The I-Jse Media of in LanguageTeachingr

DONNA M BRINTON

ln "The Useof Mediain LanguageTeachinp" Brintonpresents rationale and an overView media a for of materials equipment and traditionaliy usedin the second/foreign language classroom.To better guide teachersin their use of media,she providesa five-partframewor-k structuringmedia-based for language lessons, accompanied a varietyof sample by lessons that illustrate fr^amework. this

INTRODUCTION
As a tool for language learning/teaching, rnedia have undoubtedly always facilitated the task of language learning for both instructed and noninstructed learners.Just as childr-en learning a firsr or second language grasp the meanine of rvords from the objects that surround them, ncn.narive speakers(both inside and outside the classr-oon'r) make use of the here and no\Ar objeca in the or irnmediate environment (see Hudelson 1984; Pica, Young, and Doughry l9B7; \{Iesche and Ready 1985; Lynch 1996) to process incoming speech. In the second language classroom, the extent to which media are used has varied rvidely, depending on the methodology selected.In some methods, media have figured prominend,v as a force that drives the curriculum. In tire St. Cloud (or audiovisual) method, l'hich n'as developed primarily for the teaching of French as a foreign language (Bowen, Madsen, and Hilferty 1985;Stevick 1976), all language items \\'ereintroduced to learners via contextualized, audior.isual presentations (usually filmstrips or slide shorvs r,r'ithan accompanying soundtrack. The underl,ving approach assumed that language is an acoustic-visualwhole that cannot be separated from its constituent elements. Similarl;', in the Silent Way (Gattegno 1972; Larsen-Freeman 1986; Stevick 1998), the sound-color charts and rods form a central visual component of the method, allowing the teacher to present and

elicit language rvhile at the sanre tinte providing the studentswith tools for the creative consrnlction of language. In other methods, rneclia are r-elcgated more to the design or procedule level.z In Communicative Langtrage teaching (LarsenFreeman 1986, Littlervood l981; see also Savignon'schapter in this volume), fbr example, much emphasis is placed on the need for reallife objects or texts (e.g., r-r-raps, railroad timetables,application iorms) to lend auther-rticiry to the communicative siruatior-r,rvhile in the Natural Approach (Krasl-renand Terrell 1983), magazine pictures are used as all elicitation devicein the listening comprehension and early production stages,and charts, lnaps, and props are used to motivate and enhance communicative interchange in later stages of acquisition. Finally, in experiential approaches to language learning (see Eyring's chapter in this volume), language teaching media are ofren taken out of the hands of the teacher and placed in the hands of the students. such that students involved in project work might be expected to produce a scripted slide shorv or a voice-over video documentary as their final classproduct. Whatever the approach, language teachers seem to agree that media can and do enhance language teaching, and thus in the daily practice of language teaching we find the entire range of media-from nonmechanical aids such as household objects, flashcards, and magazine pictures all the way up to sophisticated mechanical

459
B r i n t o n , o n n aM ' 2 0 0 1 ' T h e U s eo f M e d i a I n t a n g u a e e D T e a c h i n sI.n C e l c e - M u r c i a , . ( e d . )T e a c h i n g M EnglishAs A Second foru Or ini".

aicls strch as r,iclco c.ulcrits ancl cor-r-rltutcl-s (seel S o k o l i k ' s c h a p t e r - i n l l t i s r r r l u r n e) - a s s i s t i l u 1 . r : a c h e Ln t h e i r j o b s , b r i n g i n i r t l r e o n t s i c l eu . o t - l r l is ir-rto the classroorrr, ancl, ir-r shcr-t, making the task of langtrage learning a more rneaning{irl a n d e x c i t i r - r qo l l e . I ( e e p i n g t l r i s f a c t i n m i n c l , l e t rrs exiuline the tvpes of instrr,rctiorralrnedia used i n t i " r cl u n g u a g e c l a s s r o o n .

tcac]tcrs. All to<t fiequentll', horvever, I overhear snatches of'conversation in classroom halluays or at pr o{bssional gatherings that disabuse me of this notiou. These comments, made by colleagues regardine their inability or unu.illir-rgness to use arrciiovisuirlaids ir-r their classrooms, fall roughly into the follorving "categories": Stalencnl 1.'I'rn all tl'rrrn-rbs. can't use med.ia. I ,\'!atr;nrcnl2: My scltool clistrict has no budget for mcclia. ,\lrtlennnl J: I irave no timc to pr-epare media rr.ratcrials rny ol'n. of ,\lntrtntttl.4: The syllabus I teach from is too tightly strucl.itrecl tO allclw lbr media materials to be ltrotrqht inlo the clzrssroon. Sla l u nr n l -5.' teacl'r aclvirnced levels (altematively, a I givcn skill arca strch as composition or r-ead insi ar'lclthcr-cf<tr-e doll't need to Lrsemedia. Ilcfilrc ltroceedine u'ith a rationale for rrsing rtrcciia in the langr_rageclassr-oom, let us lirst cxanrine the underlying fallacies of the altclve statelneltts. J'he lirst tr\ro statements, I believe, can be dcalt rtitit summarily by realizine that those who har.e n:rclc strch statemellts are subscribing to tlle zr{irrcnrcntioned "large M' definition of media. That is, thcse individuals are msuming that classroom ntcclia materials are by definition (1) rn cch;rn ical (an d tl-rerefore unavailable, unu.ield,v, and/or anxier),-provoking) and (2) commercial (:ud thcrefrrre costly and inaccessible). In fact, as I har,e already pointecl out, classroom media need be none of the above-they can be nonmechanical, unthreatening to both teachers and stlrdents, teacher-prcldr-rced rather than commercial, easily available (especially in the case of the realia of ever1d21r lil'e), and reasonably priced (or often even fi-ee). The lallacies that underlie statementb 3 ti-rrough 5 are somewhat more difficult to refute. On tl-re strrface, statement 3 (the time factor) , presents a somewhat viable argument against ltsing nedia. Certainl)', if one disregards the manv attractive commercially available media materials tl-rat teachers can select from (see Apper-rdix B for a parrial lisr of these) and assumes that statement 2 also holds true in a

