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A Review of Condition Monitoring and Fault Diagnosis for Diesel Engines

N.B. \ones and Yii-Hua Li Department of Engineering, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK

Abstract
Technical advances and enaironmental legislation in recent years have stimulated the developinent of a number of teclzniqiies for condition monitoring and faiilt diagnosis (CMFD)in diesel engines. This paperfirstly siimrnarises common faults, faiilt meclianisms and their effect on diesel engine performance. Corresponding measiirands are presented. Standard CMFD metliods for parameters and CMFD systems for diesel engines are reviewed. Finally, some advanced CMFD techniques, including neural networks and fiizzy logic, wlziclz may be more powerful, are discussed.

Keywords
diesel engine, condition monitoring, fault diagnosis, review

INTRODUCTION
Although the history of the diesel engine extends back to the end o the ninef teenth century, when Dr. Rudolf Diesel began his pioneering work on air blast injected stationary engines, and, in spite of the dominant position it now holds in many applications, eg., marine propulsion and land transport, both road and rail, it is still the subject of intensive development and is still capable of improvement. The diesel engine will have an assured place as the most efficient liquid fuel burning prime mover yet devised. The engine is the heart of much equipment, such as vehicles, agricultural equipment, ships, and military equipment, so keeping it in good working condition is vital to maintaining overall efficiency. Condition monitoring and fault diagnosis (CMFD) is a valuable set of techniques designed to ensure that the engine stays in good condition. Many researchers and manufacturers have paid close attention to developing a variety of CMFD methods or systems for engines. To keep abreast of technical developments and meet stringent environmental legislation, it is necessary to develop more efficient, more reliable, more
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robust, and more economical CMFD systems for diesel engines. Before developing any new system, however, we should review past achievements. There is extensive literature on CMFD techniques for diesel engines. It is not possible to review all the work that contributors to this field may feel should be reviewed and so, to all of those contributors who may feel offended by omission, the authors sincerely apologise.

COMMON FAULTS, FAULT MECHANISMS, AND THEIR EFFECT ON ENGINE PERFORMANCE

Diesel engines usually consist of the following sub-systems: a fuel injection system; pistons, rings, and liners; an inlet and exhaust system; heat exchangers; a lubrication system; and bearings; and for novel diesel engines an electronic control sub-system. In order to design an efficient condition monitoring and fault diagnosis system, it is essential that as much as possible is known about the processes and failure mechanisms of the engine. The following are some of the common faults which are diagnosed and which occur as a result of degradation or malfunction o one or more units of the diesel engine. f

Power loss Power is a practical engine performance parameter of interest. Severe power loss may cause the engine to be taken out of service. The causes of power loss are misfire, blow-by, and incorrect timing.

Emission changes Exhaust emissions have become a major focus of diesel engine development. Since emissions cause air pollution that is harmful to human health, progressively more stringent, technologically-demanding standards have been introduced. Emissions are the major limiting factor relating to diesel engine use on roads, thus monitoring emission changes has become an increasing concern for engineers. It has long been appreciated by engineers that the presence of smoke in diesel engine exhaust is an indication of poor combustion resulting from a malfunction or maladjustment. The causes of emission changes are:
injector hosing/ hole blockage incorrect injector timing air intake filter blocked loss of compression poor diesel fuel over-fuelling turbocharger malfunction fuel filter blocked glowplug malfunction
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incorrect boost fuel chop fuelling imbalance across cylinders injector protrusion wrong incorrect nozzle, pump malfunctioning electronic control unit (ECU) incorrect piston topping wastegate sticking valve sticking/burnt valve stem seal cracked.

Lubricating system fault The main faults of the lubrication system are incorrect oil pressure and oil deterioration. Incorrect oil pressure can result in no oil film between two moving parts. This will cause severe wear. Diesel engine lubricants may deteriorate in a variety of ways. They may become contaminated by carbonaceous particles from incomplete combustion of the fuel, unburnt fuel, acidic water from blow-by gases, sea water (marine diesels), oxidation products from the lubricating oil, ash from the lubricating oil additives, metal particles from wear of the metal parts, or from foreign matter such as road dust. Their viscosity may increase owing to oil oxidation and will certainly increase as their content of suspended oil-insolubles increases. Noise and vibration The factors which cause engine noise can be classified as follows:
1. 2. 3. Mechanical noise caused by the impact of one engine part against another; Noise due to vibrations resulting from combustion; Intake and exhaust noise.

