2012

CORPORATE FINANCE

Submitted to: Prof. Jameel Submitted by: Khurram Sattar (MCE11304)

March 20, 2012

SUPERIOR UNIVERSITY
CORPORATE FINANACE SUPERIOR UNIVERSITY

Foreign Exchange: The markets, in which participants are able to buy, sell exchange and speculate on currencies. Foreign exchange markets are made up of banks, commercial companies, central banks, investment management firms, hedge funds, and retail forex brokers and investors. The forex market is considered to be the largest financial market in the world. The foreign exchange market (forex, FX, or currency market) is a global, worldwidedecentralized financial market for trading currencies. Financial centers around the world function as anchors of trading between a wide range of different types of buyers and sellers around the clock, with the exception of weekends. The foreign exchange market determines the relative values of different currencies. The foreign exchange market assists international trade and investment by enabling currency conversion. For example, it permits a business in the United States to import goods from the European Union member states especially Euro zone members and pay Euros, even though its income is in United States dollars. It also supports direct speculation in the value of currencies, and the carry trade, speculation on the change in interest rates in two currencies. In a typical foreign exchange transaction, a party purchases a quantity of one currency by paying a quantity of another currency. The modern foreign exchange market began forming during the 1970s after three decades of government restrictions on foreign exchange transactions (the Bretton Woods system of monetary management established the rules for commercial and financial relations among the world's major industrial states after World War II), when countries gradually switched to floating exchange rates from the previous exchange rate regime, which remained fixed as per the Bretton Woods system.

The foreign exchange market is unique because of

its huge trading volume representing the largest asset class in the world

leading to high liquidity;

its geographical dispersion;

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 its continuous operation: 24 hours a day except weekends, i.e. trading from

20:15 GMT on Sunday until 22:00 GMT Friday;

the variety of factors that affect exchange rates; the low margins of relative profit compared with other markets of fixed

income; and
The use of leverage to enhance profit and loss margins and with respect to

account size.

As such, it has been referred to as the market closest to the ideal of perfect competition, notwithstanding currency intervention by central banks. According to the Bank for International Settlements as of April 2010, average daily turnover in global foreign exchange markets is estimated at $3.98 trillion, a growth of approximately 20% over the $3.21 trillion daily volume as of April 2007. Some firms specializing on foreign exchange market had put the average daily turnover in excess of US$4 trillion

Market size and Liquidity: The foreign exchange market is the most liquid financial market in the world. Traders include large banks, banks, institutional, currency speculators, corporations, governments, other financial institutions, and retail investors. The average daily turnover in the global foreign exchange and related markets is continuously growing. According to the 2010 Triennial Central Bank Survey, coordinated by the Bank for International Settlements, average daily turnover was US$3.98 trillion in April 2010 (vs. $1.7 trillion in 1998). Of this $3.98 trillion, $1.5 trillion was spot transactions and $2.5 trillion was traded in outright forwards, swaps and other derivatives. Trading in the United Kingdom accounted for 36.7% of the total, making it by far the most important centre for foreign exchange trading. Trading in the United States accounted for 17.9%, and Japan accounted for 6.2%. Turnover of exchange-traded foreign exchange futures and options have grown rapidly in recent years, reaching $166 billion in April 2010 (double the turnover March 20, 2012 CORPORATE FINANACE SUPERIOR UNIVERSITY

recorded in April 2007). Exchange-traded currency derivatives represent 4% of OTC foreign exchange turnover. Foreign exchange futures contracts were introduced in 1972 at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange and are actively traded relative to most other futures contracts. Most developed countries permit the trading of derivative products (like futures and options on futures) on their exchanges. All these developed countries already have fully convertible capital accounts. Some governments of emerging economies do not allow foreign exchange derivative products on their exchanges because they have capital controls. The use of derivatives is growing in many emerging economies. Countries such as Korea, South Africa, and India have established currency futures exchanges, despite having some capital controls.