MEDIA: A DEFINITION
.Ju.stas rve often clifferentiate the teaching of " i a r g e ( , ' 6 s | 1 1 1 1 - s " - i . e . ,t l ' r e s r e a t l i t e r a t l l r c . a n . a t r c lo t h c r c o n t r - i b r i t i o n so { ' a s o c i e t l ' - I r - o n t t t a t o{"'srnall 1'61111111'6"-i.e., cLlstoms ar-rdhabits the o f a p e o p l e - ( C h a s r : r i n 1 9 8 8 ) , i t i s g er n t u n c h e r c to differentiate benveen "lar-ge M nteciia" ancl" "small iii.rticdia." C)ertainl1,, u'ith cullurc. ureclia zrs r n e a l t s r n a n i ' c l i { f e r e n t r i , i r r g st r l d i i f r : r r : n t n e o n l r ' . 'fhe most imr"nediate conn()iatiotr o{' the tcn'rr "uredia," at least as related to lauguaue tenchine, is tl-ratof the "larse i\,f rnedi:r"-of technoloqical innovations in lanuu:rge teaching, of urcchanical paraphernalia, ar-rdof slossr,, polished audiovisrral aicis-rvitir all tlre meclia anxictv tl-ial tlrcse can conjure lrp in teacher-s. Horver er-,rher-eis Iirtle eviclence that such glossr' :rudiovisual aicls are any more effectir,e than teacher-made, nonrlechanical aicls (e.g., paper plate l-rand puppers, ittrrcher papef verb charts, and rhe like) or props fi-orn daily life (e.g., cereal boxes, calnpaign iilrttons, travel pamphles, bumper stickers) rhar have been adapted for classroom teaching purposes. I would therefore like to suggest that all rhese aiCs, mechanical and nonmechanical, glossy anci noneloss1,, commercially' available and teacher-r-rlade, should be part of our definition of language teachins media.

A R A T I O N A L EF O R T H E U S E OF MEDIA IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

I often assume that the l^easons nhy we sirould use media rvhen teaching second or foreign languagesare self-evidentto experiencedclassroom

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given case, the preparation of teacher-made media materials does demand an investment of time and energ'y above and beyond that of normal lesson planning. However, this statement overlooks the reality that any lesson preparation is time-consuming, and that many media materials (such as the preparation of vocabulary flashcards or the selection of magazine pictures to elicit and practice a given language point) do not require exhaustive amoultts of tirne, Adciitionally, and Ferlral:s rnore imnortantll', tl-lestatement ignores the "payoff' that can result from the hours spent preparing or assemblingsirnple classroommedia materials (e.9., a set of prespecified role assignmenls prepared on index cards to set up a rolepla;'situatiolt,or a collection of menus from local restauraltts for a lesson on food items). ht fact, this pa,vofi which is realized in renns of the teacher'scontinuously,recl'cling thesesanremateriirls rvith different student audiences (and even fclr difl'erent reaching purposes), is often far greater tlian the amolrnt of tirne investedin more traditional classroom lesson planning (see Jensen'schapter in this volume).3 Statement 4, I believe, is based on a comrnonll; held misunderstanding of media as "extraneolls" to normal lessonactivities.In other words. proponents of this view fail to recognize that media can form a viable point of departure for achieving lesson objectives. In facr, rather than taking up additional classhours, rhe use of media designed with a parricular srudenr population and teaching objective in mind can often help to economizethe teaching task.This is achierad in the sense that the media appeal to students' senses and help them process information (Hartnett 1985), thus reinforcing the teaching point and saving the teacher unnecessaryexplanation. Finally, those who hold the view expressed in statement 5 are neglecting the fact, grounded in the very definition of language, rhar language skills are not isolated entities, and that as language we _teachers need to build bridges benveen skills. We can do so by creating u .rnifi.d context in which the teaching of tarious skills is effectively integrated around media. For example, rve can structure multiskill thematic unitsa requiring students to process information from a variety of The Use of Media in Language Teaching

sources (e.g., a political cartoon, a video documentary and letters to the editor, all concerning the same controversial topic) followed by an interview assignment in which students poll native speakersfor their opinions on this topic and, as a culminating activity, lrite a paper summarizing the opposing points of view on the topic. In short, media help us to motivate students by bringing a slice of real life into the classroom and by presenting language in its rnore complete commrrnicative context. Media can also provide a density of information and richness of cultural input not othen^rise possible in the classroom, they can help students process information anci free the teacher from excessiveexplanation, and they can provide contextualization and a solid point of departure for classroom actirrities.The folloi,ving statementssummarize the rationale for using media in the language classroom: I Given the role media play in the world outside the classroom,students expect to lind media inside the classroom as well. Media thus serve as an important motivator in the language teaching process. Audiovisual materials provide students with content, meaning, and guidance. They thus create a contextualized situation within which language items are presented and practiced. Media materials can lend authenticity to the classroom situation, reinforcing for students the direct relation between the language classroom and the outside world. Since the learning styles of students differ (Oxford 1990; Reid 1987; Skehan 1989; Wenden and Rubin 1987; see also Oxford's chapter in this volume), media provide us with a way of addressing the needs of both visual and auditory learners. The role that input plays in language learning is virtually uncontested (Krashen 1987). By bringing media into the classroom,teachers can expose their students to multiple input .sources. Thus, while decreasing the risk of the students' becoming dependent on their teacher's dialect or idiolect, they can also enrich their language learning experiences.

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')

With reference to schema theory (Schank and Abelson1977), which proposes that we approach new information by scanning our banks for related knowledge' -"*oty media can help students call up exrsting schemata and therefore maximize their use of prior background knowledge in the language learning process. Finally, research suggests that media provide teachers u'ith a means of presenting material in a time-efficient and compact manner, and of stimulating students' senses' thereby helping them to Process infonnation more readilv (Mollica 1979).