In diesel engines, an important source of noise may be the injection system, especially the seating of the injector needle and check valve. In order to examine the basic terms the sources and paths of noise and vibration transmission in an engine it is convenient to consider a simple model of the type shown in Figure 1 (overleaf).' According to this model, certain faults can be monitored and diagnosed by vibration signal analysis. Some sources of noise, for example, torsional vibration, can lead in severe cases to shaft failure as a result of torsional stress fatigue.'.'

Wear' Wear can be caused by either corrosion or abrasion, or both, and the extent to which either factor is predominant depends on running conditions. Wear can occur in any of the surfaces in relative motion, i.e., piston bearing surfaces, bore, rings, grooves, valve trains, or main and big-end bearings. However, the significant wear that controls how long the engine can run between overhauls is mainly wear of the bore at the upper limit of top ring travel, radial
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Figure 1 Engine noise generation - a simple model

wear of the top ring with the resultant increase in the ring gap and consequent blow-by, and the increase in the side clearance of the top ring due to ring and groove wear. Such wear may be due to abrasion by engine deposits or by foreign matter that enters through the air intake or the crankcase breathers. Abrasion by engine deposits usually increases with an increase in the severity of the operating conditions, but abrasion due to foreign matter is usually independent of operating conditions.

Tlzerrnal overload3 Engine anomalies will increase the thermal load and raise
the wall temperatures of the cylinders. Such anomalies may develop as a result of one or more of the following conditions: unsuitable fuel quality leaking injection valves too low injection pressure eroded or clogged injector holes carbon formation on injector nozzle too high fuel/air ratio piston ring-cylinder wear or f'it air cleaner or exhaust silencer blockage blocked intercooler inadequate coolant flow high coolant or lubricant temperature high engine friction
I

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incorrect timing misfire leaking intake or exhaust manifold leaking intake or exhaust valves The high temperatures caused by this type of overheating will have some detrimental effects: Higher temperatures on the combustion chamber surfaces will bring about an increased rate of high temperature corrosion. Thermal stresses in the piston crown, cover, and liner will increase, and cracks may develop. High temperatures in the upper part of the liner may destroy the oil film and increase the wear rate of the liner and ring. Excessive emissions.

Leaks4i5 Leakage is a major nuisance in diesel engines. Leaks may appear in the fuel injection system, lubrication system, or air valves. Other faults These include knocking, filter faults, fuel contamination, and aeration.

MEASURANDS FOR CMFD

There are several kinds of signal to be measured.

Presslire This includes cylinder pressure, fuel system pressure, oil pressure, intake and exhaust pressures.

Rotational anglelspeed This is an essential measurement in all engine condition monitoring and fault diagnosis. There is now a satisfactory and almost universal solution for measuring rotational speed. Some monitoring methods based on measurement of engine crankshaft speed provide an accurate, low-cost, and reliable way to acquire these data.
Temperatiire Engine monitoring involves the measurement of a number of temperatures, ranging from the near ambient temperature of the induction air to 1000C at the exhaust outlet. It is convenient to use one type of thermocouple for all temperatures, but there are other methods of measuring temperature, for example, infrared or optical fibre.

Vibration6 Vibration monitoring is a major technique for mechanical fault

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diagnosis. The vibration parameters to be measured include displacement, velocity, acceleration, and stress. However, accelerometers are a popular transducer for vibration analysis because of their accuracy, light weight, good temperature resistance, and wide frequency response.

Particles This includes particles in the oil and particles in the exhaust. Particles in the oil are mainly caused by wear.
Fitel and oil quality The fuel and oil condition directly affects the emission, power, and other performance parameters of a diesel engine. The fuel condition is determined by contamination and aeration. The oil condition is determined by parameters such as viscosity, acid number and base number, fuel in oil, water in oil, and particles, but viscosity and metal particles in the oil are major parameters to be monitored.

To summarise, the main faults and their corresponding measurands are as follows:

Coinpotleiits

Fnults

S ig rials r w a s M red

Fuel injection equipment

incorrect timing incorrect pressure leakage eroded or clogged injector holes misfire blow-by knocking scuffing defective ring power loss incorrect oil pressure high lubricant temperature oil contamination oil degradation air filter blockage leakage excessive emission rotation speed pressure cylinder oil fuel temperature piston set oil coolant timing particle viscosity acidity smoke vibration

Piston, cylinder, ring

Lubrication system

Inlet & exhaust system

Heat exchanger Mechanical system

high coolant temperature bearing wear

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CONDITION MONITORING AND DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEMS/METHODS: Methods for measuring parameters

