ERIC Identifier: ED335178 Publication Date: 1991-05-00 Author: Miller, Bruce Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and

Small Schools Charleston WV.

Teaching and Learning in the Multigrade Classroom: Student Performance and Instructional Routines. ERIC Digest.
The multigrade classroom is an organizational pattern widely used in schools in the United States. Typically a feature of small-scale schooling, multigrade classrooms are today getting a closer look. This Digest, written for practitioners, parents, and policymakers, brings together recent information on the topic. It considers the history of the multigrade classroom, its effects on achievement and attitude, and the requirements of teaching and learning in multigrade classrooms. HISTORY AND BACKGROUND In 1918, there were 196,037 one-room schools, representing 70.8 percent of all public schools in the United States. By 1980, less than 1,000 of these schools remained (Muse, Smith, & Barker, 1987). But the multigrade classroom persists. For example, in a study consisting of multigrade classrooms of only two grades, Rule (1983) used a sample from a suburban district outside Phoenix, Arizona. Of the 21,000 elementary students in the district, approximately 17 percent were in classrooms that combined grades. In rural, small elementary schools the incidence of students served in multigrade classrooms may well be much higher. Although rural, small schools may combine grades to save money, in the guise of the "ungraded classroom," multigrade organization has also been a feature of urban and suburban districts. In the 1960s and 1970s, "open education" and individualized instruction became influential curriculum and

instructional models. Such models were commonly implemented with multigrade classrooms. Energized by developmental theories of learning, a large influx in federal money, and student-centered models of instruction, open education became a major educational innovation. As a result, multigrade classrooms received new attention. Numerous studies compared the effectiveness of "open" classrooms (multigrade organization with student-centered ethos and methods) and "regular" classrooms (single-grade organization with traditional ethos and methods). We have learned a great deal from these innovative efforts. Working in an open, multigrade school requires serious, ongoing teacher training and a commitment to hard work. Most teachers have been trained to work in singlegrade classrooms. Their knowledge of teaching method is based on whole-class instruction and small-group instruction (with groups often formed on the basis of ability or achievement level). When placed in a multigrade setting, teachers of the 60s and 70s discovered that the time requirements and skills needed to be effective were simply not part of their prior training and experience. Although the premises of "open" and "regular" (traditional) education can differ sharply, this finding still applies to multigrade classrooms in traditional schools. THE NORM OF THE GRADED SCHOOL The large-scale innovations of the 60s and 70s have virtually ended. But the multigrade classroom persists, especially in small, rural schools. Yet, here, as elsewhere, most people view graded schools as the natural way to organize education. This norm can be a handicap for anyone (whether out of necessity or by theoretical design) who wants to--or who must--work with multigrade classrooms or schools. Teachers of multigraded classrooms who face the biggest challenge may be those working in school systems in which single-grade classrooms are

the norm. For many rural educators, multigrade instruction is not an experiment or a new educational trend, but a necessity imposed, in part, by economic and geographic conditions. In an environment dominated by graded schools, the decision to combine grades can be quite difficult--especially if constituents feel shortchanged by the decision. Nonetheless, recent proposals for school restructuring reflect renewed interest in multigrade organization (Cohen, 1989) and in small-scale organization generally. Such work may eventually contest the norm of the graded school. EFFECTS ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE Many teachers, administrators, and parents continue to wonder whether or not multigrade organization has negative effects on student performance. Research evidence indicates that being a student in a multigrade classroom does not negatively affect academic performance, social relationships, or attitudes. Miller (1990) reviewed 13 experimental studies assessing academic achievement in single-grade and multigrade classrooms and found there to be no significant differences between them. The data clearly support the multigrade classroom as a viable and equally effective organizational alternative to single-grade instruction. The limited evidence suggests there may be significant differences depending on subject or grade level. Primarily, these studies reflect the complex and variable nature of school life. Moreover, there are not enough such studies to make safe generalizations about which subjects or grade levels are best for multigrade instruction. When it comes to student affect, however, the case for multigrade organization appears much stronger. Of the 21 separate measures used to assess student affect in the studies reviewed, 81 percent favored

