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Warren Stutzman and Bill Davis Virginia Tech Antenna Group June 9, 2006
antenna.ece.vt.edu
OUTLINE
1. Introduction 2. Antenna Fundamentals 3. Antenna Elements 4. Array Antennas
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Stutzman Davis Davis Stutzman Davis Both Stutzman
1. INTRODUCTION
The Speakers Self Introductions of Class Wireless versus Wireline History of Communications The Spectrum Antenna Performance Parameters
Warren Stutzman
Professor at VT for 37 years Fellow of the IEEE Past President of IEEE Ant & Prop. Society Distinguished alumnus of U of Illinois Founder of Virginia Tech Antenna Group Served as ECE Dept Head twice
Bill Davis
Professor at VT for 28 years Director of Virginia Tech Antenna Group Past Commission Chair USNC/URSI Commission A URSI Meetings Coordinator Vice Chair 2005 IEEE APS/URSI Symposium
Industrial
Control Ex.: garage door opener Medical Heating, cooking, drying, ...
Communications
Antennas must be used for:
Mobile communications Very long distances
Space Remote terrestrial locations
References W. Stutzman and G. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, 2e, Wiley, 1998. T. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Prentice-Hall, 1996. K. Siwiak, Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications, Sec. Ed., Artech House, 1998.
1901 First transatlantic radio (Marconi) World War II Development of radar 1960 Fiber optics 1980s Wireless reinvented Wireless Wireless 1900 Radio 2000
The Spectrum
Wavelength
(m) = 300 / f(MHz) (cm) = 30 / f(GHz)
Wavelength s
100 km 10 km 10 km 1 km 100 m 10 m 1m 1 cm 1 km 100 m 10 m 1m 10 cm 1 mm
Directivity D
Ratio of power density in the direction of pattern maximum to the Average power density at the same distance from the antenna; i.e. how much more focused the power is than if isotropically distributed.
Gain G
Directivity reduced by losses on the antenna
Polarization
The figure traced out with time by the instantaneous electric field vector. Types: Linear, circular, elliptical, dual (for diversity and reuse)
Impedance
Input impedance at the antenna terminals
Bandwidth
Range of operating frequencies for which performance parameters are acceptable.
Scanning
Movement of the radiation pattern in angular space Types: electronic, mechanical, hybrid
Mechanical
Size, weight, RCS, aerodynamics
Cost
2. ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS
What is an antenna? Connecting to the antenna Basic properties
Impedance Gain Pattern Polarization
Fundamental Limits
What is an antenna?
Collection of metal/material objects
Wire Plates (reflector, dish) EM Bandgap Materials
Absence of metal
Slots Waveguide apertures
r r J (r , ) = zI cos( z ) ( x) ( y )
To the Fields
Current Vector Potential
r r E, H
r r 1 H = ( j r A)
Magnetic Field
r r r E = r H = j ( A rAr )
Far-Field Conditions
Wavelength
r >>
r >> max(r ' ) = D
r> 2D2
Distance
Size
phase <
16
Far Field
Observation
Distance Antenna
Diameter D
r r J ~ zI z (r ) r e j r zI z A= 4r
r e jr H = j I z sin 4r r e j r I z sin E = j 4r
2 2 r 1 r r* 1 2 I z sin 2 S = E H = r 2 2 2 2 16 r
P =
I z 12
Rrad =
z Prad 1 2 3 I 2
40 2
Radiation Pattern
Variation of Fields with Elevation () and Azimuth ()
F ( , ) =
Variations:
E ( , ) max E
,
Patterns
y = 0 or = 0 Cut
x = 0 or = 90 Cut
z = 0 or = 90 Cut
Half-Power Beamwidth
Efficiency
Loss
e= Rrad Power Radiated = Power Input Rrad + Rloss
Radiation Resistance
Rloss =
1 I
2
S
2
r 2 J S Rsurface ds
Mismatch
q = 1 =
4Z o RAnt Z Ant + Z o
, Z o Real
Total
Efficiency = qe
F
,
( , )d
D = max[ D ( , )]
D=
A =
4 A
Directivity
d = sin d d sin d d Figure 1-17 Element of solid angle d.
Um
Um
(b)
VOC
r* r = h E
Polarization
Linear, Circular, Elliptical
Polarization Factor
r2 r2 r r2 p = h E /hE
E2 E1
2 Right-handed 1
1 2
Left-handed
Counterclockwise
Clockwise
-180
-135
-90
-45
+45
+90
+135
+180
Figure 2-37 Polarization ellipses as a function of the ratio E2/E1 and phase angle with wave approaching. Clockwise rotation of the resultant E corresponds to left-handed polarization (IEEE definition) while counterclockwise corresponds to right-handed polarization.
