During a drinking party at Maracanda (Sa- closer he seemed to get, the further away it The Disastrous March (325) markand) one of Alexanders best friends he seemed to be. How large was India? Alexanwas completely drunk dared to criticise the der collected geographical information which When it had become clear that the Indus was famous commander and king. Alexander, just suggested that the end of the world was much not connected to the Nile, Alexander wanted as drunk, grabbed the lance of guard standing further than he had expected. He was told the to explore the sea route to the mouth of the Tigris. It was uncharted territory, so the eet by and ran it through his friend, killing him. Indus river was not the upper part of the Nile, had to be supplied by troops following it on but owed into an ocean instead. Further- land. This procedure was not unusual because To the End of World (326) more, to the east there was said to be a huge Greek ships traditionally followed the coastAlexander seems to have been fascinated by river leading to a different ocean. lines. However, Alexander set off with 60,000 the idea of reaching the end of the world. In What river was that? When did Buddha live? troops, which was hardly necessary to supply 326 he moved eastwards to India. In the Greek the eet. The problem was that the land route view of the world India meant the northern To make matters even worse, the monsoon led through the Gedrosian desert, which was part of the Indus valley in modern-day Paki- started. Heavy, seasonal rain was a meteorosaid to be impassable with a great army. It has stan. They believed that the Indus and the logical phenomenon the Greeks did not know been said that Alexander was ready to go on Nile were the same river. at all. The rain turned the land into a sea of this extremely dangerous march because he Alexanders troops crossed the Khyber Pass, mud. The bad weather, constant attacks by the wanted to take revenge on his troops who had which connects modern-day Afghanistan with local population and the growing awareness let him down in India. Aanother explanation the Indus river basin. In spring 326 they that the end of the world was impossible to is more likely: Alexander knew stories about crossed the mighty river and were confronted reach turned Alexanders march into a horror other great leaders who had failed to cross the with the army of an Indian Raja who refused trip. After 70 days of gruelling marching Al- desert. He certainly saw this as a challenge: to accept the Macedonian as the new ruler. exanders army reached the Hyphasis. It was He wanted to show the world that he could Alexander defeated the Indians in what was then that Alexanders men for the very rst do it, and he was denitely willing to risk the to be the last major battle of his conquest. time refused to follow their leaders order. lives of thousands of his men. However, Alexanders horse Bucephalus, Alexander wanted to march on but his men which he had received at the age of 12, died in had had enough. The invincible commander The troops were soon forced to leave the coast battle. Alexander promptly founded a city in retired to his tent, stayed there for three days and march inland through the desert. Quickand nally declared that he had decided to sand, ash oods and above all a dramatic honour of the horse. turn back. Alexanders decision may have lack of water led to a catastrophe: only 15,000 been inuenced by the awareness that it men reached the end of the desert after 60 would been very difcult to integrate the days of marching. The eet was in great troustrange culture of the Indian peoples into his ble as well but nally managed to reach the empire. At any rate, it must have been ex- mouth of the Tigris and sailed upstream to tremely difcult for Alexander to give up Susa. The naval expedition was a success. before reaching his goal. He felt that his men Alexander as Great King had let him down at a crucial moment. Alexanders long absence had caused great When they had rst crossed the Hydaspes, problems in various parts of the empire. There Alexander had ordered a eet to be built. were minor rebellions; some of the governors When he returned, the ships were ready. SailAlexander had installed were abusing their ing south, the Greek ships were attacked sevpower; some Persian and Greek ofcers had eral times and Alexander was wounded by an shown a great lack of discipline. Of course, arrow, but they nally reached the Indian Alexander could not accept this behaviour. On Ocean. Alexander sailed out to the open sea Indian War Elephant his return he punished them harshly.
deceptively adv: trgerisch; dare v: have the courage; raja: king, prince; mud n: Schlamm; awareness n: realization; goal n: Ziel; crucial adj: decisive; disastrous adj: catastrophic; uncharted adj: no maps existed; supply v: give food, drink etc; impassable adj: impossible to cross; challenge n: Herausforderung; quicksand n: Treibsand; ash ood n: sudden oods caused by heavy rain; lack of sth n: Mangel an.