Power
All test procedures require power measurement. This involves measuring rotational speed and torque. Speed measurement has become simple and precise with the development of electronic pulse systems. To measure torque, however, presents a much more difficult problem, as is shown by the wide range of principles that have been incorporated in dynamometers for power measurement. Most dynamometers are of the absorption type where engine power is converted into heat or electrical energy. Obviously, this method of measuring power is unavailable for condition monitoring in service and fault diagnosis because of its complicated operation and lack of flexibility. A more recent technique is the free acceleration test.7 This involves accelerating the engine by applying full throttle from idle speed, using the engines own inertia as load. The flywheel speed is measured, and, where the engines moment of inertia is known, the torque and power can easily be evaluated. The free acceleration method offers cost savings, requiring no dynamometer or associated facilities. This method is also ideally suited to testing an engine in its operating site. However, researchers have indicated, for the naturally aspirated diesel engine in particular, that this method tends to overestimate the torque and the power.7 In practice, this tendency can be overcome by establishing semiempirical correction factors. A novel but practical method is to measure only the flywheel speed; further information on this is given below.

Torque: dyr?arnic measurement8

If the moment o inertia o the engine is known, the active (acceleration) and the f f frictional (deceleration) torque can be calculated; the sum of the two torques is equal to the indicated torque which is due only to the phenomenon of combustion and is not influenced by other parameters such as oil and air temperature. The algorithm used to calculate the torque compares the work done during an angle A with the variation of the corresponding kinetic energy according to the following formula:
T
=

Z.(W:-W:)/(~.A)

where: T = torque I = moment of inertia of engine w = engine speed i

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A = angle between two reference points on the flywheel.

