Abstract

Impacts of tourism on the leisure patterns and preferences of destination residents are examined, commencing with concepts and issues drawn from pertinent literature. A longitudinal case study of the development and impacts of tourism in Spey Valley, Scotland provides specific supporting data, particularly from surveys of local high school students. Findings reveal how the interactions of supply (mainly new facilities) and demand factors (including visitor numbers and the demonstration effect) interact with local sociocultural dynamics and the general environment to generate impacts. Implications are drawn for future research and for tourism planning.

Impacts of Tourism on Residents' Leisure:

Concepts, and a longitudinal case study of Spey Valley, Scotland
Donald Getz

Introduction Researchers have long commented upon the influence of tourism on the culture and social life of host populations, including new leisure opportunities and changes in resident behaviour. As well, many attitude or perception surveys undertaken in a variety of international destinations have included questions specific to residents' leisure. However, there has been little published in the way of detailed case studies or longitudinal changes, from which causal relationships might be identified. This paper examines related literature on impacts and draws evidence from a longitudinal case study of tourism development and impacts in the Badenoch and Strathspey District (called Spey Valley) of the central Scottish Highlands. Data on residents' leisure preferences and patterns were first obtained in random household interviews and from a questionnaire survey of high school students undertaken in 1978. Subsequent surveys conducted in 1992 included points of direct comparison on leisure issues. Analysis of the data is placed in the context of long-term changes in the tourism industry and its impacts on this rural area.

Dr Donald Getz is Associate Professor of Tourism and Hospitality, Management at the University of Calgary. He specialises in tourism planning, impact assessment and event tourism.

Specific causal factors are identified, both supply and demand, but the long-term influence of general cultural and societal factors is more complex and cannot easily be explained. Implications are drawn for tourism planning and further research. THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 4, No. 2, DEC.'93 33

Concepts and issues identified through literature review Several themes have been identified from the a vailable literature on tourism and its effects on residents' leisure. They range from a straight-forward listing of leisure-related developments to comparative assessments of resident perceptions of impacts and attitudes towards tourism. Table 1 summarises the literature discussed below by presenting in chronological order the cited references and major points of relevance. Development of infrastructure Most assessments of tou rism developments include a listing of infrastructural improvements, including leisure facilities. For exa mple, new recreational, sh opping, entertainment a nd cultural facilities brought to Queenstown in New Zealand were documented by Pearce and Cant (1981). In ma ny areas, such facilities would not be feasible without the demand generated by tourists or by resultant population growth. However, the actual use by residents of new leisure opportu nities, and its sociocultural significance, has not been examined in great detail. Congestion and conflicts Both benefits and costs are felt most acutely by residen ts of resorts and in other places where concentrations of tourists exceed the resident population, at least during the peak season. In New Zealand, Garland (1984) examined three tourist-oriented communities and found that residents held positive attitudes toward tourism. Th is reflected the improved provision of community facilities, encompassing sports, culture, and recreation. On the other hand, the same residents viewed negatively the increasing prices and congestion brought by tourism. Pearce and Cant (1981) revealed similar appreh ension s in the resort town of Queenstown, where residents were very negative about price increases. Queenstowners 34

Table 1: Research on the Impacts of Tourism on Residents' Leisure. Author/Date Study Area Key Findings

Frey 1970

Switzerland - altered work patterns disrupt family life; less free time; demonstration effect as locals take up new sports; traditional pursuits decline - residents' organised leisure declines during peak tourist seasons; some mutually satisfactory leisure exchanges occur;traditional ceilidhs declined - leisure facilities had improved - revitalised crafts and arts; new folklore clubs for training performers - increased activity in Black social/sport clubs but concomitant decline in traditional lodges - residents displayed phoney folk culture for tourists, sustained their own culture in the off seasons

Brougham and Skye Butler 1977 Scotland ETB 1977 Andronicou Manning 1979 Jordan 1980 Eastbourne England Cyprus Bermuda Vermont U.S.A.

Pearce and Cant 1981 D'Amore 1983

Queenstown - new leisure facilities built; residents preferred New Zealand more for families and youth British Columbia Canada - residents feared loss of traditional game and fish resources

Garland 1984

New Zealand - new leisure facilities viewed positively, but higher prices and congestion were negatives - residents felt tourism brought them more parks and recreation, greater entertainment variety, and also more crowding - a minority of residents believed that tourism had n eg at ive i mpa ct s on r es iden ts ' lei su re opportunities, especially during peak season - a vast majority believed tourism increased their entertainment choice and encouraged a variety of cultural activities - in all three countries residents felt tourism to be a positive influence on cultural activities and entertainment facilities

Sheldon & Var Wales 1984 Liu & Var 1986 Hawaii

Liu, Sheldon & Var 1987 NZTPD 1988, 1992 McKean 1990 Smith 1990 Perdue, Long, & Allen 1990

Turkey Hawaii Wales

New Zealand - irritation levels highest where dependency and sea son ali ty w er e gre ates t; ben efi ts s till acknowledged Bali Indonesia - revitalization of folk arts - revival of Eskimo crafts, dance, music and sport

Alaska U.S.A. Colorado U.S.A.