Alexander the Great

It had become obvious that Alexander had not simply led a campaign against Persia to defeat his most powerful enemy, he had conquered the Persian Empire to rule it. Darius death did not mean the end of the campaign: Alexander did not want to return home. Alexanders troops accepted this decision but some of the Macedonian noblemen were worried. Why did the troops and some noblemen see Alexanders decision differently? There seems to have been a power struggle in the Greek camp. When Alexander realized that his position was threatened, he reacted in typical fashion: unscrupulously. Philotas, one of Alexanders most important ofcers, was accused of conspiring against the king and was executed. Alexander followed a clear strategy as far as ruling his empire was concerned: He tried to fuse the two cultures. His appearance as Great King was a blend of Greek and oriental elements. Initially he also kept the Persian custom of proskynesis: When subjects approached the king, they had bow down completely and kiss towards the ruler. The Greeks hated this practise so much, that Alexander did not always insist on it. Why did the Greeks hate proskynesis ? An event in Susa illustrated how Alexander saw the future of his empire: Together with 90 of his most important Macedonian followers he married women from the Persian aristocracy. (High-ranking Persians were allowed to have more than one wife.) In another mass ceremony 10,000 Macedonian ofcers and soldiers married Persian women. What was the purpose of those mass marriages? Proskynesis at the Court of Darius I Alexander had not lost his will to lead military campaigns if he thought they were necessary. The kings next target was the Arabian peninsula. Arabian Bedouins had made raids on towns and villages in Mesopotamia for centuries. It seems that Alexander wanted to solve the age-old problem by conquering Arabia and integrating it into his empire. What strategic advantage would a conquest of Arabia have had?

The Signicance of Alexanders Conquests: The Hellenistic Era (330-30)

The three centuries following Alexanders death are called the Hellenistic era. Greek soldiers had settled in the numerous cities Alexander had founded in many strategically important locations. Most of these towns prospered and grew into economic and cultural centres which helped to spread Greek culture in the east. Greek was becoming the dominant language of western Asia and the eastern Mediterranean. In the Hellenistic era the heritage of classical Greece was kept alive, but it was also a period of great achievements in art, philosophy and science. The knowledge of the world was collected and put into libraries, the most famous being the library at Alexandria in Egypt.

The Death of Alexander (323)

Shortly before the Arabian campaign started, Alexander fell ill and died a week later, on 10 June 323, in Babylon. He was not even 33 years old. Of course, there have always been rumours that Alexander died an unnatural death, that he was poisoned. They are probably not true. It is much more likely that Alexander died of malaria. His body may have been seriously weakened by heavy drinking and various severe wounds he had suffered during his campaigns. But the truth will never be known. Alexander was buried at Siwa oasis.

The Succession
Alexanders empire did not survive when its founder and ruler died. Several men called Diadochi were ghting each other to become Alexanders successor. None of them was strong enough to defeat his enemies decisively, so the empire was divided into several parts. These new states and kingdoms later saw themselves confronted with a rising power which was rapidly expanding into the Eastern Mediterranean: the Roman Empire. The last kingdom to be conquered by the Romans was Egypt. It ended when Cleopatra, the last ruler of the Ptolemaic Empire, committed suicide in 30 BC. How did Cleopatra, according to legend, kill herself?

Alexander respected local structures and hierarchies but again and again he showed that he himself stood above everybody and everything. In case of doubt, his command was the law. With a single gesture Alexander could pardon somebody or have them killed. Persia was his personal empire: an egocracy, as it Alexanders Sexuality were. The sources concerning Alexanders sexuality Alexander did not choose one place as a per- contradict each other (which is true of most manent residence but constantly moved with aspects of his life). It is generally assumed that his train between the centres of the empire. Alexander had sexual intercourse with both The real centre was where the king was. Alex- women and men. Sexual relations between members of the same sex were nothing exander was always on the move. traordinary among ancient Greeks. It is hard What are the advantages and disadvantages of to believe that Alexander, whose friendship such a procedure? with several men was very profound, was an exception.

conspire v: take part in a conspiracy (Verschwrung); fuse v: verschmelzen; subject n: Untertan; insist on v: bestehen auf; pardon v: forgive; peninsula n: Halbinsel; raid n: attacks to rob and steal things; contradict v: say opposite things; settle v: stay to live; heritage n: Erbe; achievements n: Leistungen.

Famous LIves