EMILE DURKHEIM Born April 15, 1858 in France. Father, Grandfather, and Great-Grandfather were all rabbis.

s. He believed religion could be explained from social rather than divine factors. Entered the cole Normale Suprieure in 1879. Read and studied with classicists with a social scientific outlook while in school. The French academic system had no social science curriculum at the time, and he finished second to last in this graduating class in 1882. Spent a year studying sociology in Germany. 1887 - went to Bordeaux to teach pedagogy and social science to new teachers. Through his new position, he reformed the French school system and introduced social science into its curriculum. 1893 - published The Division of Labor in Society. 1895 - published Rules of the Sociological Method, and founded the European Department of Sociologique at the University of Bordeaux. 1896 - founded the journal L'Anne Sociologique 1887 - went to Bordeaux to teach pedagogy and social science to new teachers. Through his new position, he reformed the French school system and introduced social science into its curriculum. 1893 - published The Division of Labor in Society. 1895 - published Rules of the Sociological Method, and founded the European Department of Sociologique at the University of Bordeaux. 1896 - founded the journal L'Anne Sociologique Durkheims examples of social facts Laws Morals Beliefs Customs Fashions Division of Labour Division of labor examined how social order was maintained in different types of societies. Traditional societies were held together by the fact that everyone was more or less the same. The collective consciousness entirely includes individual consciousness. In modern societies, the high complex division of labor resulted in the binding of people together with different specializations in employment. This created dependencies that tied people to one another since no one person could fill all of the need by themselves. Anomie: Increasing division of labor can lead to rapid change in a society. This can produce a state of confusion with regards to norms and impersonality in social life. This leads to a state in which the norms regulating behavior have been broken down. Social Solidarity The Division of Labor is about the shifting basis of social solidarity as societies evolve from an undifferentiated and simple profile to a complex and differentiated one. Today this topic would be termed social integration, because the concern is with how units of a social system are coordinated The question of social solidarity, or integration, turns on several related issues: How are individuals made to feel part of a larger social collective? How are their desires and wants constrained in ways that allow them to participate in the collective?

How are the activities of individuals and other social units coordinated and adjusted to one another? The Collective Conscience (later called Collective Representations) Collective conscience: The totality of beliefs and sentiments common to average citizens of the same society forms a determinate system which has its own life, one may call it the collective or common conscience. (Durkheim [1893] 1947:79-80) Collective conscience: People are born into the collective conscience, and it regulates their perceptions and behavior. What Durkheim was denoting with the concept of collective conscience, then, is that social systems evidence systems of ideas, such as values, beliefs, and norms, that constrain the thoughts and actions of individuals. Pre-Industrial Society (simple societies) Rooted in similarity of individuals within society, thus little social differentiation Strong collective conscience Serves to unite generations Collective conscience almost erases individual mentality and morality Collective conscience is superior to the individual conscience, hence violations of group receive drastic reaction Unspecialized division of labour Organic Solidarity: Industrial Societies (modern societies) Organic Solidarity based on difference. Division of labour with each part. Division of labour increases interdependence among members of society: specialization needs cooperation Interdependence is not enough, however, for social solidarity There needs to be rules, regulations, contracts, laws, mores, etc. for cooperation Increased organic solidarity is accompanied by moral progress, emphasis on value of equality, liberty, fraternity, justice etc. This type of society Durkheim saw as threatening social solidarity as it could lead to anomie (normlessness) This anomie results from increased individualism and self interest M&P report that Durkheim saw the emphasis on individual freedom as a threat to social unity: it tends to erode a sense of duty and responsibility towards others, factors which Durkheim saw as essential for social solidarity. Durkheim Religion mile Durkheims The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1915) A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practiceswhich unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them (Durkheim 1915: 62). A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practiceswhich unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them (Durkheim 1915: 62). Durkheim emphasized how religion brought people together who share a commitment to the same sacred symbol, and who are then united in a moral community The bonding is what is significant, not the object of devotion Religion serves an essential social function