- residents did not believe tourism reduced outdoor recreation quality - residents did believe tourism increases recreation for locals - residents thought tourism brought better shopping, cultural arts and improved quality of life - tourism encourages cultural activities, more parks and recreation areas, but some overcrowding - tour operators sometimes in conflict with residents over access to fishing lakes - youth, especially males, changed attitudes and leisure behaviour; traditional feasts abandoned

Schroeder 1990 Flagstaff Arizona U.S.A. Snepenger and Johnson 1991 Montana U.S.A.

McKercher 1992 Ontario Canada Tsartas 1992 Greece

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were also found to be unhappy about the range of facilities and leisure opportunities oriented towards tourists - they desired more leisure opportun ities for families and youth. Also in that country (New Zealand Tourist and Publicity Department 1988, 1992), a Tourism Acceptance Index was developed from resident surveys in v arious com munities. Data supported the hypothesis tha t areas with the highest seasonality and greatest economic dependence are most likely to be irritated by tourism, while at the same time acknowledging its benefits. This result reflects in part the underlying theory of Doxey's (1975) Irridex - that resident attitudes become more negative over time, as the costs of tourism become more evident. Seasonal peaks in tourist demand affect residents' leisure patterns, such that it might be more difficult for them to gain access to parks and facilities. Facilities might become so crowded that their amenity value is diminished. In a Hawaiian survey (Liu & Var, 1986), 32% of respondents agreed that it was ha rder to get tickets for entertainment or sports events during the peak tourist season. Similarly, changing seasonal demand led Jordan (1980) to model the "Vermont Vacation Village" wherein the residents displayed a "phoney folk culture" for the tourists and reverted to their own culture during the off-season. In the Sleat area of the Isle of Skye in Scotland, Brougham and Butler (1977) found that orga nised recreation activities, like the drama club, declined during the peak tourist season. Cultural change Tourism can help preserve or revitalise traditional cultural pursuits, such as folk arts, dance, mu sic, festiva ls and games, a s observed am ong the Alaskan Eskimo (Smith, 1990), in Bali (McKean, 1990), and in Cyprus (Andronicou 1979). Manning (1979) found that tourism was partially responsible for the growth of social clubs for blacks in Bermuda, but

the new clubs stressed sports and drinking, whereas traditional lodges had stressed temperance. Indeed, tourism's social and cultural effects are often mixed, an d open to value-based interpretation. The "demonstration effect" of tourists engaged in leisure behaviour can influence residents, and the cultural distance between hosts and guests might exacerbate these influences. For example, Tsartas (1992) reported on two Greek Islands where tou rism greatly influenced youth, especially the males, in terms of attitudes and behaviour. They came to want a more modern life style, and were accused by other residents of spending too much time in bars and pursuing female tourists, while traditional feasts were abandoned. More direct cultural impacts can occur. For example, Brougham and Butler (1977) found that traditions like ceilidhs (informal musical gettogethers) had declined on the Sleat area of the Isle of Skye, owing to takeover of housing by second home owners. The seasonal occupants avoided contact with locals and the displacement of perm anent residents helped cause depopulated village s. Wall and Ma th ieson (1982) suggested that tourism can disrupt community bonds and reduce local cohesiveness, resulting in declining membership in groups. Social exchange between hosts and guests is a theme covered in many research reports. While Doxey (1975) and others have argued that residents are likely to become more antagonistic to tourism and visitors over time, others believe that this type of interaction is positive. Social interaction has even been sta ted by some residents as a reason for being in the tourism industry (especially bed and breakfast enterprises). In New Zealand, Simmons and Devlin (1986) suggested that most hostgu est interactions are likely to occur in outdoor recreation settings, which can provide for positive social exchange. In their study of tourism impacts on the Isle of Skye, Brougham and Butler (1977) found that residents and tourists had

mutually satisfactory exchanges at the local sailing club. Frey's (1970) study of the impacts of mass tourism in a rural commune in Switzerland provided insights on both general and specific causal mechanisms. The general conclusion was that tourism accelerates social and cultural change processes. With regard to leisure, Frey found that altered work patterns stemming from tourism led to a disruption of family life and altered leisure patterns - indeed, people often had less free time. A demonstration effect was also observed, resulting in more participation by locals in new, formal sports clubs (which alienated some residents) and less participation in traditional, voluntary associations. Church activities declined and some cultural elements went "underground". Once certain traditions had been abandoned by the accultura ting residen ts, interest in "preserving" distinct cultural elements for tourist consumption arose, but the results reflected a m ore inauthen tic, regional culture. Residents' perceptions and attitudes Many studies have employed similar scales to measure resident perceptions of tourism impacts, or attitudes towards the industry, including items specific to leisure. The researchers' inclusion of specific items in these surveys does shape the range of responses, as opposed to unstructured probing, but researchers have generally based their instruments on prior evaluation of local conditions and issues to en sure a reasonable degree of validity. Som e of the earliest resident surveys pertaining to tourism were conducted in England (English Tourist Board, n.d.) from 1972 through 1979. For example, the Eastbourne survey in 1977 found that about 20% of respondents thought the town's amenities were better because of tourism, but the same proportion thought crowding was a problem. There was definite 35