By this method, it is possible to estimate not only the global torque of the engine but also the contribution of each cylinder. The waveform of the torque of the crankshaft via the crankshaft angle is quite a popular method of measurement in tests and diagnoses of engines. Torque can be measured by fitting a torque sensor to an Indramat drive as~embly.'~'~ Direct measurement of crankshaft torque in engine monitoring is avoided because of both cost and environmental factors. Crankshaft torque can be deduced from the engine speed as mentioned above.
Cylinder pressure By measuring and monitoring the cylinder pressure, it is possible to check whether combustion is taking place in an optimum manner; this is essential for good fuel economy and clean emissions. Cylinder pressure is also often selected to monitor the thermal process because the power contribution of the individual cylinders can be accurately assessed from the gas-pressure torques. The cylinder pressure can be measured directly and indirectly by alternative sensors. Direct measzarement11-16 The pressure transducers are mounted in the top of the cylinder. There are different types of pressure transducer and the most popular is the Kistler piezoelectric pressure transducer. The two main factors influencing the accuracy of cylinder pressure measurement are the thermal shock effect and the indicator passage effect. The thermal shock effect can be eliminated by employing a short indicator passage instead of locating the pressure transducer flush with the cylinder wall surface and the error due to the passage effect can be minimised by digital filtering. Direct measurement can usually give a reliable and accurate result, and signal processing is easy. But it requires installing sensors intrusively on the engine, and this is usually inconvenient, time-consuming, and uneconomic in engineering practice. Indirect r n e a ~ z i r e r n e n t ~ ~ , ~ ~ - ~cylinder pressure is one of the most imporSince ~ tant parameters of the engine, researchers have been seeking more efficient methods of measuring it. Some recent methods involve the following techniques:
1. Vibrdion Vibrations are easily measured in an industrial environment. Cylinder pressures can be obtained from structural signals by transfer function23or Wiener-Hilbert filter.I8 If it is supposed that the transfer function of the engine, H(z), is known, between the point that pressure acts on and the points where the vibration signals are measured, and the vibration signals, x(t), are measured in the process o f
~~~ ~~

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Figure 2 Flow diagram of signal processing technique

I
I

Measurement of engine speed waveform

Spectrum of speed fluctuations

Spectrum of crankshaft torque

Crankshaft-toraue waveform Subtract inertia torque

Estimated gas-pressure torque

monitoring and diagnosis, then P ( z ) can be obtained from: P ( z ) = H(z)+X(z), where X ( z ) is the Fourier transformation of x ( t ) and H(z)' is the inverse matrix of H ( z ) , so the cylinder pressure p ( t ) is induced from P(z) by inverse Fourier transforma tion:

This technique, called load identification in structural dynamics, can usually give a satisfactory result for discrete loads. However, if it is used to identify cylinder pressure, problems arise, the first being that since the cylinder pressure is a distributed load, it must be considered as several equivalent discrete loads. A second problem is whether the transfer function of the engine is constant during its service life. In addition, the measuring points must be chosen carefully, otherwise, ill-conditioning may occur in inverting the transformation of matrix H(z). So there is still some work to do before this method can be applied to engine diagnosis.

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Another method of obtaining the pressure profile is to use a WienerHilbert filter to monitor the vibration signals.'8 Crankshaft speed20~21(24Information on the crankshaft speed is useful for 2. monitoring the internal conditions of an engine, and because of the ease of measurement and low hardware cost, it is one of the most frequently used system states for monitoring or diagnosing engines, and is employed in the estimation of cylinder pressures by many researchers. The method can be described as follows. Fluctuations in the speed of an internal combustion engine are a direct consequence of the cyclic nature of the crankshaft-torque waveform. This complex waveform is the result of the interaction of various forces produced within the running engine. The fundamental component of the waveform is at the cylinder-firing frequency, and is attributed to the combination of the two principal forces: gas-pressure forces, resulting from the combustion process; and inertia forces, owing to the reciprocating masses associated with pistons and connecting rods. A flow diagram of the process is shown in Figure 2. However, this method is limited to low-speed engines and high engine load operations. Some researchers have extended this work and obtained satisfactory results by monitoring cylinder pressures with non-linear sliding observers.21

Ol pressure i Oil pressure is commonly measured directly by a pressure sensor.

~ i i e injection p r e s ~ u r e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l Two methods are usually used to monitor fuel injection line pressure. One uses a pressure sensor to link serially to the injection line. Since highly accurate pressure sensors are easily obtainable, this method can usually give accurate and reliable results, but it is not suitable for condition monitoring. It may cause other faults, such as leakage, if carelessly operated. Another method is to use a clamp-on pressure sensor. A typical clamp-on sensor uses piezoelectrics to sense pressure. Its operation is based on the idea that the pipe expands when high-pressure fuel flows through it, and this produces a force which transfers to the piezoelectrics via a force transformation block, and a charge proportional to the pressure is produced. The fuel injection pressure can be derived from picking u p this charge. This method is convenient for condition monitoring.

Ol temperatiire i Oil temperature can be measured by a thermocouple placed in the dip stick tube.
Piston set temperature28,29
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There are two main reasons why it is important to know the temperatures reached by the piston rings and land surfaces in crankcase engines during operation. First, the ring and the opposing liner surface temperatures determine the magnitude of any lubricating film formed. Second, lubricant oxidation and consequent deposit and sludge formation result, to a large extent, from the extreme surface temperatures that the lubricant encounters in the upper ring pack zone. The principal means of measuring piston temperatures has been to embed thermocouples close to or at the surface of the piston or liner. A thermocouple usually measures the temperature of the bulk liner or piston rather than that of the piston ring, and it has a poor response time, which makes it difficult to study transient temperature variations. Reference 13 describes the use of infrared emission thermography through a sapphire window inserted in the cylinder wall to measuring piston ring and land surface temperatures in a firing engine directly. The infrared method overcomes the disadvantages of the thermocouple method, but all these methods are intrusive.

Wear The wear of the piston ring, cylinder, crankshaft, or bearing is one of the main faults in engines. By continuously measuring the wear, it is possible to detect hazardous trends and take the necessary corrective measures in time. Wear can be monitored by three means: surface temperature sensor, wear sensor, and lubricant oil analysis. Surface temperature A surface thermocouple mounted in the upper part of the cylinder is used to monitor scuffing in cylinder liners. The response of the sensor is extremely quick, enabling it to pick up the transient temperature caused by scuffing between rings and liner. The surface thermocouples must be perfectly flush with the liner surface and, therefore, a mounting hole has to be drilled through. Wear sensor A wear sensor based on thin-film technology is used to monitor the wear of the liner. As the liner wears, so the resistance changes in the thin-film resistor. The sensor is inserted through the cylinder liner and lies flush with the cylinder surface. After signal processing, the output signal is proportional to the wear at the point where the sensor is mounted. Ring and liner wear can also be measured by using a capacitive probe for oil film thickness and thin layer activation techniques. Lubricant contamination3""* Particles in the oil can damage the performance of an engine through silting deposits or by causing increased wear. The contaminant may either be ingressed, through the air filter, seals, or filler port, for example, or it may be generated internally through combustion products, wear, or fatigue. The contaminant in oil can be detected in a variety of ways including:

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1. Ferrographic oil analysis which includes the following operations: (a>the collection of wear particles (magnetic) accumulated in the lubricants, and their
Table 1 The characteristics of various condition monitoring techniques
RPD-PQ lrletllod
Aforirir Forrrii~r nbsorptrorr ( A A ) trnrisforrri spc~troscopy irifrarcif (FTlR) spectroscopy

RPD-irringc ntrdyser

Cylinder-liner failure Crankshaft failure Particle size distribution Engine bearings failure Economics Remarks

good very good good poor very good

(1)

very good good poor poor excellent

(2)

good good

poor
poor

good poor excellent poor

poor
excellent

poor poor

(1) Requires database of engine wear. (2) Blind to size distribution and non-ferrous material. ( 3 ) Blind to quantitative analysis. (4) Blind to large size wear debris. (5) Blind to quantitative analysis.

deposition, according to size, on a transparent substrate for easy inspection; (b) the selection and separation of significant particles, including severe wear particles greater than 15 pm in size and normal wear particles of less than 5 pm located in different areas of the substrate; (c) the inspection and evaluation of the particles and their morphology and nature; and (d) the identification of particles (type of material). Ferrography has gained wide recognition as a powerful condition monitoring technique and has been widely applied to many types of machine. However, it has some limitations where there are deposits of non-ferrous or non-metallic particles. 2. 1 'lrious condition monitoring teclzniqzies including Rotary Particle Depositor (KPD), Particle Quantifier (PQ), Spectrometric Oil Analysis, and Image Analyser Systems. The effectiveness of these methods in monitoring wear failure in an engine is indicated in Table l.32

3. ~ontarnimtionmeter~31 are convenient for assessing the contamination level of oils still in situ, in the sump. The only stipulation is that it must be posTribotesf joitrirnl6-3, Mnrdr 2000. ( 6 ) 278 lSSN 2354-4063 $8.00 + $8.00

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sible to pass a thin tube into the oil through the oil filler or dip stick opening. The operation is seen as a convenient 'while you wait' test on a station forecourt or as part of a normal service. Oil c o n d i t i o ~ z ~ * ~ ' ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ The manufacturers of engines recommend engine oil changes by either mileage or duration, depending on driving conditions. However, there can be wide differences between these schedules, and they widen still further when vehicles are used, for example, in dry dusty atmospheres or only on short journeys. Moreover, it is difficult to determine which maintenance schedule to apply for a particular climate or driving cycle. To be more specific about when to change the oil, it is necessary to know the oil condition. An oil is considered as no longer suitable for engine use when it has deteriorated in certain qualities or contains excessive or abrasive contaminants. Among the parameters that indicate oil condition are viscosity, acidity, contaminants, fuel in oil, and water in oil, of which viscosity is the most important property and one which it is not normally difficult to measure. Numerous devices, based either on the movement of the fluid in a confined space or on the movement of some clearly defined shape in the fluid, are available. The contamination meter, as described above, is one such device.
EX~ZUUS~ e~

nission~~-~~

Measurement of the changes in composition of exhaust emissions can uncover various malfunctions of engine parts, such as the fuel injection equipment, timing control system, cylinder set, fuel quality. As a result, numerous smoke meters and indicators have been devised over the years. One of them is the MicroDilution Particulate Measurement System38 This system meets the following objectives: correlation with a full dilution system within IS0 8178 equivalency standards; a short sampling time; reduced set-up effort; and excellent portability. The system is not limited by engine or exhaust stack size and requires only compressed shop air and electrical power to operate.