G = eD
GR = qeD
g R = pGR = pqeD
Realized Gain
A Communication Link
PRcv
PXmit GT GR 2 = (4R) 2
Effective Area
2 AR ( , ) = GR ( , ) 4
To Give
PRcv
PXmit GT AR = 4R 2
Transient Link
vOC
r r R i (t ) = hr (t ) ht t 4R c t
Connections
Connectors (coax, twin-lead) Balanced vs Unbalanced
Balun
Properties
Impedance
Treat as a circuit element By Reciprocity:
Z Rcv = Z Xmit
Induced EMF Z
1 Z= 2 I
Ant
r r r J E ( J ) d
Properties
Patterns
FRcv = FXmit
Pattern Reciprocity
Fundamental Limits
A bit of Controversy
Chu (1948)
2 2 a 2 + 1 Q= 3 3 2 2 a ( a + 1)
10
2
McLean
Q=
1 1 + 3a 3 a
10 Radiation Q
Dipole
Foursquare
10
10
-1
2. ANTENNA ELEMENTS
The Four Antenna Types
Electrically Small Antennas Resonant Antennas Broadband Antennas
Frequency Independent Ultra Wideband
Aperture Antennas
Properties Low directivity Low input resistance Low efficiency and gain
Resonant Antennas
Examples Dipole Microstrip antenna Yagi
Properties Low to moderate gain Real input impedance Low efficiency and gain
Broadband Antennas
Examples (Frequency Independent) Spiral Log Periodic Dipole Array
There are two types of broadband antennas, ones that have frequency independent performance and ones that preserve signal properties in the time domain (UWB) Properties Low to moderate gain Real input impedance Low efficiency and gain
Aperture Antennas
Examples Horn antenna Parabolic reflector antenna
Properties Low to moderate gain Real input impedance Low efficiency and gain
3. ANTENNA ARRAYS
A. Array Basics B. Arrays of Isotropic Elements C. Inclusion of Element Effects D. Mutual Coupling E. Phased Arrays
A. Array Basics
Def.: Array Antenna. An antenna comprised of a number of identical radiating elements in a regular arrangement and excited to obtain a prescribed radiation pattern. Advantages of arrays:
Many small antenna elements instead of one large mechanical structure Scanning at electronic speeds is possible Multiple user (target) tracking is possible Many geometries, including conformal, are possible
Problems: A feed network is required with its losses and bandwidth limitations Mutual coupling between elements affects performance and complicates design Computer control may be necessary
Feed network
Figure 3-1 A typical linear array. The symbols and indicate variable phase shifters and attenuators. The output currents are summed before entering the receiver
Receiver
Phase =
0
j 1
1
1e
j n
Reference wavefront
1 e j 0
1e
Wavefronts
Ph ( I n )
In
Figure 3-2 Equivalent configuration of the array in Fig. 3-1 for determining the array factor. The elements of the array are replaced by isotropic point sources.
I 0 e j 0
I n e j 1
Ine j n
Array factor
AF = I 0 e j 0 + I1 e j 1 + I 2 e j 2 + ...
(3-3)
1 d= 8
1 d= 4
Elements
3 d= 8 1 d= 2
I1
I1
From [Kraus]
5 d= 8
d = 1
s co
d 0 1 d 2 z
AF = I 0 + I1 e j d cos + I 2 e j 2 d cos +L =
N 1 n =0
e j nd cos
(3-14)
Now consider the array to be transmitting. If the current has a linear phase progression (i.e., relative phase between adjacent elements is the same), we can separate the phase explicitly as jna
I n = An e
nth
(3-15)
where the n +
1th
AF = An e
Define Then
N 1
= d cos + a
AF = An e jn
n= 0 N 1
Proof: Width of the visible region = 2d AF period = 2 For one period visible: 2 = 2d = 2(2/)d d = /2 For d > /2, grating lobes may appear in the visible region depending on . For d , grating lobes will appear in the visible region
A0 = A1 = A2 = L
N 1
AF = A0
e
n=0
jn
= A0 e
j ( N 1 ) /2
sin ( N /2 ) sin ( /2 )
AF ( = 0 ) = A0 ( 1 + 1 +L + 1) = A0 N
f ( ) sin ( N /2 )
N sin ( /2 )
UE, ESLA
(3-33)
This is the normalized array factor for an N element UE, ESLA that is centered about the coordinate origin.
