SUMMARY The aim of this experiment is to test the tensile effects of different materials when they are put

under an increasing tensile force. This is done until fracture is attained. The length, width, thickness and diameter (for circular bars) have been measured. A tensile test machine called the LLOYD universal testing machine was used to carry out the test producing graphs of force against extension. After the experiment was performed, we determined that 0.36 % carbon steel was the strongest material, with the highest tensile and upper yield strength. We also found out that Polypropylene was the weakest material with the lowest values. We noticed a trend that metals were generally stronger than the rest, due to their internal structure. Purpose and Application of the Testing Method The purpose of this testing method is to determine how the material will react to forces being applied in tension. As the material is being pulled, strength and the degree of plastic elongation will be calculated. A lot about a substance can be learnt from tensile testing. As a material is pulled continuously until it breaks, a complete tensile profile will be produced. A curve will result showing how it reacted to the forces being applied. This test is carried out in order to minimize the risk of catastrophic failure of a material when it is in use. Theory behind the method(http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/mechanical-testing/theory1.php)

In a tensile test, a sample is extended at constant rate, and the load needed to maintain this is measured. The stress (s) (calculated from the load) and strain (e) (calculated from the extension) can either be plotted as nominal stress against nominal strain, or as true stress against true strain. The graphs in each case will be different:

Graphs illustrating the difference between nominal stress and strain and true stress and strain. There are two main types of strain - elastic strain and plastic strain. Elastic strain is the stretching of atomic bonds, and is reversible. Elastic strain can be related to the stress by Hookes Law :

 = Ee
where E is the Young's modulus . Plastic strain, or plastic flow, is irreversible deformation of a material. There is no equation to relate the stress to plastic strain. Several points on the graph can be defined: A - limit of proportionality - the point beyond which Hooke's Law is no longer obeyed. This is the point at which slip due to dislocation movement occurs in favourably oriented grains. The graph is linear up to this point, and begins the transition from elastic to plastic deformation above this. B - yield stress - the stress at which yielding occurs across the whole specimen. The stress required for slip in a particular grain will vary depending on how the grain is oriented, so points A and B will not generally be coincident in a polycrystalline sample. At this point, the deformation is purely plastic. C - proof stress - a third point is sometimes used to describe the yield stress of the material. This is the point at which the specimen has undergone a certain (arbitrary) value of permanent strain, usually 0.2%. The stress at this point is then known as the 0.2% proof stress. This is used because the precise positions of A and B are often difficult to define, and depend to some extent on the accuracy of the testing machine. D - ultimate tensile strength (UTS) - the point at which plastic deformation becomes unstable and a narrow region (a neck) forms in the specimen. The UTS is the peak value of nominal stress during the test. Deformation will continue in the necked region until fracture occurs. E - final instability point - the point at which fracture occurs, ie the failure point F - fracture stress - The stress at which fracture occurs - only obtainable from the true stress-strain curve. Brief description of the experimental procedure The first step consists of placing the sample in the tensile test machine. The material is fixed by the ends, the bottom and the top. Once the sample is fixed, the machine begins to stretch the material until the top of the device (the maximum) and in that point stops. The result of the test appears on the screen of the computer: tensile strength, tensile modulus. We can also measure the elongation from the graph obtained.

Finally, this is what we obtained.

RESULT Material for testing Material Load range/kN Carbon 14.654 Steel 0.36% C Carbon 12.767 Steel o.70% C Aluminium 0.54963 Grey Cast 0.33693 Iron Length / mm before after 34.35 36.11 Diameter/mm before diameter 5.04 5.03

Speed/(mm/min) 0.5

34.52

36.14

5.07

4.96

0.5

35.11 35.06

37.11 35.62

5.04 5.04

4.99 5.04

0.5 0.5

Material for testing Material

Length / mm after 185.0 42.10 37.96 34.93

Low density polyethylene High density 0.7837 polyethylene Polypropylene 0.5148 Perspex(PMMA) 0.6476

Load before range/kN 0.5837 33.64 35.58 35.37 34.63

Thickness/ mm before after 3.39 3.17 2.97 2.82 1.41 3.09 2.84 2.82

Width/mm before 6.41 6.69 7.41 6.59 after 3.25 7.11 7.11 6.56 Speed/(mm/min) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Description of Material Sample after Test

