Losses reduction Impedance model of different network elements After modelling the SIG/NIG, it is necessary to determine the impedance

model of the different network elements. This is presented below: 1. Model of a transformer A two winding transformer has the following equivalent circuit:

Up

RT

XT
Us

Figure 1: Impedance model of a transformer

is the resistance of the transformer : Reactance of the transformer : Primary voltage : Secondary voltage The equivalent impedance (16)

is given as a percentage, hence the per unit equivalent impedance of the transformer is given by: (17) : Base Voltage : nominal voltage of the transformers For a transformer with a fixed transformation ratio, the impedance is fixed. This is not the case with a tap changing transformer. There are two types of tap changing transformers; On load tap changing (OLTC) transformers (transformation ratio can be varied in the presence of a load) and a no load tap changing transformer ( transformation ratio can only be changed in the absence of a load). Tap changing transformers can be modelled in the following way:

XT YT
Up

RT

Ip
1:t

Up

Us

Figure 2: Transformer equivalent circuit

Above is the equivalent circuit of a two winding transformer with the admittance as seen on the primary, and t the transformation ratio. ( )

(18)

(19) There is no power loss in the ideal transformer i.e. this implies If we apply Kirchhoffs law on the primary winding, we have: ( ) (20)

(21) By multiply equation by we have (22)

(23) From equation and we have: * The SIG has +[ ] [ ] (24)

HV OLTC with i.e. a step of of and a total of 25 steps Error! Reference source not found. (ref Error! Reference source not found. annex). From Error! Reference source not found. in the annex, the following formula can be deduced for the determination of the discrete transformation ratios: for (25) for (26) For Where

is the tap position

2. Model of a transmission line For transmission lines less than or equal 80km, the shunt capacitance can be neglected and the equivalent circuit is as follows [1]:

Rl

Xl

Il

Figure 3: Equivalent circuit of a transmission line (length 80km) Where is the resistance of the line; is the reactance of the line. For transmission lines greater than 80km, the capacitive effect is felt and the equivalent circuit is as follows:

Rl Ul1 Yc/2

Xl Yc/2

Il Ul2

Figure 4: Equivalent circuit of a transmission line (length>80km)

Where

is the shunt admittance is the voltage at the beginning of the line is the voltage at the end of the line

Per unit values (27)

(28)

(29) With (30) Optimal power flow The objective of an optimal power flow program is to identify the operating configuration or solution that best meets a particular set of evaluation criteria. These criteria include transmission line losses, for this part of the work. An OPF program consists of numerous Power Flow analysis runs, one for each possible dispatch scenario that could meet the specified load demand without violating any constraints.

The basic formulation of the OPF can be represented as minimizing a defined function subject to any physical or operational constraints of the system: , (31)

Where: is the vector of state variables and | |, is the vector of system parameters (admittance matrix). The basic approach is to find the vector of system parameters that when substituted into the system model will result in the state vector that minimizes the function 1. Objective function In this part of the project, the objective function will be the reduction of active transmission losses. Thus, power loss minimization for a steady state power system operating condition can be formulated as follows:

(32)

Where

is the number of branches is the active power loss in branch

Let and be the arrival and departure nodes respectively of the branch . The active power loss in the branch is given by Error! Reference source not found.: ( Where is the conductance of the branch( ). ) (33)

2. Equality constraints The equality constraints are the load flow equations, which reflect the physical conditions and the power equilibrium in the network .i.e. ( | | ) (34)

( | and

(35)

represent the indices of the nodes of the network

is the total number of nodes

3. Inequality constraints In power systems, the amount of active and reactive power produced by generators, the voltage at the nodes, the apparent power flow through a branch, the tap position of OLTC and the reactive power of shunt capacitors, are bounded variables. These are limits of network equipments: Active power generation limits (slack bus and PV node) Every power plant in operation has a minimum and a maximum amount of active power that can be generated: (36) Where and by generator G and are the minimum and maximum power respectively that can be generated is the number of PV nodes

Reactive power generation limits at slack and PV nodes

Power plants also have a minimum and maximum amount of reactive power that can be generated .i.e. (37) is the number of generator buses and node Voltage limits at the different nodes. In order to ensure that the end users have an acceptable power quality, the voltages at the different nodes have to stay within certain limits. i.e. (38) Where is the total number of buses and are the is the minimum and maximum acceptable voltage levels at node Limits on tap positions of transformers On-Load Tap changing transformers regulate the voltages of the nodes to which they are connected between a maximum and a minimum voltage level. These minimum and maximum voltages correspond to a minimum and maximum transformation ratio as indicated below. (39) s the number of tap transformers in the network, is the minimum transformation ratio the maximum transformation ratio of the transformer Limits on Shunt capacitances are the minimum and maximum reactive power that can be generated at the PV

and

Shunt capacitors installed at a node have a minimum and a maximum amount of reactive power that can be generated. These restrictions are as follows

(40) is the total number of shunt capacitors and are the maximum and minimum amount of reactive power that can be produced by the shunt capacitor Upper limits on MVA flows in transmission lines or transformers Transformers and transmission lines can allow only a limited amount of power flow: (41) is the total number of branches and . To avoid, none existence of feasible solution, the dependent variables are incorporated in the objective function as quadratic penalty terms. i.e. Penalty associated to the active power produced at the slack bus ( ( { Penalty associated to the reactive power produced at the slack and PV buses ( { Penalty associated to the voltage limits for each node ( { Penalty associated to the branch flow limits ) (44) ) ) is the maximum power that can transit through branch

(42)

(43)

(45) Particle swarm optimization (PSO) It is an evolutionary computation technique to solve the Optimal Power Flow problem (OPF). 1. PSO terminology The basic PSO terms are defined as follows[2] Particle, : It is a candidate solution represented by an -dimensional vector, where is the number of optimized parameters. At time , the , where is the position of the particle

can be described as parameters and dimension.