Foreign exchange trading increased by 20% between April 2007 and April 2010 and has more than doubled since 2004. The increase in turnover is due to a number of factors: the growing importance of foreign exchange as an asset class, the increased trading activity of high-frequency traders, and the emergence of retail investors as an important market segment. The growth of electronic and the March 20, 2012 CORPORATE FINANACE SUPERIOR UNIVERSITY

diverse selection of execution venues has lowered transaction costs, increased market liquidity, and attracted greater participation from many customer types. In particular, electronic trading via online portals has made it easier for retail traders to trade in the foreign exchange market. By 2010, retail trading is estimated to account for up to 10% of spot turnover, or $150 billion per day (see retail foreign exchange platform). Foreign exchange is an over-the-counter market where brokers/dealers negotiate directly with one another, so there is no central exchange or clearing house. The biggest geographic trading center is the United Kingdom, primarily London, which according to The City UK estimates has increased its share of global turnover in traditional transactions from 34.6% in April 2007 to 36.7% in April 2010. Due to London's dominance in the market, a particular currency's quoted price is usually the London market price. For instance, when the International Monetary Fund calculates the value of its Special Drawing Rights every day, they use the London market prices at noon that day.

Foreign Exchange Dealing/Trading There is no unified or centrally cleared market for the majority of trades, and there is very little cross-border regulation. Due to the over-the-counter (OTC) nature of currency markets, there are rather a number of interconnected marketplaces, where different currencies instruments are traded. This implies that there is not a single exchange rate but rather a number of different rates (prices), depending on what bank or market maker is trading, and where it is. In practice the rates are often very close, otherwise they could be exploited by arbitrageurs instantaneously. Due to London's dominance in the market, a particular currency's quoted price is usually the London market price. Major trading exchanges include EBS and Reuters, while major banks also offer trading systems. A joint venture of the Chicago and Reuters, called Fx market space opened in 2007 and aspired but failed to the role of a central market clearing mechanism.

The main trading center is London but New York, Tokyo, Hong Kong and Singapore are all important centers as well. Banks throughout the world
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participate. Currency trading happens continuously throughout the day; as the Asian trading session ends, the European session begins, followed by the North American session and then back to the Asian session, excluding weekends.
Fluctuations in exchange rates are usually caused by actual monetary flows as well as by expectations of changes in monetary flows caused by changes in gross domestic product (GDP) growth, inflation (parity theory), interest rates (interest rate parity, Domestic Fisher effect, International Fisher effect), budget and trade deficits or surpluses, large cross-border M&A deals and other macroeconomic conditions. Major news is released publicly, often on scheduled dates; so many people have access to the same news at the same time. However, the large banks have an important advantage; they can see their customers' order flow.

Theories Of Exchange Rate: The following theories explain the fluctuations in exchange rates in a floating exchange rate regime (In a fixed exchange rate regime, rates are decided by its government): 1. International parity conditions: Relative Purchasing Power Parity, interest rate parity, Domestic Fisher effect, International Fisher effect. Though to some extent the above theories provide logical explanation for the fluctuations in exchange rates, yet these theories falter as they are based on challengeable assumptions [e.g., free flow of goods, services and capital] which seldom hold true in the real world. 2. Balance of payments model This model, however, focuses largely on tradable goods and services, ignoring the increasing role of global capital flows. It failed to provide any explanation for continuous appreciation of dollar during 1980s and most part of 1990s in face of soaring US current account deficit. 3. Asset market model: views currencies as an important asset class for constructing investment portfolios. Assets prices are influenced mostly by people's willingness to hold the existing quantities of assets, which in turn March 20, 2012 CORPORATE FINANACE SUPERIOR UNIVERSITY

depends on their expectations on the future worth of these assets. The asset market model of exchange rate determination states that the exchange rate between two currencies represents the price that just balances the relative supplies of, and demand for, assets denominated in those currencies. None of the models developed so far succeed to explain exchange rates and volatility in the longer time frames. For shorter time frames (less than a few days) algorithms can be devised to predict prices. It is understood from the above models that many macroeconomic factors affect the exchange rates and in the end currency prices are a result of dual forces of demand and supply. The world's currency markets can be viewed as a huge melting pot: in a large and everchanging mix of current events, supply and demand factors are constantly shifting, and the price of one currency in relation to another shifts accordingly. No other market encompasses (and distills) as much of what is going on in the world at any given time as foreign exchange. Supply and demand for any given currency, and thus its value, are not influenced by any single element, but rather by several. These elements generally fall into three categories: economic factors, political conditions and market psychology.