1.0
f ( )
1.0
N=5 N=3
(a)
0 0
2 3
4 3
(b)
1.0
f ( )
N = 10
Figure 3-11 Array factor of an equally spaced, uniformly excited linear array for a few array numbers. (a) Three elements. (b) Five elements. (c) Ten elements.
(c)
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
(a)
1 e j
1e
j ( 3 /2 )
1.0
f ( ) =
sin 2 4 sin
(b)
3 2
(c) o = 120 z
Figure 3-12 Array factor for a four-element, uniformly excited, equally spaced phased array (Examples 3-5). (a) The array excitations. (b) Universal pattern for N = 4. (c) Polar plot for d = /2 and = /2.
d =
= 0 = d cos o +
= d cos o
(3-36)
This element-to-element phase shift will scan the main beam peak to = 0. Often, we express as
= d (cos - coso )
(3-38)
0.886 ( /Nd) = 0.886 / ( 20/2) = 0.0886 radians HP = 2[ 0.0886] = 0.595 ( 180/ ) = 34.1
D=2
15
L for N = 10
= 0 =0
N = 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Directivity (D)
10
Figure 3-20 Directivity as a function of element spacing for a broadside array of isotropic elements for several element numbers N.
D2
L Nd =2
broadside
(3-80)
= d cos +
Uniform
z
1.0 0.5
An
(a)
1: 1 : 1 : 1 : 1
0
An
1/2
3/2
1.0
Triangular
0
An
(b)
1/2
3/2
1:2:3:2:1
1.0 0.5
(c)
1.0 0.5
0
An
1/2
3/2
(d)
0 0
An
1/2
3/2
Figure 3-24 Current distributions corresponding to the patterns of Fig. 3-23. The current phases are 1:4:6:4:1 zero ( = 0). Currents are normalized to unity at the array center. (a) Uniform. (b) Triangular. Dolph-Chebyshev (c) Binomial. (d) Dolphfor a side lobe level of -20dB Chebyshev (SLL = -20 dB). 1 : 1.61 : 1.94 : 1.61 : 1 (e) Dolph-Chebyshev.
Binomial
1.0 0.5
(e)
0 0 1/2
3/2
180
180
0.25 0.50
0.75
0.75
1.00 0
Figure 3-23 Patterns of several uniform phase (o = 90), equally spaced (d = /2) linear arrays with various amplitude distributions. The currents are plotted in Fig. 3-24.
180
0.25
0.50
0.75
0.50
0.75
(d) Dolph-Chebyshev
(e)
Dolph-Chebyshev
Current amplitude distribution, 1 : 1.61 : 1.94 : 1.61 : 1 for a side lobe level of -20 dB.
Current amplitude distribution, 1 : 2.41 : 3.14 : 2.41 : 1, with a side lobe level of -30 dB.
We can draw a general conclusion from the foregoing examples that applies to antennas in general: As amplitude taper increases: Beamwidth increases Directivity decreases (as a consequence of beamwidth increasing) Sidelobes decrease Current envelope:
Pattern:
(3-91)
n = 0, zn = nd
(3-92)
N 1 An D = n =0 N 1 2 ( An )
n =0
d=
, , . . .
(3-93)
Element pattern ga
Array factor f
(3-36)
|
Io = 1
Element pattern
|
I1 = 1 (a) The array.
Array factor
Total pattern
y z
sin
cos cos 2
(b) The pattern. Figure 3-17 Array of two half-wavelength spaced, equal amplitude, equal phase, collinear short dipoles (Example 3-8).
(2-8)
For an array of parallel half-wave dipoles it is best to orient the elements along the x-axis. Then the element pattern is expressed as
x
ga ( ) =
z
(3-68)
(3-69)
Prob. 3.3-2
From (2-7)
ga z
= z
F z
(Fig. 2-5b)
(Fig. 3-6c)
4
Ground plane
-1
-1
1
xz-plane (including /2 dipole effect)
d=
d=
D DeDi = ( 1.5 )( 4 ) = 6
d = 0.72
From code
L=
D = 7.75 dBi
( d = 0.72 )
= 5.6 dBd Approximate directivity D DeDi = 1.64(5.4) = 8.9, using Fig. 3-20 = 9.5 dB = 7.3 dBd
Base station with elements in opposing pairs and clocked 90 degrees around the tower to produce nearly an omnidirectional pattern
D. Mutual Coupling
Feed network
Figure 3-26 (a) Mechanisms for coupling between elements of an array. There are three mechanisms responsible for mutual coupling: Direct free space coupling between elements Indirect coupling due to scattering by nearby objects Coupling through the feed network In many arrays the elements are impedance matched to the feed network and feed coupling can be ignored. Then the array can be modeled with independent generators, leading to the conventional circuit N port representation. V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 + K + Z1N IN
The input impedance of the mth element in an array with all elements active and mutual coupling included is
Vm
(3-103)
g Zm
Zm
g Vm
Im
Note that active impedance depends on mutual impedances between elements as well as the excitations of all elements. This dependence includes the current phases and thus scan angle in phased arrays. The effects of mutual coupling include:
The impedance of an element in an array differs from its free space value and depends on that array scan angle (element phases) and the element location. The pattern of an element is changed from its isolated pattern and depends on array position.