the multigrade classroom (Miller, 1990). If this is the case, why then do we not have more schools organized into multigrade classrooms? One response is that history and convention dictate the prevalence of graded classrooms. However, there is a related, but more compelling, answer to be found in the classrooms themselves and in information drawn from classroom practitioners. INSTRUCTIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL ROUTINES The multigrade classroom can be more of a challenge than the single-grade classroom. Skills and behavior required of the teacher may be different, and coordinating activities can be more difficult. In fact, such a realization is one reason graded schools came into being in the first place (Callahan, 1962). At first look, the skills needed to teach well in the multigrade and the single-grade (multilevel) classroom appear to be quite similar. The differences between the two sorts of classrooms may be more a product of socialization and expectation than of fact. Clearly, if a teacher in either sort of classroom fails to address differences among students, the effectiveness of instruction suffers. Likewise, teachers are harmed when they have not been adequately prepared to teach students with varying ages and abilities--no matter what sort of classroom they work in. But what does the research tell us regarding the skills required of the multigrade teacher? When student diversity increases, whether it be in a multigrade or single-grade classroom, greater demand is placed on teacher resources, both cognitive and emotional. Six key instructional dimensions affecting successful multigrade teaching have been identified from multigrade classroom research (Miller, 1991). Note that each of these points has some bearing on

the related issues of independence and interdependence. It is important to cultivate among students the habits of responsibility for their own learning, but also their willingness to help one another learn. 1. Classroom organization: Instructional resources and the physical environment to facilitate learning. 2. Classroom management and discipline: Classroom schedules and routines that promote clear, predictable instructional patterns, especially those that enhance student responsibility for their own learning. 3. Instructional organization and curriculum: Instructional strategies and routines for a maximum of cooperative and self-directed student learning based on diagnosed student needs. Also includes the effective use of time. 4. Instructional delivery and grouping: Methods that improve the quality of instruction, including strategies for organizing group learning activities across and within grade levels. 5. Self-directed learning: Students' skills and strategies for a high level of independence and efficiency in learning individually or in combination with other students. 6. Peer tutoring: Classroom routines and students' skills in serving as "teachers" to other students within and across differing grade levels. In the multigrade classroom, more time must be spent in organizing and planning for instruction. Extra materials and strategies must be developed so that students will be meaningfully engaged. This additional coordination lets the teacher meet with small groups or individuals, while other work continues. Since the teacher cannot be everywhere or with each student simultaneously, the teacher shares

instructional responsibilities with students. A context of clear rules and routines makes such shared responsibility productive. Students know what the teacher expects. They know what assignments to work on, when they are due, how to get them graded, how to get extra help, and where to turn assignments in. Students learn how to help one another and themselves. At an early age, students are expected to develop independence. The effective multigrade teacher establishes a climate to promote and develop this independence. For example, when young students enter the classroom for the first time, they receive help and guidance not only from the teacher, but from older students. In this way, they also learn that the teacher is not the only source of knowledge. Instructional grouping practices also play an important role in a good multigrade classroom. The teacher emphasizes the similarities among the different grades and teaches to them, thus conserving valuable teacher time. For example, whole-class (cross-grade) instruction is often used since the teacher can have contact with more students. However, whole-class instruction in the effective multigrade classroom differs from what one generally finds in a single-grade class. Multigrade teachers recognize that whole-class instruction must revolve around open task activities if all students are to be engaged. For example, a teacher can introduce a writing assignment through topic development where all students "brainstorm" ideas. In this context, students from all grades can discuss different perspectives. They can learn to consider and respect the opinions of others (Miller, 1989). Cooperation is a necessary condition of life in the multigrade classroom. All ages become classmates, and this closeness extends beyond the walls of the school to include the community.