Nontechnical Media
advantagesin setTl-riscategory presents ol--'''iotts tings rvl-rere electricity is unreliable' technical resourcesare scarce,or funding is limited. Other of advantages the forms of media included in this categorl'are their lotv cost, their availability,their and their user-friendliness.Items accessibilin,, that belong in this category npically include: cltr-toons,/ blackboalds/ line drawings rr'hiteboards objectsT/realia n-ragnetboards/ flanr-relboards/ PamPhlets/ brochttres,/ pegboalds cards fl)'ers,/urenus flasl'icardsr/iudex rrallcltarts,posters. eqtripment operatioll manuals lnaps, scrolls board gaines PtlPPets r'rervspapers/ rnoiiuted pictures/
photi-rs lrrrgazilles

CLASSROOMMEDIA: "AN OVERVIE\^/

At the height of the audiolingual era, if we had asked the average second or foreigrr language teacher to designate those media tl-rat they felt were appropriate for the teaclring of languages, we rvould no doubt have received a fairll'large range of responses, with the blackboard and other simple classroomaids along with the audiotape medium (and the ubiquitous language laboratorl,) dominating the responses. Today, u'ould be needlessto say,that range of responses even largeq as the ever-expanding horizons of technology present us with exciting new adrances such as computer-assisted instr-uction, satellite transmission,and interactive video. Despite these expanding horizons, rve find 'todaythat rather than abandoning the more trzditional, or small m, media and shifting allegiance to the newe! more technological innor'ations, lanne\\'techSrage teachersare simply incorporating into their repertoire of teaching aids, with nology many using sophisticatedvideo and computer technologies (see Sokolik's chapter in this volume) alongside the lesssophisticated (but tried and tme) projector. In attempting magnetboard or ovet"head the range of media availto provide an ovendeu'of best able to classroornteachers today, it is per-haps to use the trzditional classification of "noutechnical" and "technical" media, as listed belon'.5

Technical Media
Altl-rough these forrns of n-rediaare costlier and less ttset-friendlythan the uoutechuical media, thev carn'rvith thern a larger degree of "psychological reality" in that they can bring the outside n'orld in all its cornplexities iuto the classroom. In fact, since studentsin todar''slanguage classes tend to sttrround themselves u'ith technology in their dailv lives, they may gro\\' to expect it in the languageclassroomas n'elI. Items that belong in this category tlPicallY include: record player audiotape player/ recorder CD plaver/recorder radio telerision video player/ recorder telepl-rone/ teletrainer overhead projector filmstrip,/ film projector opaque projector slide projector computer language lab cornputer lab multimedia lab center self-access

In considering this group, it is important to make a fervfurther distinctions-namely, whether the mecliaconstifttte software (consumable media Unit V Skillsfor Teachers

462

items) or hardware (equipment), whether the materials are commercially produced or teacherproduced, and whethcr they are authentic or not.6 \4b must also consider rvhether they are being used alone or together with other media in a multimedia environment. Finally, we must also consider the purposes for which these media are being used-i.e., to aid in presentation, to provide practice or stimulate coulmunicative interaction, or to provide feedback (as in the case of audio,/videotaping student oral products for subsequentdiscussionand evaluation). To include a description of the possibleuses ot all the above forms of media is beyond the scope of this chapter. Horvever, to take but one example, the blackboard, we can see hou' even this simple medium can function effectivelyar rhe rarious stages of a lesson. In the presentation stage, for example, the blackboard can be used for'verb paradigms, time lines, or orher graphic or visual cues to elucidate a teacl-ringpoint, while matrices or grids written on the blackboard can serre as elicitation tools. In tl-re practice stage, maps, stick figures, and other line drawings can function as contextualizers for a giren activit)l Firrally, in the communication stage, the blackboard can be used to storyboard student ideas in a groupproduced narrative or to cluster and map student concepts as they are being developed. Suffice it to say, then, that each form of media presents unique advantages-be it the ar.ailability and immediacy of feedback that the black/whiteboard can supply, the economy of time that pre-prepared overiread transparencies or a Powerpoint presentation can provide the teacher, or the richness of authentic input that film or the Internet can offer. Ultimately, each medium leavesits own imprint on the teaching/ learning process, and it is up to the teacher to decide which one to select in order to teach a given point.

by tl-re choices available ro them. As Penfield (1987, p. 1) rightfully notes, "roo ofren [media] are neglected because teaclters are not always certain horv to adapt these rich and complex learning materials to studertts' needs and language competencies."Clearly,guidelines for use are in order. In fact, guidelines for the selection, adaptation, development, and implementation of media-based materials do not differ radically from the kinds of guidelines n'e find mentioned more universally regarding lesson planning and textbook evaluation(see,e.g.,Jensen's and Byrd's chapters ir-rthis volume). Thus, such issuesas the appropriateness of the materials for the target audience, their: technical and pedagogical quality, their teaching objectir.'e(s), and the pre-/postprocedures to be nsed all pla;,as important a role in the selection and use of audioaisualmedia ir-r the classroomas they cio in rirose of conventional print media. Further, and this point cannot be stressed enough, media-based materials should not be vier,r,ed simply as extraneous to the lesson, or as contingenq/ plans. Rather, they should be planned as carefully as the lesson itself and should form a central (if not tlu central) component of the lesson-one that is interwoven with the other lessoncomponents, such as the reading text, the writing assignment,or the speaking task.