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agreement with the statement: "Tourism means that good leisure facilities are available that local people can enjoy". Local tourist attraction s were well used by residents, and they particularly enjoyed the year-round events at the congress centre. Liu, Sheldon and Var (1 987) reported on resident surveys they conducted in Hawaii, North Wales and Istanbul, Turkey. In all three samples there was a high level of agreement th at tourism was a positive influence on cultural activities a nd entertainm ent facilities. In their analysis of the North Wales survey, Sheldon and Var (1984) reported that 66% of sampled residents agreed that tourism brought more parks and recreation areas for locals, and 62% agreed that it brought greater entertainment variety. Perdue, Long and Allen (1990) studied 16 Colorado communities and found that residents did not feel tourism had reduced outdoor recreation quality and did believe strongly, overall, that tourism development increases the number of recreation opportunities for locals. In Montana, Snepenger and Johnson (1991) discovered that respondents agreed highly that tourism encourages cultural activities by residents. Those sampled were also positive that tourism leads to more parks and recreation areas, and there was some agreement that overcrowding of outdoor recreation places does result. The Sheldon and Var (1984) study in North Wales found that 45% of respondents agreed that tourism caused crowding in outdoor recreation places used by residents. Residents of Flagstaff, Arizona were ca nvassed by Schroeder (1990). Positive impacts of tourism identified by residents included shopping, availability of cultural arts, and the overall quality of life. Tourism and residents' leisure in Spey Valley, Scotland As part of a comprehensive, longitudinal evaluation of the dev elopment and impacts of 36

tourism in the Badenoch and Strathspey District of the central Scottish Highlands (called Spey Valley), an assessment has been made of impacts on residents' leisure patterns and preferences. Surveys of residents were undertaken in 1978 and again in 1992, yielding pertinent information from a random sample of households and a non-random sample of high school students. Development of the tourism industry The modern era of tourism in Spey Valley beg an in the 1950s and 1960s with modest skiing developments at Cairngorm mountain, near the small village of Aviemore. In 1966, a government-industry partnership resulted in development of the first all-year resort

The Aviemore Centre - UK's first all year resort facility - debate focussed on its controversial architecture and recreational activities.

facility in the U.K., called Aviemore Centre. The new resort facility included the area's first indoor swimming pool and ice arena, cinema/theatre, go-kart track, and amusement arcade, and it became an instant magnet - especially for youth. Its modern architectural style was controversial, particularly as several tall hotels are visually predominant in an otherwise rural area, and there has been lasting debate over the appropriateness of some of the recreational activities as well as the number of bars. In 1978 the accommodation capacity of the Aviemo re Centre was approximately 1300 persons in 450 hotel rooms, plus an additional 90 carava n pitches. Su bseq uent additions were in the form of timeshare units (for more details see Getz, 1981; 1982; 1986). Tourism quickly came to dominate the local economy and its influence spread to the other villages in this district. Growth in developments and tourist numbers was

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experienced through the 1970s, but recessions in the early 1980s and again in the early 1990s have had a major impact on the industry, resulting in a number of business failures and considerable concern about tourism's future. Several bad skiing seasons in the late 1980s and early 1990s also had a negative impact on demand, revealing one major cost of dependency on weather and climate. Even so, in 1993 the area remains popular with ma ny tourists who seek outdoor pursuits and the quiet atmosphere outside Aviemore. Self-catering accommodation was a major growth sector through the 1980s, and new activities and packages have been developed for outdoor enthusiasts. S kiing demand can rebound quickly with improved snow and weather conditions. The initial resort concept was to provide all-weather facilities to complement the outdoor attractions of the area. Nevertheless, over the years the Aviemore Centre sought wider and wider market segments and tried to be an attraction in its own right. By the late 1980s this strategy was clearly not working, in part owing to ownership changes, a failure to reinvest in upgrading the facility, a nd a resultant marked decline in the Centre's physical attractiveness. In 1986 Stakis bought the Centre from Fraser - Highland Tourist Ltd. and a year later permanently closed one of the attractions Santa Claus Land. In 1991 Stakis permanently closed the Centre's swimming pool, which had been the first public indoor pool in the district and, despite others subsequently built in hotels, had remained the most popular. By 1992 the Centre was almost ignored in promotional literature for the area, whereas in the 1970s it dominated. The fortunes of the Centre were somewhat matched by severa l other large hotels in Aviemore which changed ownership or went bankrupt in the first years of the 1990s. However, the large hotels in the Centre and in nearby Coylumbridge have remained fully operational and