~~~~l jnjection8,'3,27,40-42 Faults in a fuel injection system may have causes such as incorrect timing, a blockage or sticking of the injector, or fuel injection equipment out of calibration, but are usually the result of leakage in the delivery valve/nozzle valve. The fuel system is monitored by measuring the dynamic pressure on the high pressure side of the fuel pump, and the timing of the injection valve. The engine vibration signal frequency spectrum, time domain average, and linear dynamic time-warping have been used to detect the position of a fuel injector needle!2 A clamp-on sensor, mounted on the high pressure pipeline with one of the electromagnetic pick-ups fitted on the engine to measure the value of the injection timing, have also been tried.8

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Figure 3 Structure of engine/drivetrain dynamic model: (a) basic structure; (b) engine rotating dynamic model

T,

Engine and drivetrain dynamics

+ (1 (0)

There is little available literature that describes the type of leak fault to be monitored or diagnosed, though leaks are a major nuisance in diesel engines. The presence and progression of leakage are highly detrimental, since this type of fault may destroy the engine. One approach to this is ultrasonic testing. An ultrasound wave receiver is located either in the inlet manifold or in the exhaust manifold or in the oil sump. If it is used during the cranking phase of the engine, and without fuel injection, it is possible to detect leakages in the inlet valves, the exhaust valves, or the pistol- ! ings.

i method using vibration analysis to detect leakage in the outlet valves of high-power diesel engines has been presented! An accelerometer was fixed to the cylinder head near an exhaust valve of a 750 kW diesel engine, and tests were carried out for different states of deterioration corresponding to different values of leakage. A signal processing and pattern recognition technique was used to assess the leakage condition. A method has also been introduced for monitoring fuel injection system leaks. This is achieved by plugging the fuel rail tank return and fixing an air pressure feed attachment to the fuel intake. This includes an air input control throttle, pressure relief valve, and pressure measuring sensor. The fuel rail is

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pressurised to a fixed pressure and stabilised; if it cannot maintain stability then there is a leak in the fuel rail system. This method is not suitable for monitoring and dia nosis. M isfire1

l?

