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-Intercostal muscles
-Bronchus / bronchi
Passage of air
*Trachea is in front of oesophagus. Air enters into trachea while food and drinks enter into the oesophagus. It is controlled by epiglottis. 1. Inhalation/inspiration 1. Intercostal muscles 2. ribcage 3. diaphragm 4. volume of thoracic cavity 5. air pressure in thoracic cavity 6. movement of air 1. Intercostal muscles 2. ribcage 3. diaphragm 4. volume of thoracic cavity 5. air pressure in thoracic cavity 6. movement of air Bell jar ribcage Y-glasstube bronchus Balloons lungs Rubbersheet diaphragm Contract Moves upwards & outwards Contracts and flattens Increases Decreases Air enters into the lungs Relax Moves downwards & inwards Curves upwards Decreases Increases Air is forced out
2. Exhalation /expiration
Inhalation Exhalation
Oxygen moves into the nasal cavity Oxygen dissolves into the mucus lining Oxygen diffuses into the blood capillaries Carbon dioxide diffuses into alveolar cavity and moves out
1. large surface area 2. very thin wall: one cell thick 3. moist inner surface 4. surrounded by blood capillaries
Lime water Universal indicator Harmful Tar substances Nicotine in smoke Sulphur dioxide Carbon monoxide Haze Diseases Asthma Heart disease Lung cancer Bronchitis Emphysema
Determine the effects of smoking in the lungs To produce cigarette smoke To show the presence of tar change to brown To show the presence of carbon dioxide change cloudy To shows the acidity green changes into yellow/orange Smokers cough , Cause lung cancer Addiction, rapid heart beating, high blood pressure Acidic, lung diseases Dizziness, suffocation , fatal Asthma, pneumonia ( inflammation of lungs ) Sensitivity to air pollutant, narrowing of air way Caused by nicotine Caused by tar, asbestos, coal ash Inflammation of lining of bronchioles Alveoli fused, cannot take in enough oxygen
Human blood transport system consists of heart, blood vessels and blood.
1 Heart
-Made up of -Centre of the heart -Wall of left heart is thicker -Valve
2 Blood vessels
Artery
1 Send blood from the heart 2 Small lumen, thick wall 3 High blood pressure 4 Fast blood flowing 5 It has no valve 6 oxygenated blood except Pulmonary artery 1. Send blood to the heart 2 Big lumen, thin wall 3 Low blood pressure 4 Slow blood flowing 5 It has valve 6 Deoxygenated blood except Pulmonary vein 1 In between artery and vein 2 One cell thick 3 Gas exchanges Oxygen: to body cells Carbon dioxide: from body cells
Vein
Capillary
3.Blood
Composition
Water 90% Dissolved minerals 10 % 1. red blood cells 2. white blood cells 3. platelets 1 Produced in bone marrow 2 transport oxygen and carbon dioxide 3 no nuclei ( nucleus ) 4 contains haemoglobin 5 oxyhaemoglobins -carries oxygen 6. 120 days lifespan 7. destroyed in liver and spleen 8. lack of RBC: anaemia 1. produced in liver and lymph 2 irregular shape 3 has nuclei ( large!) 4 less than red blood cells 5 protect body against diseases, infection 6 Days to months lifespan 7 destroyed during circulation of blood 8 excessive WBC: leukemia ( blood cancer ) 1 produced in bone marrow 2. blood clotting 3. lifespan 5-10 days 4. destroyed during circulation of blood 5. lack of platelets : haemophilia (non stop bleeding)
3. Platelets
Blood groups
ABO system
AB O A B
Universal recipient ( receive all blood groups) Universal donor ( donate to all blood groups ) Receive O and A only, donate to A and AB only Receive O and B only, donate to B and AB only
Oxygenated blood
Deoxygenated blood
1. high content of oxygen 2. carbon dioxide content of carbon dioxide 3 high blood pressure 4. high speed 5. fresh red 6. usually in artery ( except pulmonary artery) 7. transport oxygen from heart to body parts 1. low content of oxygen 2. high content of carbon dioxide 3. low blood pressure 4. low speed 5. bluish red 6. usually in veins ( except pulmonary vein ) 7. transport carbon dioxide from body parts to heart and pump to lungs -Xylem and phloem -Transport water and dissolved minerals -Consists of dead cells -One way long tube ( not separated by cells ) -Experiment: Balsam immerse into red ink Transport food( glucose ) In all directions! Experiment: cut phloem and it swells one month after Stem not turgid, water loss Through stoma / stomata ( plural ) Loss of water ( excessive ) Through stoma/stomata Function: to absorb minerals from the soil a. light: light stimulates the stomata to open, transpiration increases b. temperature: air is warmer, transpiration increases c. relative humidity: concentration of water in leaves and in the atmosphere d. wind speed: speed of wind increases, transpiration increases e. water availability: short of water, plant wilts, stomata close, transpiration decreases f. altitude: higher, air pressure is lower, transpiration increases