competitive, and wh en th e Aviemore resort property was sold again in 1992 (to C.L.E.), the Stakis corporation retained ownership of the hotels. The public, industry and government were all hoping that major reinvestment in the resort would follow this latest ownership change, but it appeared that major public sector involvement would again be required. The household surveys In 1978 several surveys were conducted by the author, including a random interview survey of area households and a non- random questionn aire administered to students in the two local high schools. The household survey obtained a considerable amount of information on leisure patterns and preferences, but the 1992 survey

the Scottish Tourist Board, the 1992 household survey consisted of a mailed survey with postage-free mailback, drawn from the voters lists. A 4% random sample was taken from each village and rural sub-area, closely replicating the 1978 sample frame. However, the postal method resulted in a 40% response rate (N=79). No obvious source of response bias has been detected, but some cau tion is required when comparing the two surveys. Findings of the 1978 household survey Membership in groups was believed to be a key indicator of social life and leisure preferences. Da ta were collected about all household members, so that some degree of error likely occurred as

The 1978 and 1992 surveys both sampled the village and rural-sub areas randomly.

did not replicate the leisure section. Th e 1978 household sample consisted of 132 households, randomly selected from district property valuation lists. Four per cent of households from each village and rural sub-area were selected, in order to ensure geographic representativeness. The researcher and sev eral paid assistan ts achieved a completion rate of 86%, with single-female househ olds (u sually older persons) being somewhat under-represented due to refusals to participate. Structured interviews were used, with some questions pertaining to household heads (self-defined) and others covering all household members (these included the leisure-related sections). A separate selection process was used to obtain a gender and age-balanced sample from within each multi-person household for completion of satisfaction and attitude scales. Conducted under the auspices of

adults often answered on behalf of children or other mem bers. Residents of the larger villages (except Kingussie) were found to be more active in groups, with those in the resort town of Aviemore being most active (with on ly 11% reporting no memberships, compared to the district average of 31%). This is interpreted to be a reflection of increased opportunity in Aviemore (arising from more facilities) and from Aviemore's younger and more urbanised population which stemmed from in-migration. Not surprisingly, males were more active in groups than females, especially in sports, and youth (aged up to 19) and the middleaged (30-49) were more active than other age cohorts. Golf membership was the most popular, as there are golf clubs accessible throughout the district. Residents of Aviemore dominated in swimming and ice-skating groups (being closest to the only pool and 37

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ice rink) and in job-related groups. Asked about leadership positions held in groups, it was revealed that newcomers to the district (i.e., households with under ten years of residence) were the most active. Respondents were asked to indicate the participation of all household members in a list of 22 local recreation opportunities, for the previous twelve m onths. Aviemore's cinema and swimming pool ranked first and second in terms of total use by the entire sample, followed by hill walking. Aviemore respondents were the most active (average 4.4 activities per person, compared to a district average of 2.4; the list contained 8 of 22 opportunities based in Aviemore). M ales were again found to be more active, especially in the traditional outdoor pursuits of fishing, golf, and shooting, and in th e new sport of go-karting which existed only at Aviemore Centre. Females dominated in ice skating, pony trekking, and tennis. Youths were most active, while hill-walking, golf, going to the cinema (only available in Aviemore Centre) and live shows (mostly in Aviemore Centre) were popular with older residents. Aviemore Centre was well-used by residents, as were boating, skiing, fishing and golfing opportunities all of which were shared with tourists. The natural supply of outdoor recreation opportunities was high, so conflicts were not severe. Also, tourists were known to be significant users of local angling and golf clubs and tourism was clearly responsible for the skiing and water-sport developments. Queried about visitation to a list of places and events in the district, respondents revealed a much higher level of participation than for actual recreation activities. This indicated a fairly passive mode for most residents' leisure pursuits. All the places and events listed were known tourist attractions, including local Highland Games, parks, natural areas and museums, alth ough many do not owe their existence to 38

tourism. Females visited more than males at most of th e places or events. Aviemore residents had a much higher rate of visitation than others, with an average of 7.2 visits over the previous twelve months, compared to the district average of 4.9 (only 4 of 20 events/places were in Aviemore). Th e two m ost popular places, Loch an Eilan and Loch Morlich, were known to also be very popular among tourists for sightseeing, picnicking, walking and boating, so joint residenttourist use was not a problem. Tra ditional Scottish Highland pursuits were examined, even though this district has historically been oriented toward the urban south, and fewer than 5% of the populatio n spoke the Gaelic language by 1971. There was a definite indication that young people in the district were taking part in traditional dance and music, revealing a possible revival fuelled by tourist interest in Highland Games, newcomer attitudes, and opportunities to perform in tourist attractions. Both traditional dance and music were being taught in area schools. Ceilidhs, the traditional Highland social/musical gathering, were not well attended. However, the annual Ceilidh Week produced by hotelie rs and the community in Carrbridge (near Aviemore) was already a popular tourist attraction. Finally, respondents were asked about anything they disliked in the district. Aviemore Centre was singled out (unprompted) by many, accounting for 50 of 59 pla ces mentioned. This negative perception or antagonism towards the resort was greatest in outlying villages, and many respondents who appreciated the economic benefits of tourism nevertheless were firm in their dislike of the Centre and its impacts. In summary, the 1978 household survey revealed much about the leisure preferences and activities of Spey Valley residents, and the pertinent impacts of tourism. There was considerable use made of new, tourism-dependent opportunities, especially in Aviemore. The new