Engine misfires can lead to excessive emissions. Generally speaking, nearly all methods proposed for misfire detection have one of three conceptual bases: 1. 2. 3. individual cylinder torque estimation; chemical analysis of exhaust gases; and measurement of in-cylinder combustion events.

The second method has been demonstrated to be insufficient to satisfy the mandated requirements with existing production hardware (e.g., the exhaust gas oxygen sensor), while the third method is impractical from a cost standpoint. The first method can give a satisfactory diagnosis. The dynamic model of an engine can be simplified as shown in Figure 3. The torque fluctuation indicated can be derived from this model by measuring angular velocity. If it is supposed that an estimate of the root mean square (rms) value of the fluctuating torque output indicated for an individual cylinder over the crankshaft angle interval of its respective combustion is Ti rmS, then for an N-cylinder engine, these N torque values can be formed into an N-dimensional ,.J denote the vector vector for each engine cycle. Let T = [T'i rms T 2 ,rms ... TN; of torque estimates for one engine cycle. To calculate the metric, the torque deviation vector is computed:

FT= T - T I l 11 ... 11
where T
=

-llTII, and [l 1 1 ... 1 is the vector of all ones. 1 N

Then the torque non-uniformity metric is: d = l16TllI. This statistical measurement d is utilised in a framework of statistical decision theory called hypothesis testing, wherein a probability model of d is used to develop a decision test in which experimental values of d or a function o d, A@), are compared to a threshf old to decide whether or not a misfire occurred during a particular engine cycle.

Vibration analysis
Monitoring the transverse vibration is of limited use in diagnosing engine condition because: 1. Most engines run on moving vehicles and the form and roughness of roads (or waves) are irregular and this means that the signal-to-noise ratio of vibration signals is very low; 2. The working conditions of engines are variable and unsteady; this makes
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the vibration signals unsteady and the signal features difficult to extract; There is a lack of reliable sensors to monitor a vehicle throughout its life. 3. The transverse vibration is generally measured by accelerometers on the surface of engine blocks and analysed by fast Fourier transformation (FFT).I4However, a method has been developed to detect engine faults by analysing noise measured by accelerometers on engines. Torsional vibration may lead to fatigue failure, rapid bearing wear, or excessive noise, among other things. Problems of this kind are particularly severe in the engine crankshaft. The measurement of torsional vibration, especially crankshaft torque, is possible with slip rings or slotted discs. The disadvantage of these methods is that they require contact with the rotating components and this necessitates engine downtime. Non-contact methods overcome these disadvantages and a standard cross-beam velocimeter can be used to measure torsional vibration, but a severe disadvantage of this device is the need for accurate positioning. Another possibility is a laser torsional vibrometer, which is robust, safe, inexpensive, and easy to use.24i43 Some other parameters, such as intake suction and exhaust back pressures, oil pressure and temperature, and emission contamination, are also often monitored. Meanwhile, more attention is being paid to monitoring the engines electronic management and ignition system. The benefits of this are early warnings of adverse trends in EP quality and the ability to relate electronic signals to mechanical functions, e.g., engine speed sensor relationship to camshaft position sensor.9,12,41,44

CYLDET-CM systemI6 The CYLDET-CM system has been developed for the condition monitoring of marine diesel engines. It is of modular design with respect to the number of transducers and degree of signal processing. This system can monitor cylinder pressure, surface temperature of cylinder liners, temperature of cylinder liner, and cylinder liner wear. All methods are intrusive monitoring. In fact, it seems that this system only monitors the piston assembly and cannot be called a condition monitoring system for engines. DEFD system of Lloyds Register4y Diesel Engine Fault Diagnosis (DEFD) was produced by Lloyds Register. The main functions of DEFD are as follows:
1.

2.

Early recognition of specific faults. Recognition of multiple faults.

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Identification of sensor defects. Provision for reporting unrecognised changes in engine operating parameters. 5. Interface with other modules for the evaluation of future effects from the identified faults.
3. 4.

DEFD is based on a rule-based expert system.