A FRAMEWORK FORSTRUCTURING MEDIA LESSONS

The framework presented belowT is intended to put the application of media to language teaching into a unified perspective and to assistteachers in better structuring media lessons.In constmcting this franework, I've divided up the tvpical "lesson" into five stages: (1) the infortnation andmot'iuation stage,where the topic and relevant background information are presented; (2) the input stage, where the teacher ensures comprehension of the item or items presented; (3) the focussiage,where the students practice the tasks and are provided with guided opportuniries ro manipulate items until they feel comfortable and confident;

GUIDELINES OR USING F MEDIA IN THE CLASSROOM

Given the range of classroom media (both harduare and software) discr"rssed above, it is not surprising that language teachers are overrvhelmed The Use of Mediain Language Teaching

453

(4) the more communicativr:ly oriented transfer slage, rvhich studentsare given opportunities in to offer personal comments or share experiences relating ro the given context; and (5) an optional feedbac!;sta,ge which audio or video in recordings of students are used to guide the assessment the students' pcrformance (e.g.,a of student speech, an interview, a ciassdiscussion, a role play, a group problem solving activity).8 Figure 1 presentsthe fiamenork. I. lnformation and motivation stage ll. lnput stage L Teacherpresents/elicits vocabulary 2. Teacherpresents/elicits structures presents/elicits 3. Teacher functions 4. Teacherpresentslelicits concepts 5. Teacherpresents/elicits content
ffr ||r. E^^..^ I LrLUs --^-^ JLd.E

In applying this framework, teachers need to be aware that the above points in the framework outline olttions availabie to teachers in designing and implementing media lessonsand are not intended to represent procedures that must be foilowed lockstep. Note also that media can play a role at any or all of the five stagesof the lesson,anC that a variety of media might be used in the various stagesto complement each other and to achieve the designated teaching objective.

l. Teachermodels language items/proceduresltasks 2. Studentspractice items/tasks conlext in a. Drill b. Elicitation 3. Studentsmanipulate language/content/tasks a. Notetaking b. lnformation transfer c. Pair work/small-groupwork lV. Transferstage l. Classdiscussion 2. Studentsinteract,usingcontext set by mediamaterials as a point of departure a. Role play/sociodrama b. Problernsolvingacrivity c. Informationtap activiry d. Game assignment 3. Task-based 4. Follow-up writing assignment of 5. Sharing personal experience 6. Fieldtrip V. Feedback stage l. Teachertapesthe activity. 2. Studentsli: en to/view the tape. 3. Studentsperform a self-assessment their performance. of 4. Studentsyiovide peer feedbackto others. 5. Teacherprovidesfeedbackto studenrs. Figure A Framework Structuring l. for Media Lessons

S A M P L EM E D I A L E S S O N S
The following sample lessons,selected to illustrate a range of available media, demonstrate how the framework in Figure 1 can be applied in making

decisions about media use for languagc teaching purposes.eNote that numbers in brackets indicati the relevant parts of the framework that irave been applied in designing each lesson.

sample Lesson r: The "Ugry Lamp" (magazine picture)

Audience: Teaching objective: Beginning-level adult students enrolled in an intensive language/visa program; intermediatelevel EFLstudents. To provide studentswith the language neededto expresspreasure/ displeasure; requestan exchange an unwanteditem. for

Media: Mounted magazine picture of woman holdingan ugly lamp (see Figure2). Skills: Speaking, vocabulary, writing. Time: Procedures: l. Teacherintroducesthe concept of gift givingand receiving. lf appropriate (e.g.,holidaytime), students may want ro shareinformation ibout'whai they I are givingto friends or wish to receive [l]. 2. Teacher introduces the magazine pictureof the uglylamp (seeFigure2),elic_ iting explicit vocabulary(e.g., lampshade, bow,frlwn) itt.t.1 ana structures (present progressive, descriptiveadjectivet tll.2.]. the picturemore closely, the teacher '3' The studenb and teacherexamine and asks questionswhich elicit more implicitvocabulary l.] and structures [ll. For example:'yVho do you ihink gavethe womair thii gift?,'(sister_inil1.2.]. law,elderly relative);"]vhe1e do you thinkAunt Harriet mrglt havl bought the lamp?"(she mighthavebought it from a thrift shop/garale,"il1"*1." 4. Teacher presents language functions relevant to giving and receiving gifts and provides srudentswith guided practice fl1.3] ln 1rr.z.a-1. pairs (gift g"iv", and receiver),r,.ud:lF_ practicethe sequence givingthe gift, openingit, and of ' r -""'o '-' -"expressing thanks[lll.3.c.]. 5. For homework, as follow-up writing practice,students write a lecer to the giver of the gift thankinghim or her [1V.4.]. 6. a subsequentday,the context is recycred, and the ranguage necessary 9n : ,, for returningunwanteditemsttoa store and requesting."r[1",i"*.6r1gu i', presented[11.4.] practiced and [lll.2.a.]. 7. students are videotaped [v. r.] rore-praying the situation [1v.2.a.1. Thev then watch the video footage [v.2.] and receivepeer [v4.] andieacher [v5] .,i:r'' feedback. t ;;;inating activiry studenrsbring in unwanteditems they havereceived and sharetheir reactions receiving to thesegifrswith their classmates [1V5.,]. 2 classperiods (r hour each)prusfoilow-up(r5 minutes).

r { t

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The Use of Mediain Language Teaching

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Figure2. The Ugly Lamp

enrolled in EAP courses at the university; students (e.g.,advancedstudents in intensivelanguage

466

Unit V Skills..for Teachers

Teacherdistributes photccopies of a computer hardware or software advertisement.Together,the classmembers identif the item beingadvertisedand locateany information relevant to writing a concise senience definition of the product and the subsequent [lll.2.b.]. [Note:This advertisement adverrisements should be carefullyselectedso that there is no overt sentencedefinition of the product.The ad should,however,contain the necessary information for studentsto draw from in writing their definition.]

4. bgetheri students construct a complete sentence definition of the product.

The teacherwrites this definition the blackboard on the fl|.1.],stressing previously studiedformula for definitions, in the followingexample: as

A(n) 1x1 a(n) is that [z] [Y]

IX] SPECIFIC TERM Software Bridge

m
GENEMLCLASS is a software program

lzl
CHAMCTERISTICS that convertsdocumenm from one word-processing program to another without losing formatting specifications.