Economic factors
These include: (a) economic policy, disseminated by government agencies and central banks, (b) economic conditions, generally revealed through economic reports, and other economic indicators.

Economic

policy:

comprises

government fiscal

policy (budget/spending

practices) and monetary policy (the means by which a government's central bank influences the supply and "cost" of money, which is reflected by the level of interest rates).

Government budget deficits or surpluses: The market usually reacts negatively to widening government budget deficits, and positively to narrowing budget deficits. The impact is reflected in the value of a country's currency. Balance of trade levels and trends: The trade flow between countries illustrates the demand for goods and services, which in turn indicates demand for a country's currency to conduct trade. Surpluses and deficits in trade of March 20, 2012 CORPORATE FINANACE SUPERIOR UNIVERSITY

goods and services reflect the competitiveness of a nation's economy. For example, trade deficits may have a negative impact on a nation's currency.

Inflation levels and trends: Typically a currency will lose value if there is a high level of inflation in the country or if inflation levels are perceived to be rising. This is because inflation erodes purchasing power, thus demand, for that particular currency. However, a currency may sometimes strengthen when inflation rises because of expectations that the central bank will raise shortterm interest rates to combat rising inflation. Economic growth and health: Reports such as GDP, employment levels, retail sales, capacity utilization and others, detail the levels of a country's economic growth and health. Generally, the more healthy and robust a country's economy, the better its currency will perform, and the more demand for it there will be. Productivity of an economy: Increasing productivity in an economy should positively influence the value of its currency. Its effects are more prominent if the increase is in the traded sector.

Political Conditions:
Internal, regional, and international political conditions and events can have a profound effect on currency markets. All exchange rates are susceptible to political instability and anticipations about the new ruling party. Political upheaval and instability can have a negative impact on a nation's economy. For example, destabilization of coalition governments in Pakistan and Thailand can negatively affect the value of their currencies. Similarly, in a country experiencing financial difficulties, the rise of a political faction that is perceived to be fiscally responsible can have the opposite effect. Also, events in one country in a region may spur positive/negative interest in a neighboring country and, in the process, affect its currency.

Market psychology:
Market psychology and trader perceptions influence the foreign exchange market in a variety of ways:

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Flights to quality: Unsettling international events can lead to a "flight to quality", a type of capital flight whereby investors move their assets to a perceived "safe haven". There will be a greater demand, thus a higher price, for currencies perceived as stronger over their relatively weaker counterparts. The U.S. dollar, Swiss franc and gold have been traditional safe havens during times of political or economic uncertainty. Long-term trends: Currency markets often move in visible long-term trends. Although currencies do not have an annual growing season like physical commodities, business cycles do make themselves felt. Cycle analysis looks at longer-term price trends that may rise from economic or political trends. "Buy the rumor, sell the fact": This market truism can apply to many currency situations. It is the tendency for the price of a currency to reflect the impact of a particular action before it occurs and, when the anticipated event comes to pass, react in exactly the opposite direction. This may also be referred to as a market being "oversold" or "overbought To buy the rumor or sell the fact can also be an example of the cognitive bias known as anchoring, when investors focus too much on the relevance of outside events to currency prices. Economic numbers: While economic numbers can certainly reflect economic policy, some reports and numbers take on a talisman-like effect: the number it becomes important to market psychology and may have an immediate impact on short-term market moves. "What to watch" can change over time. In recent years, for example, money supply, employment, trade balance figures and inflation numbers have all taken turns in the spotlight. Technical trading considerations: As in other markets, the accumulated price movements in a currency pair such as EUR/USD can form apparent patterns that traders may attempt to use. Many traders study price charts in order to identify such patterns.

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Foreign Exchange Exposure:

Exposure in its most generic term is defined as the condition of being unprotected and investigating further is defined as the disclosure of something secret. When digging into FX one sees that it is clearly a piece or sections of sensitized material, applicable in both foreign exchange as well as photography. In the area of medicine acute as well as chronic exposures come to mind short and long-term respectively both causing health effects that are immediate or can occur days or even years later. All definitions whether in photography, medicine or foreign exchange lead to the root of solving a problem: managing exposure. In any case mismanagement will lead to bad pictures, significant impact on shareholder value and illnesses. While some may say I want to manage risk, the fundamental question remains what is the root of the risk. It is the exposure that causes the risk. So for the purpose of FX best practices I begin with the fundamental definition of foreign exchange exposure being the state of laying open or bare, to danger; and the accessibility to anything that may affect, especially detrimentally a companys well being. The laying bare to the danger are those currency exchange rate changes that influence the companys value.