K B M E D56 The Knowledge-Based system for Marine Engine Diagnosis (KBMED) was developed by Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China. It is an intelligent system, integrating condition monitoring and faults diagnosis for marine engines (especially diesel engines). KBMED is compiled by using Microsoft C and Macro assembler, and runs on IBM-PC/AT or compatible computers. It uses a knowledge-based information processing technique, based on on-line measured signals and user input information, to identify the state of the marine engine and to diagnose several common faults. KBMED involves a task managing module, a knowledge developing and managing module, a diagnosis reasoning module, an interpretation module of diagnosis process, a signal testing and measuring system, a signal intelligent analysing module, and a knowledge base.
CPMPS57 The Condition/Performance Monitoring and Predictive System for Diesel Engines (the CPMPS project) has been in development by a consortium, consisting of Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Marconi Command and Control System Ltd., the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Humberside College of Higher Education, and Shell, since 1986. Five main functions are incorporated:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Condition monitoring. Performance monitoring. Fault diagnosis. Predictive maintenance. Performance optimisation.

CPMPS consists of two main sub-systems: the Diesel Engine Expert Diagnostic System (DEEDS) and the Engine Maintenance Expert System (EMES). Condition/performance monitoring is based on existing techniques, but the development of CPMPS has concentrated on fault diagnostics, predictive maintenance, and performance optimisation. The overall architecture of CPMPS is founded on simulation and knowledge-based methods. Blackboard Architecture, mixed mode reasoning, and rule induction techniques are used to assess condition and to diagnose faults. CPMPS provides two simulation modTrihotest joiirnnl6-3, Mnrch 2000. ( 6 ) 283 I S S N 1354-4063 $8.00 + $8.00

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els: the faulty engine model for verification of a fault hypothesis, and the healthy engine model for generating reference conditions. Performance optimisation gives advice on the optimal engine settings according to the engine condition assessed and fuel quality. Predictive maintenance plans maintenance and issues maintenance instructions. CPMPS uses pattern matching techniques and causal models in DEEDS, engine simulation to provide interpolation between the fixed points of knowledge, fuel analysis to assess engine conditions, and a large number of experimental results under various induced conditions. It is a large and successful project which has considered all aspects relating to the application practice of marine diesel engines. However, according to the references, CPMPS has not employed some advanced and probably more useful techniques, e.g., it mainly uses thermocouples and pressure signals, rather than speed, and it does not use fuzzy logic or neural networks which might be more powerful. Its hardware structure apparently needs optimising. It seems that ultimately CPMPS may be more suited to laboratory or academic use because of its complicated system structure.

PROSPECTS FOR CMFD TECHNIQUES FOR DIESEL ENGINES

Most of the methods and systems reviewed above are based on off-board CMFD, but increasingly manufacturers and users of diesel engines are interested in the development of on-board CMFD. Since the 1980s, a number of scientists and researchers have produced a variety of models of knowledgebased diagnostic reasoning, solving various types of problem. Since conventional models have certain bottlenecks, such as knowledge acquisition, their efficiency at problem-solving decreases greatly when the problem becomes complex, and the knowledge base required becomes too large. However, during recent years, researchers have done valuable work on diagnostic approaches based on neural networks or fuzzy logic or the integration of both. For the complex system of a diesel engine, for example, a large part of the expertise consists in heuristic knowledge, which relies a great deal upon subjective judgements and may include incomplete, ambiguous, and imprecise information, but neural networks and fuzzy logic can handle these data while conventional approaches do so poorly. Fuzzy logic is a method of representing information in a way that resembles natural human communication, and of manipulating that information in a way that resembles human reasoning with such information. It is based on rules of the form 'if. .. then' that convert inputs to outputs -one fuzzy set into another. The fuzzy conditional statements are of the form: IF Al,l and A1,2 ... and A l , THEN B1 or ~
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Figure 4 Neural networks for a diagnostic model

Intercooler fault

Pressure across Compressor outlet

Exhaust manifold

Exhaust valve Exhaust manifold Pressure difference between exhaust manifolds Turbine outlet pressure

Compressor outlet temp. Intercooler water temp. Inlet manifold temp. Front exhaust manifold Rear exhaust manifold Turbine outlet temp.