There can be no society which does not feel the need of upholding and reaffirming at regular intervals the collective sentiments and the collective ideas which make its unity and its personality. Durkheim (1915: 474-475) Not in natural instinct or attempts to describe nature (as Naturism or Animism) To be scientific, we cannot guess what the origins of evolution of religion are Instead look at religion in action (find ever-present causes) in simplest living society Chose Australian tribal religion (totemism) based off of new research in his era Totemism shows sacred and profane Durkheim instead proposes religion arises from the concept of the sacred (vs. profane) within a community Then the sacred unites a community around it The profane often works counter to the community and for the individual Conditions for profane to become sacred : Set of beliefs Set of rites Set of a moral community such as church The sacred refers to things set apart as exceptional and worthy of awe and reverence The profane consists of the common things of everyday life, whose value rests in their practical usefulness Sacred animal, plant, or object associated with the different tribes Totem is a visible image of the clan, as flag, banner, or logo of people Tribes group all items in natural world according to their totemic tribal system (individuals can have totems) No religion earlier than totemism (here against Tylor & Frazer) Primitives claim to worship a god, but really are participating in tribal identity & unity Soul is conscience, voice of clan within us, but the body is individual/selfish/profane Rites of initiation bring boys/girls into tribe Ancestor spirits who were important to clan; then one ancestor of special importance of all tribes (monotheism) Evolution of idea: souls, ancestors, gods Social foundation not in ideas, but in rituals, where community gathers--to promote consciousness of the clan Thought religion was a form of social cohesion, which holds complex societies together. Saw totemism as the original form of religion, because it was the emblem for the social group, the clan. Believed that the function of religion was to make people willing to put the interests of others ahead of themselves. The model for relationships between people and the supernatural was the relationship between individuals and the community. God is society, writ large. Saw religion as a mechanism that protected a threatened social order. Thought religion was a form of social cohesion, which holds complex societies together. Saw totemism as the original form of religion, because it was the emblem for the social group, the clan.

Believed that the function of religion was to make people willing to put the interests of others ahead of themselves. The model for relationships between people and the supernatural was the relationship between individuals and the community. God is society, writ large. Saw religion as a mechanism that protected a threatened social order. Suicide: 1. Altruistic Suicide This occurs when there is excessive integration within a group. There is a strong sense of loyalty. E.g. suicide bomber, kamikaze pilots etc. The individual gives his/her life for the group 2. Egoistic Suicide This is where there is insufficient integration. Protestant countries had higher rates than Catholic ones. Durkheim believed this was because this was a more individualised religion Modern egs include Kurt Cobain self interested pursuit of destruction 3. Anomic Suicide Is a feature of societies/individuals undergoing rapid change where there is confusion over norms and values Suicide goes up in times of economic prosperity and decline E.g. Wall St Crash, Lottery winners 4. Fatalistic Suicide Occurs where there is excessive regulation. Durkheim only gave this a footnote in his book young husbands with futures pitilessly blocked Also slaves, concentration camp members Modern e.gs Fred West? Evaluating Durkheim's approach Positivist Criticisms 1. Durkheim was too vague on his concepts of integration and regulation 2. Agreed with Durkheims approach but criticised his lack of rigour with the stats. 3. Maybe the stats were affected by the the hesitance of reporting such deaths in religious countries.

Max Weber Capatislism and bureaucracy: Max Weber was born in Erfurt in Thuringia, Germany on April 21, 1864 He was the oldest of seven children. In college Weber studied law, economics, medieval history, and theology.

In 1893 he married his distant cousin Marianne Schnitger, who later became a feminist and author. Along with Marx and Durkheim he is regarded as one of the founders of modern sociology.On June 14, 1920 he died of pneumonia. Influence of Max Weber Famous Works: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism 1905 Economy and Society, 1914 The Sociology of Religion, 1920 The Methodology of the Social Sciences, 1949 Legacy of Weber: Weber worked in the antipositivist tradition which believed the social sciences needed different methods than the methods of the natural sciences because of social action. Weber made large contributions to the fields of the sociology of religion and the sociology of government Weber concentrated on the relationship between social stratification and religion. Main idea of classical organizational theory There is one best way to perform a task Scientific management focusing on the management of work and workers Administrative management - addressing issues concerning how overall organization should be structured German sociologist Weber first describes the concept of bureaucracy an ideal form of organizational structure He defines bureaucratic administration as the exercise of control on the basis of knowledge Weber states, Power is principally exemplified within organizations by the process of control Weber uses and defines the terms authority and power as: Power: any relationship within which one person could impose his will, regardless of any resistance from the other. Authority: existed when there was a belief in the legitimacy of that power. Weber classifies organizations according to the legitimacy of their power and uses three basic classifications: Charismatic Authority: based on the sacred or outstanding characteristic of the individual. Traditional Authority: essentially a respect for customs. Rational Legal Authority: based on a code or set of rules. Weber recognizes that rational legal authority is used in the most efficient form of organization because: A legal code can be established which can claim obedience from members of the organization The law is a system of abstract rules which are applied to particular cases; and administration looks after the interests of the organization within the limits of that law. Weber recognizes that rational legal authority is used in the most efficient form of organization because: A legal code can be established which can claim obedience from members of the organization