are the optimized

particle with respect to the

Population, Particle velocity,

is a set of n particles at a time t It is the velocity of the moving particles represented by an particle velocity -

dimensional vector. At time , the , where respect to the Inertia weight, dimension.

can be described as particle with

is the velocity of the

: It is the parameter that is used to control the impact of the

previous velocities on the current velocity. Hence, it influences the adjustments between the global and the local exploration abilities. Individual best, As a particle moves through the search space, it compares its

value at the current position to the best value it has ever attained at any time up to the current time. The best position associated to the best fitness encountered so far is called the individual best. In a minimization problem with objective function , the individual best of the is determined such that ( ) ( ) particle

Global best: It is the best position among all the individual best positions achieved so far. Hence the global best can be determined such that .

Stopping criteria The search process will terminate under the following conditions: The number of iterations since the last change of the best solution by a prespecified tolerance; the number of iterations reaches the maximum allowable number.

2. PSO Algorithm

Start

Initialization Set the counter t=0 and initially generate X(0) n particles and n velocities.V(0)

For every particle (e.g the jth particle)set the local best at X*j(0)=Xj(0) and V*j(0)=Vj(0). Search for the best value of the objective function F best and set the associated particle as the global best X**(0) Set the initial value of the inertia weight w(0)

Update the iteration iter=iter+1

Update the inertia weight w Update the velocity V Update the particle X

If the current particle position of j, Xj(k) is better than the personal best value in history then Else X*j(k)=X*j(k-1)

X*j(k)=Xj(k)

Choose the particle with the best X* among all the swarm as the Global best

No Termination criteria met?

Yes Final solution

End

Figure 5: PSO Flow diagram [2]

3. Application of PSO to minimize power losses PSO parameters The PSO parameters and the corresponding dimensions are indicated in the table below;

PSO parameters The position of on-load tap changing transformers The reactive power injected by capacitor banks The voltages at the Generator nodes The active power produced by the generators(PV buses)
Table 7: SIGs PSO parameters

Symbol

Corresponding dimension 5 5 5 4

There are 5 tap changing transformers, five substations with capacitor banks, five buses with generators (4 PV and 1 slack bus) and 4 PV buses for voltage control in the SIG. These correspond to the dimension of the PSO parameters. Summing these gives nineteen (19), which is the dimension of the problem. PSO parameters The position of on-load tap changing transformers The reactive power injected by capacitor banks The voltages at the Generator nodes The active power produced by the generators(PV buses)
Table 8: NIGs PSO parameters

Symbol

Corresponding dimension 2 3 5 4

Stopping criteria

The program stops if: The number of iterations reaches a maximum number of iterations. This ranges from 50 to 10000 depending on the precision needed; The global best has not changed by at least for iterations.

Voltage stability In this part, the concept applied to analyse the voltage stability for the HVDC interconnection line between RIS and RIN is explained. The following steps are then followed in order to attain this objective;

Adapatatio n of HVDC line

Modeling HVDC line

Parameters of different line elements

Formulate Power flow problem Power flow equations

Solution of power flow problem by Newton-Raphson method

Input variables: bus admittance matrix, active and reactive power genrated and consumed at different nodes Output variables: voltages and phases at different nodes, active and reactive power at each nodes

Voltage stability analysis

Converter transformer Rectifier Inverter

Curves of voltages variations at each terminal nodes with time

1. HVDC line modelling

RECTIFIER

INVERTER

Figure 6: A two terminal DC link

The most accurate method of integrating a DC link to the load flow is representing buses connected to an HVDC as a PQ-bus with a voltage dependent active and reactive power. However, the voltage dependency of the active and reactive power at these AC-DC buses does not obey the general rules of the conventional PQ-buses in AC systems. Thus a new type of PQ-bus is defined PQDC bus. In this approach the real and reactive power equations for the PQDC buses, with their dependency on both the AC voltages at the terminal buses and the characteristics of the DC converters are derived and integrated into the AC load flow algorithm. The interdependence of the two DC voltages can be expressed by

With

the DC line resistance

2. Parameters of different lines elements DC line has the same model than AC line showed in the case of losses minimization. Rectifier

is the ideal no-load direct voltage; the ignition delay angle is the equivalent commutating resistance which accounts for the voltage drop due to commutation overlap and

The active and reactive power at the rectifier is given by (losses at the converter and transformers can be ignore )

And

Inverter The inverter equation can be correspondingly described by the following equations

Equations (32),(33),(36) and (37) represent the PQDC-buses in the AC system. The active and reactive power at the PQDC-buses depend on the AC bus voltages, the characteristics of the converters and their operating modes Type of simulator With respect to analyze made above, an offline simulator will be design for the purpose of the project instead of a real-time simulator. This choice is justified by the following reasons: [4] No readily available server for data acquisition (for a real time simulator) Easier to design and to use than a real time simulator

To realize that simulator MATLAB (Matrix LABoratory) will serve as computer tool.

Figure 7: Flow chart of OPF program [3]

References

[1]. John J. Grainger, William D. Stevenson, Jr. (1994). Power System Analysis. McGraw Hill, Singapore, 814p. [2]. M.A. Abido (2002). Optimal Power Flow using Particle Swarm Optimization. Electrical power and energy systems, Elsevier Vol. 24 pp.563-571. [3]. YAWAT NGASSA Lods Kelly. Plateforme daide au dispatching conomique dans le rseau interconnect sud. 5GELE ENSP 2010. [4]. A.Panosyan, B. R. Oswald-Modified Newton-Raphson Load Flow Analysis for Integrated Power Systems 5 Pages [2]Notes on Power System Load Flow Analysis using an Excel Workbook