REWARDS AND CHALLENGES There are many rewards for teaching in the multigrade classroom, but there are challenges, too. Instruction, classroom organization, and management are complex and demanding. A teacher cannot ignore developmental differences in students nor be ill-prepared for a day's instruction. Demands on teacher time require well-developed organizational skills. The multigrade classroom is not for the timid, inexperienced, or untrained teacher. Clearly, the implications for teacher educators, rural school board members, administrators, and parents are farreaching. REFERENCES Callahan, R. (1962). Education and the Cult of Efficiency. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cohen, D. (1989). First stirrings of a new trend: Multigrade classrooms gain favor. Education Week, 9(14), 1, 13-15. Miller, B. (1991). A review of the qualitative research on multigrade instruction. Research in Rural Education, 7(2), 3-12. Miller, B. (1990). A review of the quantitative research on multigrade instruction. Research in Rural Education, 7(1), 1-8. Miller, B. (1989). The Multigrade Classroom: A Resource Handbook for Small, Rural Schools. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 320 719) Muse, I., Smith, R., & Barker, B. (1987). The OneTeacher School in the 1980s. Las Cruces, NM: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service

No. ED 287 646) Rule, J. (1983). Effects of multigrade grouping on elementary student achievement in reading and mathematics. Dissertation Abstracts International, 44(3), 662. (University Microfilms No. ADG8315672)

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Multi-level Instruction (http://www.newteachersnwt.ca/professional_advice2.html) Multi-level instruction is an approach based on the premise that one main lesson with varying methods of presentation, practice and evaluation will be taught to the whole class. The key to successful implementation of multi-level instruction is identifying the aim of the unit and the main concepts of the lessons. Rationale for multi-level instruction:

Empowers teachers by developing strategies that help them deal with the reality of multi-aged, multi-grade, multi-level classrooms Encourages inclusion and integration Allows for a variety of teaching and learning styles Allows teachers to teach all of the students as a group, some of the time Stresses the teaching of main/underlying concepts and encourages teachers to take students beyond knowledge and comprehension levels of questioning Allows for adjustment to meet a variety of needs Emphasizes cooperation Allows for evaluation at individual skill levels

Allows students choice Meets students' social, emotional and academic needs Encourages involvement with students' peers

Key concepts to consider for implementation:

Have a definite aim for all students Accept partial and full participation Allow for different student learning styles - visual, auditory, kinesthetic... Use questions aimed at different levels of thinking - Bloom's Taxonomy Adjust expectations for some students - time, length, format of assignment Give students choice in what method they will use to demonstrate their understanding of the concept being taught Accept that different methods of evaluation are of equal value Evaluate students based on their individual differences Use a variety of teaching strategies: cooperative learning, multiple intelligences, peer assisted learning, process writing, holistic language practices...

Four-step process for developing a multi-level lesson: 1. Identify the underlying concepts 2. Determine the method of presentation: o Teaching styles o Students' learning styles o Multiple intelligences o Bloom's Taxonomy of questioning o Partial or full participation of students 3. Determine student method of practice o Variation in student assignments based on Bloom's Taxonomy o Different presentation modes, learning styles o Partial or full participation of students 4. Determine the method of student evaluation o Different skill levels o Variety of evaluation procedures

Differentiating instruction Differentiating instruction is a strategy that teachers use to meet the diversity of student needs found in today's classrooms. Curriculum may be differentiated by content, process or product. As well, other factors include student interest, learning style and readiness. Ideas about how to differentiate content:

Exempt students from material they already know or arrange for them to move more quickly through materials they can do on their own Teach by concept more than by fact Help students relate a concept to several disciplines Add a study of the people behind the ideas

Ideas about how to differentiate process:

Use higher-level questions, (see Bloom's taxonomy). Make sure students spend most of their time applying key concepts and ideas -not just repeating them Stress both left and right brain thinking

Ideas about how to differentiate products:

Have students solve real problems as often as possible Ensure that students present their products to real audiences whenever possible Ensure that students work with the teacher to establish criteria for a quality product both before and during the product creation and those products are assessed according to those criteria.

In a class with differentiated learning, all students learn key concepts. Multiple approaches to content, process and product are used to adapt curriculum and provide students with support and choice. Differentiated instruction is dynamic and includes a blend of whole-class, group and individual instruction. Implications of differentiating instruction:

Creation of a collaborative climate and culture in the classroom Students demonstrate their learning in a wide variety of ways Teachers use multiple instructional approaches Student assessment is on-going and uses a wide range of tools Classrooms are configured in a way that facilitates students working individually, with a partner, in groups or as a whole class

Principles of a Differentiated Classroom:

Learning experiences are based on diagnosis of student readiness, interest and/or learning profile Content, activities and products are developed in response to varying needs of varied learners Teaching and learning are focused on key concepts, understandings and skills All students participate in respectful work Teacher and students work together to ensure continual engagement and challenge for each learner The teacher coordinates use of time, space and activities