The law is a system of abstract rules which are applied to particular cases; and administration looks after the interests of the organization within the limits of that law. The manager or the authority additionally follows the impersonal order Membership is key to law obedience Obedience is derived not from the person administering the law, but rather to the impersonal order that installed the persons authority Weber outlined his ideal bureaucracy as defined by the following parameters: A continuous system of authorized jobs maintained by regulations Specialization: encompasses a defined sphere of competence, based on its divisions of labor A stated chain of command of offices: a consistent organization of supervision based on distinctive levels of authority Rules: an all encompassing system of directives which govern behavior: rules may require training to comprehend and manage Impersonality: no partiality, either for or against, clients, workers, or administrators Free selection of appointed officials: equal opportunity based on education and professional qualification Full-time paid officials: only or major employment; paid on the basis of position Career officials: promotion based on seniority and merit; designated by supervisors Private/Public split: separates business and private life The finances and interests of the two should be kept firmly apart: the resources of the organization are quite distinct from those of the members as private individuals. (a) A tendency to a leveling of social classes by allowing a wide range of recruits with technical competence to be taken by any organization (b) Elite status because of the time required to achieve the necessary technical training (c) Greater degree of social equality due to the dominance of the spirit of impersonality or objectivity Classical principles of formal organization may lead to a work environment in which: Employees have minimal power over their jobs and working conditions Subordination, passivity and dependence are expected work to a short term perspective Employees are lead to mediocrity Working conditions produce to psychological failure as a result of the belief that they are lower class employees performing menial tasks Characteristics of Modern Democracy 1. Principal of Official jurisdiction ordered by rules: Activities required for bureaucracy are assigned by official duties The authority to command these duties is distributed in a stable was decided by rules These duties and associated rights are set up to always be completed. Only qualified persons are employed. When these exist in a state it makes a bureaucratic agency. In a private economy a bureaucratic enterprise. For the state bureaucracy is only fully developed in the modern state. In a bureaucratic enterprise it is only fully developed in a private economy. Principles of office hierarchy require established system of super and subordination. 3. Management of an office is based on written documents. Official duty is separated from the private life of the official. 4. Specialized office management usually comes about through specialized training.

. In a fully developed office activity demands the full working capacity of official independent of the amount of working hours. 6. Management follows rules which are mostly stable, exhaustive and able to be learned. One part of the special technical expertise of the official is knowledge of these rules. Reduction of office management to rules is at the base of the nature of a bureaucracy.

The Position of the Official Within and Outside of Bureaucracy. I. Office holding as a vocation Shown through requirement of training Demands entire working capacity Office holding considered acceptance of duty not ownership of an income source Does not establish relationship to a person but to an impersonal and functional purpose II. Social Position of Official a. Social esteem and convention. The official usually seeks and attains an elevated esteem which is protected by the position of rank b. Appointment vs. Election. Election is not strictly bureaucratic. Appointed officials function more accurately because functional points determine the officials career. Election endangers expert qualification and functioning of a bureaucracy. Tenure and Inverse Relationship Between Judicial Independence and Social Prestige. Tenure separates the official from the worker. Also guarantees strictly impersonal discharge of duties. d. Rank as Basis of Regular Salary Official receives salary and pension with old age. This along with social esteem makes position highly sought after. e. Fixed Career Lines and Status Rigidity Promotion and salary levels determined by fixed measures of seniority or examination grades. The Technical Superiority of Bureaucratic Organization over Administration by Notables Bureaucratic administrations are superior to all others in precision, speed, ambiguity, knowledge of files, continuity, discretion, unity, strict subordination, reduction of friction of material and personal costs. Positions are assigned by training and expertise A fully developed bureaucracy levels status and takes emotion and favoritism out of business. . Administrative democratization Bureaucracy accompanies mass democracy which results from abstract regularity of exercise of authority which results from a demand for equality before the law. b. Mass parties and the bureaucratic consequences of democratization Mass democratic parties are increasingly being organized bureaucratically rather than by personal relationships