opportunities, perhaps in concert with demonstration effects, were changing the leisure patterns of residents, and especially of area youths. Differences were observed between natives and newcomers, with the latter segments being more active and more prone to taking leadership positions. Residents of Aviemore were more active than others, showing the influence of prox im ity, and probably also showing the results of in-m igration and its effect on demographics a nd life-style. Conflict over resource use was not found, and many joint residenttourist facilities, areas and events existed without problem. However, many residen ts were alrea dy unhappy about some of the social and cultural impacts or potential consequen ces of tourism development, and the resort itself was resented by many. Comparison of satisfaction and attitudes: 1978 and 1992 Respondents were asked to indicate how satisfied they were with "sport and recreation", but the scale was structured in a slightly different way in the two surveys: in 1978 the scale was 0 through 10 (eleven points) while in 1992 it contained only ten points (1 through ten). Accordingly, the results have been grouped into three categories (Low = 0-3; Medium = 4-6; High = 7- 10) to permit a direct comparison. With regard to "sport and recreation", in 1978 seventeen per cent ranked it low and 64% high, whereas in 1992 44% ranked it low and only 35% high; a very pronounced reversal. The resident population was therefore far less satisfied with sport and recreation facilities, but the same applied to the facilities and services residents felt were needed in their villages. These two items might be considered subelements of the increased dissatisfaction residents felt with "the way in which the Spey Valley is changing". An identical battery of twenty-four attitude statements (on a five-point Likert scale) was administered in both surveys, of which only one

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provides an insight on changing perceptions of leisure. The statement was: "Tourism can be thanked for bringing good facilities to this area". In 1978 there was a degree of consensus among respondents, of whom 84 were in agreement, 21 were uncertain and 23 were in disagreement. In the 1992 survey, only 20 respondents agreed, compared to 18 uncertain and 25 in disagreement. The student surveys The student surv ey was more focused than the larger Household survey and allows more longitudinal analysis of leisure issues. However, not all questions were identical in the 1978 and 1992 surveys, and while the samples were very similar, they were not identical. In both cases teachers or principals were asked to obtain questionnaire responses from students in class, so the samples were not random and the total population of students unknown. Average age of the respondents was almost identical: in 1978 N = 77 and average age = 15.36 years; in 1992 N = 96 and average age = 15.55). However, the age range differed (1978: 14-17, inclusive; 1992: 15-18). In 1978, 53% of the sample were males, compared to exactly 50% in 1992. The Grantown school covers all of the north of the district while the Kingussie High School takes students from Aviemore and the south - this was unchanged over the interval. In 1978 sixty per cent of the respondents were from the Gran town school, but in 1 992 62.5% were from the Kingussie school. This imbalance should be remembered when interpreting the data, as no weighting has been attempted. In terms of birthplace, 80.5% of the students in the 1978 sample were born in Scotland, compared to 78% in 1992. It was also revealed that respondents in 1992 had lived in the district longer, on average, than the 1978 sample, with fewer in 1992 being recent arrivals. This probably stems from the peaking of

development around 1982 and a subsequent lessening of inmigration. Table 2 compares 1978 and 1992 results on the question: "What are you r three favourite recreation pursuits in this district"? The two most frequently cited activities (swimming and skiing) remained the same, while two others clearly dropped in popularity (fishing and shooting) and several gained (cycling, socialising, going to the cinema , tennis a nd skating). Clearly the tourism-related opportunities continue to dominate, including the addition of mountain biking in recent years, which has greatly elevated the popularity of cycling. The drop in fishing and shooting seems to reflect a more u rb an leisure attitude, or a substitution of newer opportunities for traditional ones. Females continue to favour swimming, skating, walking, dancing and socialising much more than males, and males continue to dominate many of the sports. However, the gender gap in skiing is gone, which may be attributable at least in part to school programs. In both surveys lists of places and activities were provided, and

students were asked to indicate "which of these places you have visited, and which of these activities have you done, in this district, during the past twelve months" (students were asked to write an S beside those done only as part of a school program and those were excluded from the following analysis). The lists were identical, consisting of 24 activities at specific places, or of places where the a s s o c i a t e d activity was obvious. Table 3 compares the results from each survey, revealing the durability of cinema-going and the amusement arcade in Aviemore Centre. It should be kept in mind that these two remain dominant despite the fact that the number of students from A v i e m o r e w a s higher in the 1992 survey. Skating at Aviemore Centre increased in popularity, but the swimming pool and Santa Claus Land were permanently closed by 1992. An increase in visitation to Landmark Visitor Centre can likely be explained by its addition of an adventure play area and other attractions over the years. As noted in the analysis of Household Survey results, and revealed here as well, residen ts' leisure