Flexible grouping ensures consistently fluid working arrangements, including whole-class learning, pairs, triads and quads, student-selected groups, teacher selected groups and random groups Time use is flexible in response to student needs Variety of management strategies such as learning centres, interest centres, compacting, contract, independent study, collegial partnerships, tiered assignments, learning buddies, etc. are used to help target instruction to student needs Clearly established individual and group criteria provide guidance toward success Students are assessed in a variety of ways appropriate to demonstrate their own thought and growth

Inclusive Schooling Inclusive schooling is intended to ensure equal access for all students to educational programs offered in regular classroom settings. Inclusive schooling is both a belief and a practice where all children learn in their local schools in classes with students their own age. Inclusive schooling reflects good teaching and best practices such as cooperative learning, multi-level instruction, multiple intelligences, learning/teaching styles, and differentiated curriculum. Inclusive schooling emphasizes:

Equal educational opportunities for all students Respecting differences Providing teachers and support assistants with resources, professional development and support to meet all students' needs What inclusion is NOT:

What inclusion IS: Inclusive schooling is a belief

that all children belong that every child can make a valued contribution

Inclusive schooling is an understanding

that every child is unique that all children can learn and experience success that, with support, educators can teach

It does not mean having all students learn the same thing at the same time, in the same way. It is not simply placing students with exceptional needs into the regular classroom without essential supports and services. It is not an easy solution for meeting the needs of exceptional students. It is not the sole responsibility of the classroom teacher.

all children

Inclusive schooling is a commitment to

It is not the sole responsibility of the student support assistant

provide all children equal access to education opportunities respect diversity high standards

Inclusive schooling teaches

mutual respect generosity responsibility independence

- From ECE's directive on Inclusive Schooling Everyone benefits from inclusive schooling. Children who have been excluded become part of a group and the other learners learn understanding, empathy and tolerance for difference. The greatest obstacle is the way people think. When we shift our thinking from focusing on children's problems to recognizing their strengths, we are more apt to see the opportunities inclusive schooling presents. It is critical to identify the children's needs, and often that requires specific programs and resources. Some students in Northern classrooms have serious attention difficulties for a number of reasons. This includes students with FAS/E as well as ADHD. There are a number of strategies teachers can use to assist these children be successful in school. These strategies include:

Keeping visual and auditory distractions to a minimum. Making each activity brief. Using music to teach concepts. Teaching the student to "self talk" to help stay focused and curb impulsive behaviour. Using concrete reinforcements to help the student with inappropriate behaviours Consequences for inappropriate behaviours need to be immediate. Students who need stimulation of movement could use a rocking chair for reading. Arranging for a quiet time out area for students. Establish a signal to indicate frustration. Use quiet background music to calm students.

Internet Resources:

Bloom's Taxonomy

Critical Thinking across the Curriculum project Learning Styles Learning Style, Culture and Hemispheric Dominance Model Questions and key words Multiple Intelligences Multiple Intelligences Right Brain/Left Brain Thinking Teaching using Bloom's Taxonomy

Teaching Multi-Level Classes (http://edition.tefl.net/ideas/teaching/teachingmulti-level-classes/)

Multi-level classrooms are as varied as the students in them. Most often, they include students who communicate in English at a variety of different levels. They may also be considered multi-level because they include students with different types of learning backgrounds, such as those who have learned orally and those who have learned mainly from [...]

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Written by Tara Benwell for TEFL.net

Multi-level classrooms are as varied as the students in them. Most often, they include students who communicate in English at a variety of different levels. They may also be considered multi-level because they include students with different types of learning backgrounds, such as those who have learned orally and those who have learned mainly from a textbook. Students may also have different levels of literacy in their own native language. A classroom that contains some students who are familiar with the Roman alphabet and some students who are not may also be considered multi-level. Finally, the term multi-level can be used to refer to a group of students working together who range greatly in age.