y x z
= 180
0 -10 dB -20
= 0
Figure 10-27 Linear array pattern with main beam steered to o = 45 and ideal current generators (solid curve) compared to patterns from an array with voltage generators for 72- loaded voltage generator excitations (dashed curve). Also see: D. Kelley and W. Stutzman, Array antenna pattern modeling methods that include mutual coupling effects, IEEE Trans. On Ant. And Prop., Dec. 1993.
E. Phased Arrays
90
o= 90
90
o= 75
180
180
(a) o= 90 90
o= 30
(b) o= 90 90
o= 0
(c) o= 75
180
180
Figure 3-32 Example of phase-scanned patterns for a five-element linear array along the z-axis with elements equally spaced at d = 0.4 and with uniform current magnitudes for various main beam pointing angles o.
Important point to remember: The array factor scans inside the envelope of the fixed element pattern
Example: Linear array of four broadside elements spaced 0.7 apart. The element pattern is g() = (cos )2. Broadside operation
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -90-80 -70 -60-50 -40-30-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Fmag() g()
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
Primary transmitting antenna Pickup antenna (c) Space feed. Figure 3-33 Types of array feed networks. Secondary transmitting antenna
E-2C
Go
4 3 2 1 1 x 4 Switch
Pe = Ps
(a)
Ps
Go
Pe
Go
Pe =
Ps 4
1 x 4 Switch
= 4GsPs
(c)
(b)
Ps
Ps
Switched antenna system vs linear array configurations: (a) switched antennas; (b) multiple-beam array; (c) steered-beam array. [Microwave Journal, January 1987]
Beams
Array
RX
ADC
Digital Beamformer
RX
ADC
0.9 0.8
..
ir Sp
s ou inu S
als
e u ar rsq u Fo
1.5
2.5
Bandwidth (f/f )
L
Fourpoint element
5. SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS
Friis Transmission Equation Propagation in real links Factors in selecting an operating frequency
Antenna considerations
Very long distance point-to-point communications require high frequencies to enable large antenna gains
Regulatory issues
Must use allocated bands Licensed vs. unlicensed bands
6. WIRELESS APPLICATIONS
Base Station Antennas for Land Mobile Antennas for Satellite Communications Vehicle Antennas Antennas for Personal Communications UWB
Some Concepts
Radiation Safety
Omnidirectional
Sectorized
Antel Cellular Base Station Antenna 870-970 MHz Collinear dipoles 136 in long 10 dBd gain 1.25 deg downtilt
Considerations
Bandwidth (VSWR<2) Power handling Intermodulation products
Front view
1800 MHz
Direct Broadcast system from DirecTV manual ________________________ 12.2 -12.7 GHz downlink to user 17.3-17.8 GHz uplink from gateway Dual circularly polarized
Vehicular Antennas
Broadcast reception
Traditional 31 (0.003 at AM) fender mount whip antenna is vanishing. New cars have mostly on-glass antennas
Aircraft antennas
Example: Commercial MD-80 airplane
Perhaps the most popular antenna for cell phones is the stubby antenna with an extendable wire antenna
Inverted-L
Inverted-F
Dual Inverted-F
Planar Inverted-F
VT patent 6,795,028
Bandwidth (%) 1 2 4 8 12 43
UWB Antennas
TEM Horn
Ridged Horn
BiCone
Half-Disk
10
12
14
16
18
20
Transmission Link
Frequency Response s21
-100
14
16
18
20
x 10
8 10 12 Frequency (GHz)
14
16
18
20
10 12 Time (nsec)
14
16
18
20
Phase
Transient Transmission
Facilities
Measured Near Field Pattern
INSTRUMENTATION ANTCOM 7+1 axis near field far field scanner Agilent 8510, 8511, 8530 Network Analyzer