Types of Exposures:

A. Transaction Exposures B. Translation Exposures C. Economic Exposures

Translation exposure, often called accounting exposure, measures the impact of an exchange rate change on the firm`s financial statements. An example would be the impact of a Euro devaluation on a U.S. firm`s reported income statement and balance sheet.

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 Transaction exposure, measures potential gains or losses on the future settlement of outstanding obligations (receivables and payables) that are denominated in a foreign currency. An example would be a U.S. dollar loss after the Euro devalues, on payments received for an export invoiced in Euros before that devaluation. Operating exposure, often called economic exposure, is the potential for the change in the present value of future cash flows due to an unexpected change in the exchange rate.

Foreign Exchange Risk Management: Foreign exchange (FX) is a risk factor that is often overlooked by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) that wish to enter, grow, and succeed in the global marketplace. Although most U.S. SME exporters prefer to sell in U.S. dollars, creditworthy foreign buyers today are increasingly demanding to pay in their local currencies. From the view point of a U.S. exporter who chooses to sell in foreign currencies, FX risk is the exposure to potential financial losses due to devaluation of the foreign currency against the U.S. dollar. Obviously, this exposure can be avoided by insisting on selling only in U.S. dollars. However, such an approach may result in losing export opportunities to competitors who are willing to accommodate their foreign buyers by selling in their local currencies. This approach could also result in the non-payment by a foreign buyer who may find it impossible to meet U.S. dollar-denominated payment obligations due to the devaluation of the local currency against the U.S. dollar. While coverage for nonpayment could be covered by export credit insurance, such what-if protection is meaningless if export opportunities are lost in the first place because of the payment in U.S. dollars only policy. Selling in foreign currencies, if FX risk is successfully managed or hedged, can be a viable option for U.S. exporters who wish to enter and remain competitive in the global marketplace. Key Points:

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 Most foreign buyers generally prefer to trade in their local currencies to avoid FX risk exposure. U.S. SME exporters who choose to trade in foreign currencies can minimize FX exposure by using one of the widely-used FX risk management techniques available in the United States. The volatile nature of the FX market poses a great risk of sudden and drastic FX rate movements, which may cause significantly damaging financial losses from otherwise profitable export sales. The primary objective of FX risk management is to minimize potential currency losses, not to make a profit from FX rate movements, which are unpredictable and frequent. FX Risk Management Options: A variety of options are available for reducing short-term FX exposure. The following sections list FX risk management techniques considered suitable for newto-export U.S. SME companies. The FX instruments mentioned below are available in all major currencies and are offered by numerous commercial lenders. However, not all of these techniques may be available in the buyers country or they may be too expensive to be useful. Non-Hedging FX Risk Management Techniques: The exporter can avoid FX exposure by using the simplest non-hedging technique: price the sale in a foreign currency. The exporter can then demand cash in advance, and the current spot market rate will determine the U.S. dollar value of the foreign proceeds. A spot transaction is when the exporter and the importer agree to pay using todays exchange rate and settle within two business days. Another non-hedging technique is to net out foreign currency receipts with foreign currency expenditures. For example, the U.S. exporter who exports in pesos to a buyer in Mexico may want to purchase supplies in pesos from a different Mexican trading partner. If the companys export and import transactions with Mexico are comparable in value, pesos are rarely converted into dollars, and FX risk is

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minimized. The risk is further reduced if those peso-denominated export and import transactions are conducted on a regular basis.