Advantages and Challenges of Teaching Multi-level Classes

When faced with the challenge of a multi-level classroom many teachers do not know where to start. They fear that the preparation will take much longer, and that the students will be more

demanding. Schools that have multi-level classes often have limited budgets, and teachers may fear that they will not be paid for what they are worth. However, it is only by looking at the advantages of the multi-level classroom and employing strategies to overcome the challenges, that teachers can achieve success. Advantages of Multi-level classrooms:

Students are able to learn at their own pace Students learn to work well in a group Students become independent learners Students develop strong relationships with their peers Students become partners in learning

Challenges of Multi-level classrooms:

Finding appropriate teaching resources and material Organizing appropriate groupings within the class Building an effective self-access centre in the classroom Determining the individual needs of each student Ensuring that all students are challenged and interested Enforcing English only policies when teacher is occupied and students are working in small groups or pairs

Determining the Needs of your Students

One of the first things you should do when assigned to a multi-level classroom is determine the needs of the individual members. If possible, this should be done before the first class. There are a variety of ways to conduct needs assessment, depending on the size of the class, and your access to an office and a computer. Many schools use a standardized test for new students. While this may help teachers determine the language level of the students in the multi-level class, standardized tests cannot determine the personal needs of the individual students. For small classes it is useful to invite students into the office for a quick chat to determine what your students objectives are (ex. improving writing skills, learning conversational English, understanding of rules and grammar). Students may not know the answer to this, so it is a good idea to create a list that they can pick from. You may give the option of picking a primary and a secondary reason. Here are some examples that could be placed in a list for students to choose from:

To improve my speaking skills To get into college To use for travelling To become a future teacher To learn the rules of grammar To please my parents Other__________

You should also use this time to explain to your student that there will be other students with different levels of English in the class and that you will be using partnering and grouping exercises and activities in order to meet the needs of everyone. If you dont have access to an office or classroom or you have a large class, you may want to e-mail the question to your students, or have short telephone conversations with them. When none of these options are possible, you can always set aside your first class as an intake day. If possible, stagger the start times of your students by five minutes so that you can speak to each one individually. Brainstorming in a group may also work if you have a small enough class. In a circle on the board place the words, I need English to/for and ask students to volunteer their answers. Make sure to record the needs and level of each of your students in a simple way. Keep a chart for yourself, and alter it as your students needs change. Make a conscious effort to monitor the needs of your individual students regularly. You may find that some students feel uncomfortable acting as a peer tutor, while others feel that they are focusing too much on a skill that they will never use in the real world. Student Julio From Level Special needs Will be working with tourists in his job as a golf instructor. Wants to learn conversational English. Doesnt require writing skills. Wants to teach English to school aged children for a living. Has studied in English in Japan for 10 years. Wants to work with native English teacher. Poor pronunciation. (Eager to help as peer tutor.)

Mexico LowCity intermediate

Naoko

Japan

Advanced

Glossary of Terms

cross-ability learners: Pairs or groups of students working together with varying degrees of ability or competence. More advanced learners can gain confidence and improve competence by helping and teaching lower level peers. groupings: Different ways of putting students together (based on things such as crossability, like-ability, special needs, compatibility). like-ability learners: Pairs or groups of students working together who share similar levels of ability or competence. multi-level class: Group of students who learn and study together in one room, despite having varying levels of abilities and/or literacy backgrounds. self access materials: Learning resources (ex. listening exercises, readers) that include instructions and answers, and are available for a student to use independently. Students in multi-level classrooms often finish small group or individual assignments and activities at different times, so it is important to have self-access materials available at all times to keep students engaged in learning. small group activity: An exercise or game in which a small group of students can participate in and learn from. Groups can be composed in many different ways (common interest, common levels, varying levels) and changed often.

whole group activity: An exercise or game in which all students can participate in and learn from, regardless of their competence level and language ability.

Selecting Materials
Finding a core textbook for your class may help you if you have a number of students who are at a similar level of English. You may find that you need more than one level of the same textbook series. If you require more than two levels, however, using a core textbook may only make your life more complicated, and multi-level textbooks are difficult to come by. Another option is to use a theme based approach. Keeping all of your students working on activities and lessons based on the same theme is a great way of maintaining a class-like atmosphere in a multilevel classroom. Not only will this help your students feel like they all belong in the group, it will save you prep time and make you feel more organized. Follow up activities, such as games and discussions can then be based on the theme. EnglishClub.com has collected a wide range of theme based lessons to save time for teachers.