Political concept of democracy includes the prevention of a closed status group of officials so that there is universal access. There is also a minimization of authority which creates a conflict between bureaucracy and democracy. .Leveling of social differences: Administrative democratization Bureaucracy accompanies mass democracy which results from abstract regularity of exercise of authority which results from a demand for equality before the law. b. Mass parties and the bureaucratic consequences of democratization Mass democratic parties are increasingly being organized bureaucratically rather than by personal relationships Political concept of democracy includes the prevention of a closed status group of officials so that there is universal access. There is also a minimization of authority which creates a conflict between bureaucracy and democracy. The Objective and Subjective Bases of Bureaucratic Perpetuity: Once established bureaucracies are very hard to destroy They transform social action into rationally organized action which is superior to every kind of collective behavior or social action The Professional bureaucrat is chained to his activity in his entire economic and ideological existence Those who are ruled cannot destroy it because it is based on expert training, specialization, an attitude of habit. If the bureaucracy ends chaos will ensue. The material fate of the masses is tied to it. Since it is based on objectivity and impersonal work it is easy to make it work for anyone who can take it over Makes revolution more and more impossible. MAX Weber The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Die protestantiche Ethik und der Geist des kapitalismus The Basic idea: A rise in rationalization, particularly rationalization of the economy To Weber, the most rational economic system is capitalism Capitalism arose when large numbers of people worked in the secular world, influenced by a work ethic derived from Protestantism, particularly Calvinism. This lead to the development of enterprises and accumulation of wealth Worldly activities, particularly business, were given positive social and moral meaning, ethically encouraged, and rationally pursued. NOT the goal of the religion, but rather a byproduct, giving rise to capitalism, allowing for the basic amount of accumulated wealth for capitalism to evolve. Paradox: Religious devotion is not typically associated with worldly success- Why is this so in Protestantism? Calvinists believed in predestination- their salvation (or lack thereof) was already determined and what they did on Earth didnt change it. Therefore, they looked for signs of their salvation, the major one being success in business. It was also their ethical duty to seek profit, or to be a good worker

There was no guilt in being a successful capitalist, extorting workers, because success and failure economically was decided by God and a marker of divine favor. Protestant Ethnic: Calvinists believed in predestination- their salvation (or lack thereof) was already determined and what they did on Earth didnt change it. Therefore, they looked for signs of their salvation, the major one being success in business. It was also their ethical duty to seek profit, or to be a good worker There was no guilt in being a successful capitalist, extorting workers, because success and failure economically was decided by God and a marker of divine favor. The new Protestant religions compelled people to work extremely hard in the secular world, making it more likely theyd accumulate wealth. However, these sects forbade using this wealth for materialism, luxury goods, etc., so the majority of this capital was re-invested into enterprise to be even more successful. All these beliefs about economic success add up to the Protestant Ethic Roots of Protestant Ethnic: The Reformation- There was no longer solely salvation in the church. New Protestant religions that didnt look to the church to earn or assure salvation, but rather that it was already pre-ordained. However, the average Protestant could not easily adjust to this new view, only religious geniuses like Martin Luther could accept this without question. Protestants began to look for other signs or divine signals that they were among the saved. Systematical, rational pursuit of profit combined with frugality, punctuality, fairness, and the earning of money itself as a legitimate goal. This was not compatible with other religions, particularly Catholicism, allowing capitalism to first and more successfully evolve in Protestant countries. Spirit of Capitalism: Systematical, rational pursuit of profit combined with frugality, punctuality, fairness, and the earning of money itself as a legitimate goal. This was not compatible with other religions, particularly Catholicism, allowing capitalism to first and more successfully evolve in Protestant countries. Capitalism continued to be successful as the western world continued to become more and more secular. The religious underpinnings of capitalisms success disappeared from society. However, the Protestant ethic was largely responsible for what Weber terms the disenchantment of the Western world, becoming an industrialized society free from magic. This thesis is quite a critique of Marx by stating that religion fostered capitalism, not that the base for capitalism was actually economic.