Table 2: Three Favourite Recreation Pursuits in the District: 1979 and 1992 Student Surveys. Number of Mentions Recreation 1978 (n = 77) 1992 (n = 96) Pursuits male female rank male female rank Swimming Skiing Walking/Hillwalking Golfing Fishing Football Ice Skating Dancing/Disco Shooting Badminton Canoeing/Sailing Shinty Tennis Cinema Horse Riding Cycling Socialising Squash Other Total 9 14 3 13 14 12 2 1 8 3 4 6 3 2 0 1 0 3 16 114 17 6 16 5 1 0 8 9 0 4 3 0 3 3 4 3 4 1 14 101 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 9 10 10 11 12 12 13 13 9 11 4 14 5 12 3 1 0 2 4 5 4 2 0 6 4 1 36 123 26 12 11 2 0 1 11 7 1 4 0 0 0 9 3 15 9 0 11 122 1 2 5 4 11 7 6 9 14 10 12 11 12 8 13 3 7 14 -

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39

Table 3: Places Visited and Activities Done Within Past Twelve Months (excluding school programs): 1978 and 1992 Student Surveys. Number of Times Mentioned Place/Activity 1978 1992 (n=77) Rank (n=96) Rank Aviemore Centre, cinema Aviemore Centre, arcade Highland Wildlife Park Aviemore Centre, swimming pool Av. Ct., Santa Claus Land Aviemore Centre, skating Loch an Eilan Landmark Visitor Centre, Carrbridge Swimming at Loch Morlich Aviemore Centre, dancing Skiing at Cairngorm Aviemore Centre, go-karting RSPB Osprey Hide, L. Garten Inverdruie fish farm Highland Folk Museum, Kingussie Aviemore Centre, curling Sailing/canoeing, L. Morlich Aviemore Centre, squash Craigellachie nature trails, Aviemore Steam Railway Museum, Boat of Garten Clan Macpherson Museum, Newtonmore Loch Insh RSPB reserve Canoeing, River Spey Orienteering, Glen More 68 60 45 44 35 34 33 33 30 29 28 26 23 21 20 16 13 13 12 11 8 8 7 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 16 17 18 19 19 20 21 92 78 37 closed closed 72 48 57 50 36 50 32 20 38 28 14 30 14 28 27 11 11 37 11 1 2 8 3 6 4 5 9 5 10 14 7 12 15 11 15 12 13 16 16 8 16

Examples were listed on the instrument, but there were fewer listed in the 1992 survey. "Youth clubs" showed a major increase, evidently due to a n observed increase in the number of clubs in the district. Overall, in 1978 males mentioned more clubs than females and dominated in sports and youth clubs. Females dominated only in badminton and tennis. Golf, curling and shinty were more popular among Kingussie students, who were more active overall. Perh aps most revealing of the information collected concerned the students' opinions on what facilities were needed in the district. In 1978 they were asked: "What 3 facilities for young people do you think this area needs? Rank in order of importance". In 1992 the question was worded: "What facilities for young people do you think this area needs?". In Table 4 the most frequently mentioned facilities are listed, showing gender differences. The number of times each facility was mentioned, its rank and the percentage of responden ts mentioning the facility are also tabulated. Although "youth clubs" diminished in ran k, there is indicated a constant desire for more youthoriented opportunities such as discos and sports. Closure of the Aviemore Centre pool was clearly a blow to high-schoolers, as they ranked pools highest. Bowling appears in the 1992 list, and this could relate to publicity concerning a proposal for incorporating bowling in planning for a revamped Aviemore Cen tre. Girls in particular felt that a lack of mobility hindered their leisure in 1978, but by 1992 area-wide bus service had increased. As a general mea sure of sa tisfaction , students in both surveys were asked if they agreed, disagreed (or had no opinion) that: "The Spey Valley is a good place in which to grow up". In the 1978 sample fully 90% agreed with the statement, but in 1992 only 69% agreed. Furthermore, in 1978 sixty-

opportunities in Spey Valley coexist with p o p u l a r t o u r i s t venues. Respondents were then asked to indicate if they liked or disliked any of the places in particular, and to give reasons. In 1978 most students did not mention any dislikes, but a few singled out Aviemore Centre, specifically Santa Claus Land (8 mentions) and the amusem ent arcade (3 mentions). In 1992 there were many more places disliked (38 mentions) and Aviemore Centre took the b ru nt of complaints. Clearly its image in the minds of loca l y ouths h as deteriorated greatly. Another measure of preference and opportunity is the recreational equipment available to respondents. In both surveys they were asked: "Which of these (a provided list of items) do you own or have regular use of at home?". 40

A decline in fishing and shooting equipment was the most notable change, and it reflects a general decrease in popularity of these traditional Highland pursuits. Ski ownership remained constant. Some of the items were dominated by males, namely fishing, golfing, skiing, shooting, tents, shinty/football, motorcycle and autos (shinty is a traditional Gaelic sport similar to field hockey). Females dominated only in terms of access to the fiddle and canoe. When cross-tabulated by school, it was found that ice skates, golf clubs and shinty/football gear were much more common among the Kingussie students. Membership in groups and clubs is anoth er important indicator of leisure patterns and preferences. In both surveys students were asked: "Please write in the names of all the clubs, teams, or other organisations that you belong to in this district (do not include school groups)."