5. Studentsare next divided into small groups of three or four students,with each
group receivingone advertisementfor a computer software or hardware item. Using the pattern provided,each group of studentsworks for roughly four or five minutesto constructa sentencedefinitionof the product [lll.3.c.].Atthe end of this time period, rhe groups passtheir ads to another group,with each group receiving new ad.This Processcontinuesuntil all groups haveseen all ads and a studentsin eachgrouPhavehad a chance write appropriate to sentences with definitions for each product. : With the help of the teacheri studentsnow pool their answers.They decidefor themselvesthe most usefulinformation,toinclude[Vl.];the teacherthen writes the agreed-upondefinition on the board under the headingsindicatedabove.Errors in spelling, sentencestructure,erc.,can be dealt with at this stageby elicitingpeer :: correction.

7. on a subsequent the teacher can recyclethe materialin a more game-like day,

atmosphereilV.2.d.], either by giving srudentsnames of fictional products and havingthem compete to write the "best" definition of the product or by having students playa "sorr and unscramble" gamein which they are giv"n ri""a-,lp i;;;: from categoriesX,t andZ on separatestrips of paper and .rk"d ao pur the items together to form sentencedefinitions.

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..:. : The Use of Mediain Language Teaching

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Sample Lesson 3: Over-the-counter,.prugSll:,,

'"' " ' : :; ' : : ' i : ' l ' : ; : : ; : ;: 1 1 1 ; f ' ; " " ' l ; t : 1 . . t t : " "

Audience: Teaching Objective: Media: Skills: Time: Procedures:

" "' or adult/communityeducationstudents. Beginning- intermediate-level

use, of To developan awareness the availability, and potential misuseof to over-the-counterpreparations; increasereadingfor specificinformavocabulary. to tion skills; expandtopic-related of Packages/containers over-the-counter drug preparations (".g., grid (seeFigure3). cold medications); information remedies, headache vocabulary, speaking. arrd Reading, (l 2 classper'iods hour each).

l . Teacherintroducesconcept of over-the-counter(OTC) drugs;elicits from students information on the types of OTC products they typicallyuse []. alleigy, cold sores, constipation) (e.g., headache, 2. Common complaints reviewedp.l.]. are the 3 . Teacherintroducesinformationgrid and demonstrates procedure studentsare to follow via the example(Sudafed) fl1.l.].Termsin the grid are explained [.l.]. 4. Studentsare dividedinto smallgroups of four or five and OTC products are distributedto eachgroup. 5 . Studentswork in groupsto transfer informationinto the grid pl.3.b.]. 6. Once all student groups have completed the task, they share their resultswith the classat large. previousexperiences they havehad with OTC drugs 7. Studentsdiscuss (side effectsexperienced, etc.) [V5.] a warts, fever 8. As a follow-up,each student is assigned symptom (e.g., go to the drug store and finrj three blisters,heartburn) and told to products intended to remedy this condition.They are to compare these products usingthe grid format ancireport back on their findingsto the classon the following day flV.3.].

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The Use of Media in Language Teaching

Sampie Lesson 4: Postcard Description Activity (photographic postcards from various countries) l2 Audience: Teaching Objective: Recently arriveciinternational studentslivingin the ESLconrext (anylevel). To increase of awareness culturalstereotyping; serveas a discussion to stimulus for impressions formed of the United States, people, its and its culture.

Media: Picturepostcards depicting stereotypical images countries(one for each pair of of students); barrier (u.9., notebook,manila a a folder) to separate students. Skills: Speaking, cuituralawareness, writing. Time: Procedures: Teacher introduces the activityby discussing postcards generaland the kinds in of postcards that peoplesendto their friendswhen they are on vacation[1.].A model postcard(e.g., one depicting Durch girl wearingwooden shoeswith a a windmill and tulips in the background) may be shown to promore discussion. 2. Students are askedwhat kindsof postcards they havesent home sincearriving in the United States, who they ha,re sent theseto, and wirar kindc nf mase'ooc they havewritten on them fl.4]. l. I class period(l hour) plusfollow-up(10*15minures).

3 . Teacherexplains/models paired activity:Studentsare to form pairs,with the

stucient A receiving a postcard from a given country. They erect a barrier betweenthem so StudentB cannot see studentA's postcard. is studentA's lt task to describe this postcard ptudent B,without mentioning nameof the to rhe country illl. | .]. StudentB then attemptsto discoverthe identityof the country [V.2.c.]. 4. once all studentshavecompletedthe task,studentssharetheir postcards and the culturalstereotypedepictedwith the rest of the class. 5 . Follow-updiscussion ensues the general on topic of culturalstereotyping, with the teacher elicitinga definition of cultural stereotypingfrom the students

I ilv.l.

6. Teacherelicits cultural stereotypes Americansand organizes of these on the blackboard under the headings "Posirive" "Negative"111.4.1. and Students discuss the possibleharm of cultural stereotyping and share some srereotypesheld about their own cultures[V.1.]. 7. As a follow-upassignment, students are askedto bring in postcards from their country (alternately: postcardsfrom the United States)and sharefurther information ilv.s.].Depending classleveland focus, on rhey may be askedas well to write a brief paragraph definingcultural stereotypes[1V.4]. B. Teachervideotapesthe srudent activity [v. | .] for subsequentplayback. or He she hasstudentsview the tape [v.2.];in groups, they discuss the performances and give each other feedback[V.4.].

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Sample Lesson 5: Radio Psychiatrist (phone-in broadcast taped off-air) I I Audience: High-intermediate advanced to international studentsenrolled in an intensive languageinstituteor other visa program; advanced EFLstudentsin the secondary or postsecondary context. To exposestudents authenticEnglish;to to help rhem gain insights into issues which concern Americans; provide them with a forum for problem solving to activities.