 Globalization: The shift toward a more integrated and interdependent world economy Two components: The globalization of markets The globalization of production Globalization of Production Vizio flat panel TV is designed in a small office in California assembled in Mexico From panels made in South Korea electronic components made in China microprocessors made in the U.S. The globalisation process in India during the past Ancient period Globalisation: Economic factors that led to the country's economic prosperity References available from Jatakas and other texts. Evidences are also based on discovery of Indian articles The time of Buddha (3rd century B. C.) Indian sailors could go to lands now called Myanmar, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Laos, Vietnam, Campuchea in the east and Sri Lanka in the South Mauryan policy of friendship with the world spices, perfumes, jewels and fine textiles (Muslim countries) ivory (both raw and finished), sugar, rice, ghee, Indian iron (for its purity, live animals (buffuloes, lions, tigers, elephants (for the wild beast shows of Rome and other Roman provincial capitals) and monkeys) and birds (parrots, peacocks, pheasants etc. for being used as pets of Roman ladies) etc. Both land and sea trade flourished at that time. 20th century globalisation in India: started since-1985 continuing till now with varying degree of pace in its successive phases (1985-91, 1991-95, 1995-2005) and is expected to continue Sectors where Globalisation/Economic: Reforms entered Education Sector- Privatization, Privatization of Higher education,Internationalization of education Linguistic, cultural & ideology convergence-Emergence of Foreign language centers,international brands promotion etc. Finance sector-Foreign Credits Availability ex CitiBank etc Communication & Information Technology sector- Private Channels ,Mobile Phones,Computer , internet etc. International movement of people-Liberal policy in Passport issues,visa etc. Business sector-World system of signs & images & brands Drivers of Globalization : Two factors underlie globalization Decline in barriers to the free flow of goods, services, and capital that has occurred since the end of World War II Technological change Two factors underlie globalization Decline in barriers to the free flow of goods, services, and capital that has occurred since the end of World War II

 Technological change Notable global institutions include the World Trade Organization (WTO) which is responsible for policing the world trading system and ensuring that nations adhere to the rules established in WTO treaties In 2008, 151 nations accounting for 97% of world trade were members of the WTO the International Monetary Fund (IMF) which maintains order in the international monetary system The Emergence of Global Institutions the World Bank which promotes economic development the United Nations (UN) which maintains international peace and security, develops friendly relations among nations, cooperates in solving international problems and promotes respect for human rights, and is a center for harmonizing the actions of nations The Changing Nature of the Multinational Enterprise : Since the 1960s, there has been a rise in non-U.S. multinationals there has been a rise in mini-multinationals Different Dimensions of Globalisation: The Economic Policy of Liberalisation The Transnational Corporations . The Electronic Economy . Globalisation of Finance. Globalisation of Communications . Globalisation and Labor . Globalisation and Political Changes . Homogenisation vs globalisation of culture. Threats of Globalization: Threat to indigenous Craft To Literary Traditions and Knowledge Systems Recent attempts by some MNC to patent the use of Tulsi, Haldi ,Rudraksha , Basmati rice has highlighted the need for protecting indigenous knowledge systems. Threat to traditional shops from new departmental stores. The Globalization Debate : Pro Lower prices for goods and services Economic growth Increase in consumer income Creates jobs (for many) Countries specialize in production of goods and services that are produced most efficiently Con Destroys manufacturing jobs in wealthy nations Wage rates of unskilled in advanced countries decline Companies move to countries with fewer labor and environment regulations Loss of sovereignty Homogenized cultures

Factors accelerating globalization Trans-national corporations have grown in size and influence: Establish key facts (e.g. who the major players are) Communications have improved-both transport mechanisms (e.g.aeroplanes and high speed rail) and information exchange (e.g. internet and e-mail). New Markets are developing all the time. Western companies now wish to sell to Asia (china and India), and stock markets are growing in this region.) International organizations have developed since Second World war. They attempt tp referee the global game. Cover names of the main agencies.