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six per cent agreed with the statement: "I would not want to live here all my life", while in 1992 those agreeing had risen to 78%. Grantown students were more negative than those from Kingussie. In the 1978 survey students were asked to "write a short composition...concerning your opinions on the Spey Valley". Students were instructed to mention "good and bad points of living in this area, and what could be done to make it a better area to live in". The general tone of the comments was positive, with tourism being recognised as a benefit to the district in terms of jobs and leisure opportunities. One respondent wrote: "...it is a very good area to live in because Aviemore is not far away a nd you can go there whenever you like if you have the t rans por t...". Another student said: "The Spey V a l l e y is a pleasant place to live and to work. It is not commercialised nor does it suffer from unemployment problems." Access to the outdoors and a beautiful countryside were also much appreciated. Negative points were seen to be the lack of adequate transportation, high costs, and lack of things for young people to do in the evenings. A related negative comment was: "There is not really enough social events for the teenagers and they have to go to the pub and become alcoholics before they are 19".

The Aviemore Centre was generally appreciated in 1978, but there were many who resented the concentration of opportunities there, and the cost of using or getting to them. Alcoh ol was perceived to be a problem, partly because of its abuse, and partly because students under the age of 18 could not get into licensed pubs and dances. In 1992 students were asked to write a few lines on the question: "What are your views on tourism and leisure in Aviemore?". Comm ents revea led a marked increase in negative attitudes toward the resort and toward the tourism industry and its impacts. For example, one respondent wrote: "Leisure is rubbish, the centre is run down. There should be more things to do." Another commented: "Disgusted that tourists come up here and take over." Lack of things to do for young people was a dominant theme, although not everyone was completely negative: "It is growing more and more but whether it is good or bad for the area I'm not sure. The environment is getting wrecked but then local people are benefitting because of more jobs and also local shops are busier". A number of students suggested that improving leisure opportunities would help them, while also attracting more tourists. Conclusions The Spey Valley case provides a clear lesson for tourism planners.

When new, the leisure facilities pleased the rural residents and g enerated considerable opportunities for an improved life-style. The resort, and the jobs tourism created, were greatly appreciated. But reinvestment in the facilities did not occur, and when combined with two recessions and poor skiing conditions, the Aviemore Centre declined substantially. Residents, and particularly teenagers, felt betrayed by the closing and rundown condition of leisure facilities and became cynical a bout the industry. This disillusionment was also reflected in a ma rkedly increased preference for leaving the district following h igh-school graduation (Getz, 1994). From the review of related literature and the Spey Valley case study the major potential impacts of tourism on residents' leisure can be identified. 1) Development brings (or justifies public provision of) new and better recreational, cultural and entertainment facilities which residents can use. Growth of the local population and related infrastructure is likely to be accompanied by new or better public facilities and leisure services. 2) As a corollary of (1), tourism can result in the transformation of existing opportunities into tourist-oriented facilities, or result in the construction of new opportunities which cater only to certain types of users, thereby resulting in the exclusion of certain resident groups (e.g., youth or families). 3) Through the demonstration effect, or through the direct influence of working in the industry (such as a guide or ski instructor), residents adopt new leisure preferences and pursuits, with resultant lifestyle shifts. This could result in the abandonment of traditions, althou gh either commoditization or revitalization of traditions can occur. Changing attitudes in general are likely to reflect urbanisation 41

Table 4: Facilities Needed for Young People (most frequent mentions): 1978 and 1992 Student Surveys. Number of Mentions 1978 (n=77) 1992 (n=96) Suggestions M F Rank M F Rank Youth clubs (more or better) Discos (more, non-alcoholic) Transport (better or cheaper) Sports facilities or clubs More facilities outside Aviemore (or in the other villages) Community centres (more or better) 3 Cinema outside Aviemore Skateboard track Swimming pool (outside Aviemore) Evening activities/better hours Better shops for locals Bowling (male and female combined) 8 8 3 7 2 3 0 4 3 1 2 10 9 7 3 6 5 5 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 6 6 7 8 8 4 16 0 25 2 3 1 24 2 7 18 10 29 3 20 8 5 1 29 8 5 4 2 9 2

7 10 1 6 5 3

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processes. Increasing interest in conservation, and more n egative views towards tourism might accompan y over-development or development which fails to deliver de sired b enefits for residents. 4) As th e resident population grows and/or changes demographically, at least partially in response to tourism d e v e l o p m e n t , ne w values and preferences are introduced. This occurs, in part, as the destina tion becomes mo re attractive for in-migrants. A younger population is likely to lead to more family-oriented public leisure and general demand for youth- oriented sports (felt particu larly a t schools).