2. Phloem
Wilting Transpiration
Stoma
Chapter 3 excretion
Human excretion
Excretory organs Skin Lungs Kidneys Metabolic wastes Water , urea, mineral salts Water, carbon dioxide Water, urea, mineral salts
Kidney ureter urinary bladder urethra Blood flows through tubules under high pressure -Too much water -Need more water More urine, more dilute Less urine, more concentrated
Outer region of kidney:dark red Inner region of kidney Formed by medulla, cone-shaped Sac-like cavity after pyramid Urine from pelvis enters into ureter
Kidney problems
Unfiltered, oxygenated blood that contain urine flows from heart to the kidney 2 Vein Filtered, deoxygenated blood that has no more urine flows out from the kidney to the heart High intake of salts 1Bacterial infection 2Injury 3High blood pressure Dialysis Transplantation
Dialysis (haemodialysis)
Artery blood to the machine Dissolved sugar, salt blood to the heart Vein Urea and excess salts enter into the dialysate Dialysate Contains Dissolved sugar, salt Diffusion Urea and excess salts enter into the dialysate Side effect anaemia Excretion in plants Carbon dioxide Oxygen Mineral salts Nitrogenous wastes Water
Chapter 4 Reproduction
Sexual Two Two types, male and female gametes Variation, different from parents Few Less rapid Types 1.Binary fission
Asexual
2.Budding
3.Spore formation
4.Regeneration /rejuvenation
5 Vegetative reproduction
1Runner
2Bulb
e.g. onion
3 Rhizome
e.g. ginger
4 Corm
e.g. cocoyam
5 Stem tuber
e.g. potato
6 leaves
e.g. Bryophyllum
7. Sucker
8. Stem cuttings
e.g. Tapioca
Structure 1. testis 2. scrotum 3. penis 4. epididymis 5. sperm duct 6. urethra 7. seminal vesicle 8. prostate gland
Function Produce sperms Protects the testes Places sperms in the vagina during intercourse Stores sperms Carries sperms from testes to the urethra Carries sperms and urine out of the body Secretes fluid that provides nourishment to the sperms Secretes fluid that neutralise the acidity of urine and the female vagina
Testosterone Growth of hair on the face, chest, pubic region, armpits Voice box enlarges-voice becomes deep More muscular Chest becomes broader Penis, scrotum and prostate enlarge Production of sperms Mental and emotional changes Structure 1. Ovary Function Produce ovum
2.Fallopian Carries ovum from the ovary to the uterus tube 3. Uterus Place where the embryo develops 4. Cervix Secretes mucus that enhances sperm movement into the uterus Prevents foreign bodies from entering the uterus 5. Vagina Place where sperms are deposited Birth canal Estrogen and progesterone Growth of hair in the pubic region and armpits Menstruation begins Growth of breast , pelvis Growth of hips and thighs Production of ovaries by ova Mental and emotional changes 8
Menstrual cycle
Menstrual cycle Start at puberty( about 12 years old ) and stop at menopause ( 28 days )
Process
1. Ovulation 2. Fertilisation
Explanation Production of ovum, In menstrual cycle day 14th Sperm fuses into ovum to form zygote
Pathway of sperm enters into the vagina before entering the ovum : 3. Implantation Vagina cervix uterus Fallopian tube ovum When zygote changes to foetus, it travels to uterus and stick to the uterus wall
4. Development of a. Zygote Fertilised ovum b. Embryo Cell division after six days
protects embryo provide oxygen and nutrient Projection from the embryo Join the foetus to placenta Carry oxygen and nutrient Carry waste product, urea, carbon dioxide
c. Foetus
d. baby
Harmful substances
medicine Cigarette Alcohol Drugs
Bad effects to