Teaching Objective:

Media: Advicecolumn (DearAbby,Ann Landers) topic of audiotape on (mountedon index cards); audiotape phone-inradio psychiarrist of show (possibly Pre-PrePared slightlYedited).t+

Skills: Reading, listening, speaking. Time: 2-3 class periods(l hour each). Procedures:
l. Teacherintroducesthe lessonuy .rt ing studentshow peoplewho are experiencingpersonalproblemscan get advice[1.4].what forums are available (e.g., advicecolumns, counseiors, psychoiogistslpsychiatrists)l Studentsare askedto namespecific situaticns which peoplemightseekthe adviceof a psychiatrist. in 2.' The first halfof the advicecolumn is distributed students, to and topicalvocabularyis discussed l.l. fl. 3. In groups, studentsdiscuss problem[lll.3.c.] the and write rheir "answer"to the advice[1V.4.].They sharethis with the class then Personrequesting and compare it with the actualanswerwritten by the advicecolumnisttlv.l.]. 4. In the subsequent classperiod,the teacher introducesthe topic of radio talk showsand asksstudentswhat kindsof talk showsthey are familiarwith [1.4.]. 5. After a brief introductionto the topic of the tapedphone-incall,srudents listen to the first half of the call-i.e., the caller'sexplanationof the problem.As necessary, difficultvocabulary discussed is [ll.l.]. Dependingon classlevel,the students may listen to this segmentof the tape more than once and may also :', work on answering preparedquestions groups[lll.3.c.]. in 6. As in step 3 above,students are then askedto formulate their own answer to the predicament and to predictrhe answerthat the expert will give [1v.2.b.]. 7. Studentslisten to the expert's advice (again, more than once if necessar:y) and subsequently discuss whether they feei ihis advicewill be of assistancerto tlre caller.They comparetheir own advicewith that of the expert tlv. i.]. 8. optionally,on a third day, studentscan participate a problem solvingtlv.2.b.] in or role-playilv.2. l.] activity, with situations preparedby the reacher. For each role play, one student playsthe role of the advice seeker, and one or more studentscan playthe role of the advicegrver.

The Use of Mediain Lansuage Teaching

471

Sampie Lesson6:"People'sCourt" . (off:air videotape)ts

Audience: Teaching Objective: youngadult or adult ESLstudents. or High-intermediate advanced in situations and to introduce listening comprehension authentic To increase vocabularyitems;to provide a format for problem solving;to familiarize specialized studentswith one aspectof the Americanjudicialsystem.

of smallclaimscourt proceedings, Media: Videotape "Peoplet Court," a broadcast actual of recorded off-air. vocabulary, culture. Skills: Listening, speaking, Time: Procedures: *tro giu", a brief introduction to the L The lesson is introduced by the teacher, the role of smallclaimscourt within this U.S.judicialsystem[.] and explains system$.5.1. judge, vocabulary(e.g., 2. The program"People'sCourt" is explained, .relevant and plaintiff,defendant) is presented fl. l.]. Studentsare asked if they have ever watched this program;those who havesharetheir impressionsof it [V.5.]. Students view a selectedcase(broadcasts "People's of Court" typicallyconsist of two cases) to the point where the judgeretiresto makea decision. up Class the basicpoints of the case,judge the argumentsof the members consider plaintiffand defendant, preciict what the iudgewill decide ilv.2.b.l. and 2 classperiods( | hour each).

4. Students of with then view the remainder the tapeand comparetheir decisions
that of the judge. They may wish at this point to suggest how the litigants could haveimprovedtheir arguments, discuss or the testimonyof the witnesses [V.l.].

5 . On a subsequent the teachermay presentstudentswith varioussituations day,

which might be heard in small claimscourt (e.9.,a dry cleaner who damaged someone'sexpensivedress,or a florist who deliveredthe wrong flowers to a wedding)and preparethe studentsfor a role-play situationin which students take various roles (witnesses, plaintiff, defendant, bailiff,judge).Studentsare giventime to practicethe role playprior to performingit IV.2.a.].

6. Studentsperform the role play, which is videotaped the teacher [V.l.] and by
then placedin a viewingfacilityso that students can reviewtheir performances outsideof class. [V.3.]

7. A follow-upto the video role playcaninclude actualsite visit [V.6.] to a small an

claimscourc.(Thesevisitsshouldbe scheduled advance the teacher;the in by courts are usually gladto accommodate.)

8. Followingthe field visit,a debriefing session held,and studentssharetheir is

irnpiessions |.1. tlv.

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CONCLUSION
As outlined above, instructional media come in an almost infinite variety of forms and can play equally varied roles. The following are factors that should be considered when incorporating instmctional media into our language teaching goals: r I Type of skill/concept to be presented Student preference: the age, interests,experiences, and learning styles of the students concerned Teacher prefbrence: facility rvith equipment, familiarity,/adroitness u'ith the given medium, teaching style Availabiliq' of software and hardrvare Physical circumstances of the classroom,/ lab

I I

However, as Wright (1976, p. 65) notes, u/e should also keep in mind that "language teaching is a collective title for a variery of activitiesundertaken by different people in ver] different circumstances.There is consequently no single medium 'ideal for language teaching' as is so ofren claimed." Ultimately, availability and teacher cre Liiry/adaptabiliry will play major roles in deterrnining to rvhat extent media l'ill be used and u'hich media will be selected. In closing, I encourage you to think creatively about waysto incorporate media inro your language teaching and I reiterare the follorving useful guidelines: Use media materials rvhen variety is called for, when they help you ro reinforce the points you n'ish to make or set1,eas contextualization, when they expedite y,our teaching task and serve as a source of input, and/or when they help you to individualize instruction and appeal to the varieq' of cognitive stylesin your classroom.But above all, use rnedia to involve students more integraliy in the learning process and to facilitate language learning by making it a more authentic, meaningful process.

the text and come prepared to discuss the role that media play in these methods. In which methods/approaches do you feel that media play a central role (i.e., are part of the underlying philosophy)? In which methods/ -approachesdo media play a more peripheral role? 9 Exainine the rationale given in this chapter for the use of media in language teachir-rg. Which reasolts clo you feel are most convincing? Can you think of any others? Select three items from rhe list of technical media and threc iterrrs fi:om those listeci under non-technicalmedia that you are likely to Llsein the langr-rage classroom. Drarv up a list of the advantages ancl disadvantages of each. Can you think of specific teaching applicatior-rs for these for-rnsof media? 4. Is there a feasibilityfactor involved ir-rthe use of audiovisual media? In other n,ords, are ccrtain teachersol' teaching situations limitecl to the q,pesof media thel' cal select?\Arhyor n'hy not?