mediate neurons

IF A2,, and A2,2 ... and A ~ , N THEN B2 or

...
IF AM,^ and AM,^ ... and AM,N THEN BM where A;,, is a linguistic variable. Its value can be represented by membership function p. Bi is a possible conclusion.
Fuzzy logic offers a robust technique for accommodating measurement uncertainty and error contaminated signals, and is a proven technology for the representation of heuristic knowledge and automation of sub'ective reasoning operations. A much simplified system has been produced5d to demonstrate some aspects o engine diagnosis using fuzzy logic. f Neural networks are a data processing system consisting of a large number of simple, highly interconnected processing elements in an architecture inspired by the structure of the cerebral cortex portion o the brain. As a result f of the topology of the system and the manner in which information is stored and manipulated, neural networks are often capable of doing things that humans or
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Figure 5 A neural network-based fuzzy logic decision system

Yl
Layer 5 (output linguistic nodes) Layer 4 (output term nodes) Layer 3 (rule nodes) Layer 2 (input term nodes) Layer 1 (input linguistic nodes)

Yi'

Ym

Ym'

[
[
Xl

animals do well but that conventional diagnostic technologies do poorly. Neural networks may be designed to classify input patterns in predefined classes or to create categories that group patterns according to their similarity. Perhaps the most important characteristic of neural networks is their ability to model processes and systems from actual data. The neural network is supplied with data and then 'trained' to mimic the input-output relationship of the process or system. Neural networks also have the ability to respond in real time to the changing system state descriptions provided by continuous sensor inputs. A neural networks model for diesel engine fault diagnosis is depicted in Figure 4. Distributed representation and learning capabilities are two major features of neural networks. In distributed representation, a value is represented by a pattern of activity distributed over many computing elements, and each computing element is involved in representing many different values. Thus, each computing element has a receptive field which is the set of all values which include all the patterns it represents. Therefore, each computing element corresponds to a fuzzy set, and its receptive field corresponds to the membership function. A fuzzy logic integrated neural network for decision is a newly developed technique: it brings together the best features of fuzzy logic and neural networks, providing knowledge-based systems that can adapt or be optimised according to sampled data. For complex systems diagnosis, such as for the diesel engine, a fuzzy logic integrated neural-network approach would seem to be ideal, once it has been developed.
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A fundamental framework for an adaptive fuzzy inference system for condition monitoring and faults diagnosis is shown in Figure 5. The system has a total of five layers. Nodes at layer 1 are input nodes (linguistic modes) which represent input linguistic variables, including all symptoms, e.g., contamination in oil is high, oil viscosity is normal. Layer 5 is the output layer, including all engine conditions and faults, e.g., misfire, leakage, excessive emission. Nodes at layers 2 and 4 are term nodes which act as membership functions to represent the terms of respective linguistic variables, e.g., a piecewise linear function. Each node at layer 3 is a rule node which represents one fuzzy rule. All the layer 3 nodes form a fuzzy rule base: e.g., if oil temperature is high, then blow-by is serious; if oil temperature is high, then cooling system function is poor. Links at layers 3 and 4 function as a connectionist inference engine, which avoids the f rule-matching process. Layer 3 links define the preconditions o the rule nodes, and layer 4 links define the consequences of the rule nodes. The links at layers 2 and 5 are fully connected between linguistic nodes and their corresponding term nodes.

SUMMARY
Condition monitoring and fault diagnosis is a valuable technique to ensure that the diesel engine stays in good order. Many researchers and manufacturers have paid close attention to developing a variety of fault diagnosis methods or systems. New techniques of CMFD are still emerging. Among these, research effort is placed on robust and economic CMFD methods for specific parameters or faults and intelligent CMFD systems for a whole diesel engine. Diagnostic techniques are usually developed at specific engine working conditions and on an individual engine. However, diesel engines work under different ambient conditions and load, and the dynamic features vary from engine to engine. It is desirable that a diagnostic technique can provide acceptable accuracy of diagnostic results while being insensitive to the variation of engine working conditions and engine-to-engine differences. New designs of engine provide an interface between the engine and the CMFD, e.g., built-in sensors. On-board CMFD systems monitor the running condition and give the operator instant information on the engine performance. Some legislation has been introduced to require vehicles to have on-board facilities to detect faults in emission related components. Meeting these on-board requirements is a challenge for CMFD researchers. For instance, because of the limitation in terms of the systems cost and the processors ability, on-board CMFD cannot employ complex diagnostic algorithms or expensive delicate components. Misfire, for example, can be detected from either a vibration signal or a rotational signal, but in the case of on-board systems it is preferable to measured rotational speed. Techniques for meeting the requirements of on-board
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CMFD systems are attracting more researchers interest. The diesel engine is a complex system with highly non-linear characteristics. It is difficult to establish analytical models for the purpose of overall fault diagnosis. However, since neuro-fuzzy systems mimic the way that humans process information, it is likely that this technique will play an important role in the field of intelligent engine diagnosis.

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~

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