Development of brain, physical growth Small size, low body weight Mentally and physically stunted Miscarriage, premature birth 10
Sterility
Sterility 1. Females problem Inability to produce baby 1. defective reproductive organs 2. abnormal ovulation 3. blocked oviduct ( Fallopian tube ) 4. zygote cannot implant into uterus wall 5. health problem 1. defective reproductive organs 2. low sperm count 3. inactive sperms 4. blocked sperm ducts 1. surgery to remove blockages 2. drug treatment: hormone injection 3. in vitro fertilisation ( IVF) To prevent pregnancy 1. Wearing condom 2. vasectomy Sperm ducts are cut and tied 1. contraceptive pills To stop ovulation Has side effects 2. use IUCD ( intrauterine contraceptive device )
2. Males problem
Ways to overcome
Birth control
Birth control Males control methods Females control methods
3. spermicides 4. ligation
To kill sperms Foams, jellies, creams that put in the vagina Cut and tie the Fallopian tube
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Types of flowers
1. Unisexual Male flower Female flower
2. Bisexual
Pollination
Two types
Self-pollination
Cross-pollination
Different flowers, Different tree Advantages : 1. better quality 2. short ripening period of fruit 3. quantity of fruit increases 4. quality of plant is better 5. more variety of plants
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Agents of pollination
Types of agents 1. water 2. wind 3. animal 4. human 5. insects 1. big and colourful 2. short stalk 3. nectar and scented 4. anthers and stigma in the flower 5. short filament 6. small anther 7. short style and stigma with sticky surface 8. small quantities of pollen grains 9. large, sticky and rough surface 1. small, not brightly coloured 2. long stalk 3. no nectar, no scent 4. anthers and stigma hang outside the flowers, expose to wind 5. long filament 6. large anther hangs outside the flower 7. large quantity of pollen 8. small, light, smooth pollen grain 9. long stigma and style 10. stigma is long and feathery to trap the pollen grains 1. large amount of pollen 2. light pollen 3. can float on water, do not rot easily
wind
water
1. Pollination 2. Germination of pollen grain 3. Fertilisation 4. Germination of seeds 5. Ovary becomes 6. Ovule becomes
Pollen grain sticks to the stigma Pollen tube grows, male gametes are travelled to the ovule Male and female gametes are fused to form zygote Zygote will form seeds, and seeds are germinated with the presence of oxygen, water and suitable temperature Fruit Seed 13
Structure of seed
Allow water and air enter Mark where the seed attach to fruit wall Protect the seed Grow to form root Grow to form shoot Store food hypogeal germination of broad bean seed germinates and grows in the ground
Epigeal germination of long bean seed germinates and grows on the surface
Chapter 5 Growth
Growth is the changes of 1. body size 2. Number of cells 3. Weight 4. shape ( bone ) 5. functions ( organs and system ) 6. emotional development 7. social development Growth is Permanent Zygote embryo foetus baby child adolescent adult old person
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A B C D E
Infancy rapid growth Childhood Slow growth Adolescence Rapid growth Adulthood Minimal growth Old age Negative growth *negative growth is due to tissues breakdown faster than they can be repaired *Puberty age of female is faster than male. P: growth rate of female is higher than female due to earlier puberty of about two years. Changes during puberty : Beard and moustache No beard and moustache Voice changes deeper Breast grow larger Hair grows under armpit and pubic region Testes produce sperms Ovaries produce egg, menstruation begins Muscle develops Rips get more rounded
Male
Female
Stretched by nail, coin, fingernail Most of the compounds cannot dissolve in water except sodium and potassium compounds Oxides Metal oxide Metal + oxygen e.g. mercury oxide mercury + oxygen All oxides are stable *except mercury oxide, gold oxide, silver oxide Carbonates Metal carbonate Metal oxide + carbon dioxide All carbonates are not stable *except sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate sulphides Metal sulphide Metal oxide + sulphur dioxide All sulphides are not stable.