SUGGESTED CTIVITIES A
l . Collect packaged food items that you harre around ),our household and design a suruival level grid actir.iq'similar to the one described in this article for over-the-countermed.ication. Keep in mind that the purpose of the grid is to pro'uide stndenLs rvith guidance in selecting food items and to train them in reading package labelsfor specific information. I Select a picture or series of pictures from a magazineand appl;' the framework for designir-rgmedia lessons discussed in this chapter. Bring this material ro classand share with othersyour ideason how you would use it. Be prepared as well to discussyour selection criteria. J. Observe an ESL class.What was the obiective of the lesson? What aids did the teachir use? Think of additional aids that would have improrred the lesson. Drau'ing on the suggestions given in Byrd's chapter in tl'risvolume, develop a list of criteria for selecting and evaluating media materials.

DrscusstoN QUESTTONS
l. Elsewhere in this volume, a number of language teaching methods and approaches (both traditional and innovative) have been discussed. home, review these sectionsof At

The Use of Mediain Language Teaching

F U R T H E RR E A D I N G
The following sourcescontain a u'ealth of inforrration for classroom teachers on the use of instructional media for language teaching purposes: LarimeE R. E., and L. Schleicher, eds. 1999. Ne.ulAqy5 in Using Autlrcntic Alaterials in lh.e Classroont. Alexandria, VA: TESOI-. Murphei', T. 1992. Il[usic anci Sorzg. Oxford: Oxforcl University Press. Penfield, J. 1987. The tr/[edia: Calnlyst.s fo, Conn nu,nic e L angu age L t:u r n i?'L Read i n g, ir4A: atia g. Addison-Weslel'. Stempleski,S., and B. Tomalin. 1990. Irideo Action: in fucilteslor Using Vidcoin Langua.gehnclrirzg Nen' York: Prentice Hall. Ur, P. 1984. Teaching l-istening Comprehensiott. Carnbridge: Cambridge Universitv Press. Wright, A. 1989. Pictures for i,Lnxgu.ag? Lenming. Carnbridge: Cambridge Universiq' p1"s55.

ENDNOTES
This chapter is a revision of the one that I u'rote for the 2nd edition of this text (Celce-l{urcia , ed., 1991, pp. 454-472). That chapter replaced hvo in the lst edition-"An Audiovisual lr4ethod for ESL" by James Heaton and "Language Teaching Aids" by Marianne Celce-Murcia (Celce-N4urcia, I\4.,and L. Mclntosh, ed., 1979, pp. 38-48; 307-315). I aur grateful to both autllors for their ideas, frorr.r which I have borrowed liberalltr I am also grateful to Marianne Celce-Murcia for her suggestionscoll-, cerning revisions to this chapter, and to Chrisrine Holten, Janet Goodwin, Linarvati Sidarto, Mike Silverman, and Susan Ryan for tl-reir additional input. I refer here to the distinction made bi' Richards and Rodgers (1987) in their use of the rerrns apltroach., d,esign,and proced,ure,in rvhich o,llnoach, designates the underlying theories of language learning in a given methodology, desigrzrefers to the form and function of the materials and activities used in the classroom, and fn'oced,ure refers to the specifictechniques emploi'ed.

I strongly suggest that teachers share sucl-rrnaterials, institute a materials library, and even collaborate in audiovisual materials preparatiolt, since this can further- ease the materials development burden and furtl-rer increase the above-mentioned payoff. SeerEclelhoff(1981) Brinron, Snon', and \{esche (i989), Pally (2000), and Murphy and Stoller (folthcoming) for a disctrssion of sr.rchmtrltiskills thematic unils. For samples of thematic turits that successfulll,integr-ate media in a thematic col-ltext, see Brinton er al. (1997a) and Brinron et al. (1997b. ) Far fr-our exhar,rsrive, this list is sirnply inrended to sive an idea of thc rzurgco[ media that al-enpically cncouutered in the secor.td iangtrage classr-oor:r. () I trse tlre terrn au.llnttlir hele in its br-oadsellse, to refer to llaterials that rverc nol produced for language teaching ptrrposes per se. Both tvpes of materials (i.e., authenric and peclagogical)have t.gitinrate use in the language classroom. ,1.t.'i'' This framcn'ork is looseh,adapted fr.onr a franrertork for using magazine pictrrresin the larrguage classroomdeveloped b1,McAlpin (1980). 8 These stages are adapted fi"our Edelhoff (1981). I I have chosen to highliglrt tcacher?roduced nredia lessonsratl'ler th:rn comnrer.cialn-raterials since the latter are ustralll, accornDanied rvith teacherguidelines. l0 This idea u'as provided by Doug Beckrvith and is used rr'ith his pern"rission. I I This icleaancl il',. u..ornpun1,ir-rggrid wer-eprovided br'.Jean Turner and are used rvith her permission. 12 This idea rvas provideC by Karer-rO'Neal and is rused rvith her perrnission. l3 This idea u'asprovided by \A/endySaul and Atsuko Kato and is used with their permission. l4 According to rhe guiclelinei established for oFair recording b1' nonprofit educational institutions, a broadcast program ma1, 5. recorded oFair and rctained by the educational institution for a period of trp to 45 calendar dayaafter the date of recording. Upon conclusion of this period, the ofil-air recording rrrtrstbe erasedor destro),ed (Penfield 1987). 15 Used rvith the permission of Paula Van Gelder.