Carbon Steel 0.36% C-Significant change in length but diameter remained almost the same. Carbon Steel o.70% C-Change in length was smaller than carbon steel o.36% and significant change in diameter Aluminium- Elongation was noticeable and sign of necking was observed. Grey Cast Iron-Both change in length and diameter is really small Low density polyethylene-Elongation was the greatest among the samples tested , thickness and width of the material was reduced greatly. High density polyethylene-Elongation was second greatest and cross sectional area was reduced. Polypropylene- Appreciable elongation and also reduction in cross sectional area observed. Perspex(PMMA)- This material showed relatively no change in dimensions.

Tensile Properties of Steel Materials Aluminium 196.86 Grey Cast Iron 168.89

275.50 168.89 734.54 632.37

5.69 1.60 5.12 4.70

0.4 3.15 1.97 1.18

Area(mm2) 19.950 19.950 19.950 20.189

Carbon Steel 626.06 0.36% C Carbon Steel 632.37 0.70% C Tensile Properties of Plastic Materials Low density 13.909 polyethylene High density 9.311 polyethylene Polypropylene 21.154 Perspex PMMA 34.849

26.860 36.953 23.392 34.849

449 18.32 7.32 0.87

78.92 5.88 8.26 0.45

Area(mm2) 21.730 21.207 22.008 18.584

SAMPLE CALCULATION-FOR CARBON STEEL 0.36% YIELD STRESS=FY/AO= 12490/ x(5.04/2)2=626.1 MPa ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH=Fts/Ao= 14654/ x(5.04/2)2=734.52 MPa PERCENTAGE ELONGATION AT FRACTURE f=(36.11-34.35/34.35) x 100% = 5.12% PERCENTAGE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA REDUCTION Af= ((5.07/2)2-(4.96/2)2)/ (5.07/2)2x 100%=1.97%

DISCUSSION It is vital for us to understand the structures of the different materials tested in order explain the different physical values obtained. Below is a description of the different structures of the materials: Carbon steel 0.36%, carbon steel 0.70%, Aluminium and Grey cast iron are all metals and therefore they have metallic bonding. Each metal atom contributes their outermost shell electrons to form a sea of delocalised electrons around the metal positive cations which are very close to each other. They are close to each other because bonding in metals is non-directional unlike in polymers which directional. This results in polymers having lower density than metals. Atoms in metal can slide past each other without the material breaking. Therefore, metals have good ductility.

Definitely carbon steel 0.70% is stronger than Carbon steel 0.36% Materials are harder the more
difficult it is to make their atoms slide past each other. It must be understood that steel atoms and carbon atoms are not of the same size and that there are slip planes along which movement can take place. When the percentage of carbon increases in steel, their atoms tend to fit badly into the parents crystal structure and make the slip planes bumpy. So they are harder to slide along and hence they are harder. Cast iron is an alloy of iron and carbon. Again, its properties depends on

Aluminium is malleable and ductile due to its polycrystalline structure. Aluminium is made up of grains (or crystals) which interlock when the metal is cooled from molten. Each grain comprises of rows of atoms in an ordered lattice arrangement, giving each grain an isotropic (same in each direction) structure. Although the different grains are somewhat randomly arranged with grain boundaries forming during the cooling process, the atoms within each crystal are normally aligned which makes the whole metal isotropic, like the individual grains. Despite a regular lattice arrangement gaps in between atoms often form, which give rise to dislocations. These dislocations increase the ductility of a metal as the more dislocations, the more easily the atoms within the metal can move around. In substances that don't have dislocations (or where dislocations are pinned, in alloys) the shape is much more difficult to change, as to move a layer by one atomic spacing involves moving all the atoms, which can take 1000 times more energy. Hence, Aluminium is the weakest metal tested. High density polyethylene, low density polyethylene, Perspex and polypropene are all polymers. Polyethylene generally has weak forces between their chains. The low bond strength and stiffness gives these polymers a low strength. Polymers with stronger, chemical cross linking(high density polyethylene) between the chains have higher tensile strength. Perspex has moderate strength. They have lower density than metals and they are weaker than metals. CONCLUSION It can be established that the test has been fully successful and a material which suits the required condition can be chosen from the tested materials.