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Reaction between metals and oxygen Metals used to compare their reactivity with oxygen : magnesium, zinc, aluminium, iron 1. potassium manganate : produce oxygen when heated 2. glass wool : prevent mixing of chemicals 3. heat the metal first Result: reactivity in ascending order : Iron zinc aluminium magnesium
Reaction between metals and sulphur Metals used to compare their reactivity with sulphur : magnesium, zinc, aluminium, iron Result: reactivity in ascending order: Iron zinc aluminium magnesium
Silicon compounds Two silicon compounds : silica and silicate Characteristics 1. insoluble 2. do not react with acid 3. can withstand heat Silica Consists of silicon and oxygen ( known as silicon dioxide ) e.g.: Sand Quartz Flints Gemstones ( jasper, onyx ) Silicate Consists of metal, silicon and oxygen e.g.: Asbestos Insulator, toxic and carcinogenic Mica Talc Clay
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Calcium compounds Calcium is a reactive metal Calcium is in the form of compound Calcium Consists of calcium, carbon, oxygen carbonate e.g. limestone Marble Stalagmites and stalactite Seashell, eggshell Coral reef bone Properties Stable Does not dissolve in water Dissolve in water if the water is acidic Calcium carbonate+ acid salt + carbon dioxide + water
Fractional distillation
Petroleum Fractional distillation is a hydrocarbon, it is a mixture Dark and sticky To separate petroleum mixture
The higher the fractionating column, the lower the boiling point
The higher the column, the clearer the colour of fractions The higher the column, the less viscous of the fractions
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Chapter 7 Electricity
Electrostatics Charges Positive charge Negative charge Like charges Positive charge and positive charge , negative charge and negative charge Unlike charges Negative charge and positive charge Unlike charges attract Like charges repel Negative charged objects gain electrons Positive charged objects loses electrons Electroscope to detect electric charge
Current flow
I total = I1=I2=I3= Vtotal =V1+V2+V3+ Rtotal = R1+ R2+ I total = I1+I2+I3+ Vtotal = V1=V2=V3= 1/Rtotal = 1/R1+ 1/R2+ 1/R3+ 18
Magnetism
Two poles North South Magnetic materials Non-magnetic materials
Iron, nickel, cobalt Plastic, glass, paper, magnesium ribbon, zinc, wood Magnetic line shows the existence of magnetic field.
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Electromagnetism
Solenoid
Strength of the magnetic field can be increased by a. increasing the number of turns of the solenoid b. increasing the electric current that flows c. increasing the diameter of the solenoid
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b. Hydroelectric generator
Potential kineticelectrical
c. Diesel generator
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Transformer
Device to increase or decrease the voltage of an alternating current Two types
Step-down transformer-more turns in the primary coil. Efficiency of transformer Never 100%efficient due to a. resistance in the coils b. energy lost in the form of heat Can be raised up by a. using copper wire b. using laminated soft iron plates to form the core
Live wire electric current flows into the house Neutral wire Earth wire connected to copper plates underground to prevent electric shock 22
3 pin plugs
Live L Brown ( connected to a fuse ) Neutral N Blue Earth E Yellow with green stripes Two types of fuses Wire fuse Cartridge fuse Cannot be replaced
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2. Solar flares
3. sunspot
Explosion of gases in sudden in the chromospheres Releases charged particles.i.e. protons and electrons Emits gamma rays and X-rays Releases a lot of energy Around the sunspot At photosphere, varies in size Due to intense magnetic activity ~ 4000 0 C compared to the 60000 C Charged particles from the Sun collide with the air particles on earths atmosphere. Electrons kinetic energy is converted to visible light Hydrogen atoms collide and form helium gas, heat is released. More than 25,000 11,000-25,000 7,500-11,000 6,000-7,500 5,000-6,000 3,500-5,000 Less than 3,500
Aurora
Nuclear fusion
2. size 3. brightness