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APPENDIX A
The materials listed below are useful teacher reference texts that contain additional suggestions for using instructional media to teach second languages. Allan, M. t 985. Tba&ingEngtishuith Vd.eo.London: Longman. Anderson, A., and T. Lynch. lgBB. Listening. Cxford: Oxford Universitv press. Bassano, and M. A. Chr.istison. S., 19g7.Drauing Out. Hayward, CA: Alemanv press. Cooper, R., M. Lavery,, ar-rd i.jnvolucri. 1991. M. Video.Oxford: Oxford Unir.ersitypress. Crznmer, D., and C. Laroy lgg2. tr,IusiiatOpmings: Using Musir in tlu Language Clasnoori. EssJx, UK: Addison \Alesley Longman. Duncan, J. 1987. 'fechnolog; As.sisted Tbactring Tbcltniques.Brattleboro, \T: pro Lingui " Associates. Elyt P. 1984. Bring tlrc Lab Bcttk to Life. Oxford: Pergamonpress. Geddes,M., and G. Sturtr-idee, serieseds. PracticalLanguage'fearz ng. \"b1r.,,-,.,I -g. Lo n don : Ii ", George Allen and Ur-rrrin,/Heinemann. l. Planning arid Usittg tlrc Bleckboard. 19g0. Mugglestone,p. 2. UsingtheMagutboarcl.1980. B1,rne, D. 3. The Magazine picture Library. lgg0. McAtpin,J. 4. Using Blachbornd Drauing.l9B0. Shaw, p., and T. de \/er. S. l!9tog'at)hic Slidesin Language Tbaching. Ayron, A., and [4. Ivforgan. _ 19Bl 6. Video in the Language Clasiroom. lgg2. Geddes,M., and G. Sturtridse. 7 . Using tlrc Ouerlrca projecor. I bB2. tl t Jones,J. R. H. Gerngross, G., and H. puchta. 19g2.prctures in Action.New York: prentice Hall. Griffee, D. T. 1992. Songsin Action. New york: Prentice Hall. Grundy, P. 1993. Natspapers. Oxford: Oxford University press. Hill, D. A. 1990. VisualIntpact: AeatiueLanguage Learning Through pictur.es. Harlow, UK: Longman. Lonergan, J. 1984. Video in LarzguageTbaching. Cambridge: Cambridge Universirypress. The Use of Media in Language Teaching

Mejia, E., M. Kennedy Xiao, and J. Kennedy. 1994. 102 Vay TbachabkFitms. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: prentice Hall. Shapiro, N., and C. Genser. 1g93. Chalk Thtks. Berkeley, CA: Command performance Language Institute. Steinberg,J. lgg2. Wntcha Gonna Learn From the Comics? How to (Jse Comics to Tbaclt Lorguages.Iv{arkham, Ontario: pippir-r. _Wright, A. 1974. 100(t pictures for Tbachsrs Copt. to Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 1976. Visual Materials yoi ne Language Tbacher. London: Longman.

APPENDIXB
The materials listed below are useful audiovisual packagesthat are comrnercially available for the teaching of English as a Second Language. This list is not intended to be an exhausti-ve one, but rather to give an idea of the range of materials available. Ashkenas,J. 1985. Cotnicsand Conuersation: [Jsing Humot' to Elicit Conuasation and, DneloO Vocebulary. Studio Ciry, CA:Jag publicationsl 1991. More Comicsand Conuersation: (Jsing Humor to Elicit Conaersation and, Dnelo.lt VoaI ul"ory. c publ icatio ns. Studio Ci ry, C.A: Jag -, ed. 2000. Nau Comicsand Conuersation: Using Hum,or to Elicit Conuersation and Deaelop Vocabulary. Studio City, CA: Jag Publications. Ballard, M. 1985. The Magnetic Way into Language.Amhersq Ny: Creative Edge. Clark, R. C., ed. lg82. Index Card Games for ESL. Brattleboro, VT: pro Lingua Associites. -, ed. 1993. Morc Index Card Gamesand Actiuities for Engtish. Brattleboro, VT: pro Lingua Associates. Educational Solutions. Sitent Woy Materials (Cuisenairerods, sound-color.hurtr, fidels. pictures, etc.). New york: Educational Solutions. Frauman-Prickel, M. lg8b. ActionEngtishpictures. Halnvard, CA: Alemany press. Fuchs,M.S.,J.Critchley, and T. $de. 1986.Famiku: 10 Card Games -fo, Language Learners. Brattleboro, \{l: pro Linzua Asociates. 47q

Hadfield,J. 1984.Harrap's CommunicationGames: A Collection of Games and Actiaities fo, Elementary Students of Engli^sh. Walton-onThames, UIL Nelson Harrap. 1990. IntermediateCommunicationGames: A Collection of Gamzs and Actiaitizs for Low to Mid-Internt ediate Studcnts of Engli,sh. Waltonon-Thames, UIt Nelson Harrap. Hancock, M. 1995. Pronunciation Gam,es. New Yor'k: Cambridge University Press. Henry, L. 1999) . Pronunciation Card Games. Brattleboro, VT: Pro Lingua Associates. Jacot, Y. 1981. See h-Say It. Reading, MA: Addison-\4/esley. Ligon, F., and E. Thnnenbaum. 1990. Picture Stories:Language and, Literacy Actiuities for Beginners. White Plains, NY: Longman. Ligon, F., E. Tinnenbaum, anC C. R. Rodgers. 1992. More Picture Storics: Language and Problzm-Posing Actiuities for Beginzers.White Plains, NY: Longman.

Maley, A., and A. Duff. 1975. Sounds Interesting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1979. Sounds Intrigdng. Cambridge: Cambridge University Pr css. Maley,A., A. Duff, and F. Grellet. 1980. T:hz Mind's Eye.Cambridge: Cambricige University Press. Markstein, L., and D. Grunbaum. 1981. What's Photographs Language the Story:Sequential for Practice. Volumes I-[V. New York: Longman. Morari, P. R. 1984. Lexicarry: An lllustrated Vocnbulary Builder for Seccnd Language. Brattleboro, VT: Pro Lingua Associates. Nelson, G., and T. Winters. 1993. Operations in English: 55 Natura,I and Logical Sequences for Lan.guage Acquisition. Brattleboro, \/T: Pro Lingua Associates. Silr,erson, K., M. Landa, and J. Smith. ig83. S. 'l-itrouglt Video Minrc Speak Easy: English London : Longman. Sketches. Yedlin, J. l99l. Double Aclion Picture Cards. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

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Unit V SkillsforTeachers