Suggested Activities

Whole group Warm-up: Starting your class with a whole-group warm-up is a great way to foster a sense of community in your multi-level class. Information gap exercises: Works great for cross-ability and like-ability pairs. Crossword puzzles: Works well for cross-ability pairs or small groups. Despite their English vocabulary levels, each student will bring a wide variety of knowledge to the group to help fill in the puzzle. Self-Access Materials: Make sure everything is well labelled and organized. The materials should reflect the needs and interests of the students in your class. Self-Access materials can be intimidating for students if you just have a shelf full of textbooks. It is best to photocopy many copies of worksheets and exercises. If you have students who are preparing for something such as the TOEIC test, have a file marked TOEIC Practice sheets. If your students need to improve their listening skills, have an audio shelf with an easy-touse CD/tape player and level appropriate resources (CDs and worksheets). Rather than having guided readers, it is better to have photocopies of stories or articles with corresponding tasks (such as writing activities) stapled right to the readings. Board games, such as Word Up (comes with question cards for 5 different levels), should be viewed as an essential tool in every multi-level classroom. Folktales: It is easy to find different levels of common folk or fairytales. These work well in childrens classes, and there are even some that are appropriate for adults. If you have difficulty finding a folktale that is a suitable level, you can always rewrite one yourself and use it again and again when you teach. A local childrens librarian should be able to direct you to resources that you need. The follow up activities for folktales are unlimited, but include comprehension questions, group discussions, vocabulary activities, creative writing exercise, and role-playing, all of which can be done in various groupings. Art and images: Visual stimuli can be a great teaching tool. Use paintings as the basis for class discussions, writing assignments, and vocabulary building. Students of all different levels can participate together by describing photographs. Encourage students to bring in their own pictures and art and find ways to build lessons around them. One great pair

activity that acts as a listening and speaking activity is to put students in pairs and have one of them describe a picture while the other tries to draw it. This can also be done as a whole group. Your students can choose a photo and describe it to you or another student who will try to reproduce it on the board. Computer lab assignments: If your school has a computer lab for students to use, or if you have a computer in your classroom, allow pairs to do online English lessons with EnglishClub.coms Learning Centre. Jot down the URLs of any lessons you think will be useful, or give your students free time to explore the site.

Teaching Method Strategies

Experiment with different types of groupings to find the ones that work best. You may find that cross-ability pairs work best for certain types of activities, while like-ability small groups work better for others. If possible, use a wide variety of groupings to keep things interesting for your class. Use a simple schedule that is similar each day. Here is an example: 1. Start with a warm-up that involves the whole group. 2. Break part of the class off into one type of grouping (i.e. pairs) and work with part of the class on a lesson, grammar point, or activity. 3. Break off the class into another type of grouping (i.e. small groups) and have the other students use self-access materials. 4. Bring the class back together for a whole group activity/game. Isolate students within the class who are interested in peer tutoring. This doesnt have to be the student with the highest level of English. Your students who fall somewhere in the middle may in fact be the most valuable to you, as they strive to attain a level of competency comparable to the most advanced students. Remind your students that the best way to practice and improve a new language is to teach it to someone else. Consider enlisting a volunteer. Limited budgets or low enrolment are often the reasons behind multi-level classes. For this reason, it may be difficult to convince administrators or managers that you need a paid assistant. If you feel overwhelmed, consider hiring a volunteer. Finding someone who is interested in helping you with your preparation work and teaching may not be as difficult as you think. Most native English students who are going into the teaching profession will be more than willing to put in volunteer teaching hours in exchange for a reference. Once you have permission from your supervisor, you can post an ad at the local library or college, or at a teacher training centre. You may even want to suggest placing an ad on the website for the school you work at.

How EnglishClub.com Can Help

EnglishClub.com is a great place to start when looking for activities and exercises that will reduce your preparation time. The Teachers Guide is filled with ideas and links to help save you time

while planning interesting, fun, and worthwhile activities and lessons for your students. You will find many worksheets that can be used as self-access materials, and numerous activities that can be used when your multi-level group is learning together. Here are some other links that are useful: List of Warm up Ideas Level Appropriate Readings Level Appropriate Activities for Young Learners List of Level Appropriate Classroom Games