Blue Whitish blue White Yellowish white Yellow Orange Red A dwarf star A giant star A Supergiant star
Galaxies
They are a star system Formed by millions of stars Classify into groups according to the shapes. Constellation Formed by groups of certain pattern of stars Function: invention of calendar, as a compass The importance of the Sun The importance of the Moon To provide energy through nuclear fusion ( hydrogen + hydrogen ) Causing tides Helps in invention of calendars,
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Contribution
Aristotle Eratosthenes Claudius Ptolemy Ibrahim Al-Fazari Aryabhatta Al-Khawarizmi Al-Battani Al-Biruni Umar-Al Khayyam Nicholas Copernicus Johannes Kepler Hans Lippershey Galileo Galilei Isaac Newton Edmond Halley Karl Jansky Edwin Powell Hubble Clyde William Tombaugh Year
1957 1958 1959 1961 1963 1965 1968 1969 1973 1970-1989 1986 1990 1992 2000
Constellation to classify stars Earth was flat disk floating on an ocean Earth was spherical Orbits of the planets were circular Orbit of the moon was inclined to the equator of the earth Earth was the centre of the Universe Sun, planets and Moon orbited around the Earth Use geometry to estimate the circumference of the earth Earth was not flat, but spherical
Earth was the centre of the Universe Planet revolved in a small circle while orbiting the earth Construct astrolabe to measure the height of the stars Rotation of the earth, eclipses of the moon and the Sun Constructed the astronomical table Study the brightness and motion of the stars Earth rotated on its axis Improved the Roman calendar First person to claim that the Sun is the centre of solar system Earth orbits the Sun Planets move about the sun Orbits of the planets were ellipses and not perfect circles Invented the first telescope in 1608 First person to use a telescope to observe the universe Laws of gravity All planets are kept in their orbits by the force of gravity of the Sun Discovered Halleys comet Invented radio telescope Discovered Andromeda galaxy using a telescope Discovered Pluto
Events Sputnik I Explorer I Luna 3 Major Yuri Gagarin Valentina Tereshkova Alexei Leonov Apollo 8 Neil Armstrong Skylab Many space probes were launched MIR Discovery Hubble Space Telescope Mars Observer The International Space Station
Russian man-made satellite American man-made satellite Russian space probe orbited the moon Russian astronaut first man in space Russian astronaut, first woman in space Russian astronaut, first man walk in space American space probe orbited the moon American first man set foot on the moon First space station by America Russian space station First space shuttle By five astronauts in earths orbit American space shuttle to orbit Mars Sponsored by 16 nations
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List down the function of 1. Cobalt chloride paper : to test for the presence of water vapour 2. Red litmus paper : alkalinity red to blue 3. Blue litmus paper : acidity blue to red 4. Filter paper the presence of oil translucent 5. Anhydrous Calcium chloride ( solid ) :absorb water vapour 6. Silica gel : absorb water vapour ( blue to pink /redish ) 7. Sodium hydroxide : absorb carbon dioxide 8. Lime water : to test for the presence of carbon dioxide :colourless to cloudy 9. Burning splinter : test for the presence of hydrogen gas : extinguish the fire with pop sound 10 glowing splinter : test for the presence of oxygen : relight/reflame again 11. Universal indicator :pH acidic : red, orange, yellow; neutral: green; alkaline: blue, purple 12. Hydrogen bicarbonate indicator : acidity -red/purple to yellow 13. Iodines solution : presence of starch-brown to dark blue ( no heating ) 14. Benedicts solution : presence of glucose : blue to red precipitate ( heating ) 15. Millons solution : presence of protein; colourless to white precipitate ( before heating) red precipitate ( after heating ) 16. Acidified Potassium dichromate solution : presence of sulphur dioxide orange to green 17. Acidified potassium permanganate solution: presence of suphur dioxide- purple to colourless 18. Iodine solution ( cell ) : to dye plant cells e.g. onion cells 19. methylene blue solution : to dye animal cells e.g. cheek cells
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