beaches. Judging by th e e v i d e n c e o f research to date (see Tab le 1), residents of tourism destinations generally believe that tourism brings more leisure benefits than costs. H o w e v e r , n o n e of the studies have asked respondents to weigh these specific positive and negative l ei su r e effects against each other or against ov erall quality-of-life measures. Although it h as been suggested by some authors that resident attitudes b ecom e m ore negative as development increases, the Spey Valley case suggests that negative attitu de s result from disillusionment and lessened work or leisure opportunities if the industry declines. The cumulative and mutually

Planning implications Turning to planning implications, D'Am ore (198 3) develo ped guidelines for locally appropriate tourism development, based on evaluation of a number of communities in British Columbia, Canada. The studies revealed that several leisure-related issues would mitigate against appropriate development, namely: perceived conflict with tourism over local game and fish resources; locals feeling excluded from traditional recreation areas; or the perception that residents were taking second place to tourists, or even excluded from the use of facilities. McKercher (1992) reported that tourist operators are sometimes in conflict with residents in Northern Ontario, Canada, over access to fishing lakes. When the industry tried to e xclu de residents, animosity arose toward the operators and their customers. Jansen-Verbeke an d Dietvorst (1987) discussed how, in the Netherlands, there was a growing realisation that recreation facilities cou ld be considered tou rist resources, with tourist revenues supporting quality provision for locals. However, Murphy (1983: 12), based on surveys of residents in English towns, cautioned: The prospect of additional leisure facilities encourages th e administrators, is promoted by the business sector and is viewed with suspicion by the residents. In other words, there can easily be a gap between promised benefits and the benefits ultimately realised by residents. With regard to resort planning and development, several important implications arise - especially in the Spey Valley situation where much debate is occurring on what to do with Av iemore Centre. A definite need is for more residentresponsive tourism development in which local leisure opportunities will be maxim ised. Simply prov iding new facilities and services is inadequate without the concomitant ability of residents to

Previous studies suggest tourism brings more leisure benefits than costs . . . the Spey Valley case study suggests negative attitudes to tourism may result when the industry declines and leisure opportunities decline.

5) As i n c o m e s rise, r e s i d e n t s can engage in more p u r s u i t s , or m ore freque ntly e n g a g e in established activity patterns. 6) Conversely, inflation can make new or existing leisure opportunities too expensive for residents. 7) Competition for resources (such as access to parks, fishing and hunting grounds) can occur between tourists and residents, or between tourist operators and other residents. Environmental deterioration or even loss of resources is possible, but tourism can also lead to more parks and enhanced conservation measures. 8) Crowding or seasonal patterns of use by tourists can act to discourage or displace residents from parks and facilities. Some resources could be entirely destroyed, such as clean 42

reinforcing effects of increased dem an d a nd in cr ea s ed s up ply can be identified with some degree of certainty. For example, in the Spey Valley the provision of new leisure opportunities and resident responses to them has been measured over time. But the longterm effects of tourism versus general e nviro nme ntal factors on social and c u l t u r a l c h a n g e within the resident population can not ea sily be differentiated. Tourism development cau ses changes in population and demogra phics, brings in new re sidents, and provides a demonstration effect - all of which influence the residents. But also of considerable im portance are general trends in communications (e.g., the influence of travel and television on leisure preferences) and broader demographic trends, such as the agin g population. Theorists and planners will therefore have to be satisfied with partial explanatory models.

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pay for using them. Joint touristresident facilities are required, especially in rural and small-town areas, so public-private financing is a good strategy. Resident use might actually have to be programmed, rather than left to market forces. Dispersal of facilities throughout the district was strongly desired in Spey Valley. Most new facilities were built in Aviemore, so in 1978 their use required mobility and money that m any residents especially youths and females lacked. By 1992 a number of leisure facilities had been located outside Aviemore, but not always with residents in mind. Swimming pools in hotels do not generally meet resident needs. Age, gender and length-of-residence differences within the resident population must be considered. Youths are affected quite differently, owing to a variety of factors which might include: lack of mobility; need for non-alcoholic social opportunities; quickness to take up new leisure opportunities; ease of boredom, a nd lack of purchasing power. Females have quite different leisure preferences and patterns, although in Spey Valley the skiing activity of male and female high school students was similar. Older persons were found to be less active in sports and to prefer quieter and more passive forms of leisure. Traditional pursuits appealed more to locally born families. The type of tourist development appropria te for a resident population will relate, in part, to its potential benefits for residents' leisure. Development which fosters n ew choices, maximises accessibility and use, conserves traditions and allows hosts and g uests to experience mutually beneficial interaction will achieve higher local support and therefore be more sustainable. Finally, the decline of Aviemore Centre demonstrates the risk of dependence on a single resort facility, both as a tourism strategy and from the residents' point of

view. Constant upgrading and new attractions or services are needed to keep a resort competitive. Aviemore Centre shows the product life cycle at work, with the resort growing, maturing and declining over the 1966-1992 period, even though tourism in the district remains

dominant and shows growth in certain sectors. If the resort had been built and managed with residents in mind - perhaps subject to a degree of public control or sharing - the evolution of the resort and its impacts might have been quite different.

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