FX Forward Hedges: The most direct method of hedging FX risk is a forward contract, which enables the exporter to sell a set amount of foreign currency at a pre-agreed exchange rate with a delivery date from three days to one year into the future. For example, suppose U.S. goods are sold to a Japanese company for 125 million yen on 30-day terms and that the forward rate for 30-day yen is 125 yen to the dollar. The U.S. exporter can eliminate FX exposure by contracting to deliver 125 million yen to his bank in 30 days in exchange for payment of $1 million dollars. Such a forward contract will ensure that the U.S. exporter can convert the 125 million yen into $1 million, regardless of what may happen to the dollar-yen exchange rates over the next 30 days. However, if the Japanese buyer fails to pay on time, the U.S. exporter will be obligated to deliver 125 million yen in 30 days. Accordingly, when using forward contracts to hedge FX risk, U.S. exporters are advised to pick forward delivery dates conservatively. If the foreign currency is collected sooner, the exporter can hold on to it until the delivery date or can swap the old FX contract for a new one with a new delivery date at a minimal cost. Note that there are no fees or charges for forward contracts since the lender hopes to make a spread by buying at one price and selling to someone else at a higher price. FX Options Hedges: If there is serious doubt about whether a foreign currency sale will actually be completed and collected by any particular date, an FX option may be worth considering. Under an FX option, the exporter or the option holder acquires the right, but not the obligation, to deliver an agreed amount of foreign currency to the lender in exchange for dollars at a specified rate on or before the expiration date of the option. As opposed to a forward contract, an FX option has an explicit fee, which is similar to a premium paid for an insurance policy. If the value of the foreign currency goes down, the exporter is protected from loss. On the other hand, if the value of the foreign currency goes up significantly, the exporter can March 20, 2012 CORPORATE FINANACE SUPERIOR UNIVERSITY

sell the option back to the lender or simply let it expire by selling the foreign currency on the spot market for more dollars than originally expected, but the fee would be forfeited. While FX options hedges provide a high degree of flexibility, they can be significantly more costly than FX forward hedges. Types of Options: In the special language of options, contracts fall into two categories - Calls and Puts. A Call represents the right of the holder to buy stock. A Put represents the right of the holder to sell stock.

Exercising the Option: Options investors dont actually have to buy or sell the underlying shares that are associated with their options. They can and often do simply opt to resell their options - or "trade out of their options positions". If they do choose to purchase or sell the underlying shares represented by their options, this is called exercising the option. Call Options: A Call option is a contract that gives the buyer the right to buy 100 shares of an underlying equity at a predetermined price (the strike price) for a preset period of time. The seller of a Call option is obligated to sell the underlying security if the Call buyer exercises his or her option to buy on or before the option expiration date. For example, an American-style WXYZ Corporation May 21, 2011 60 Call entitles the buyer to purchase 100 shares of WXYZ Corporation common stock at $60 per share at any time prior to the option's expiration date of May 21, 2011.

Put Options: A Put option is a contract that gives the buyer the right to sell 100 shares of an underlying stock at a predetermined price for a preset time period. The seller of a Put option is obligated to buy the underlying security if the Put buyer exercises his or her option to sell on or before the option expiration date. Likewise, an American-style WXYZ Corporation May 21, 2011 60 Put entitles the buyer to sell March 20, 2012 CORPORATE FINANACE SUPERIOR UNIVERSITY

100 shares of WXYZ Corp. common stock at $60 per share at any time prior to the option's expiration date in May.

Forward Contract: In finance, a forward contract or simply a forward is a non-standardized contract between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a specified future time at a price agreed today.] This is in contrast to a spot contract, which is an agreement to buy or sell an asset today. The party agreeing to buy the underlying asset in the future assumes a long position, and the party agreeing to sell the asset in the future assumes a short position. The price agreed upon is called the delivery price, which is equal to the forward price at the time the contract is entered into A cash market transaction in which delivery of the commodity is deferred until after the contract has been made. Although the delivery is made in the future, the price is determined on the initial trade date. The price of the underlying instrument, in whatever form, is paid before control of the instrument changes. This is one of the many forms of buy/sell orders where the time and date of trade is not the same as the value date where the securities themselves are exchanged. The forward price of such a contract is commonly contrasted with the spot price, which is the price at which the asset changes hands on the spot date. The difference between the spot and the forward price is the forward premium or forward discount, generally considered in the form of a profit, or loss, by the purchasing party. Forwards, like other derivative securities, can be used to hedge risk (typically currency or exchange rate risk), as a means of speculation, or to allow a party to take advantage of a quality of the underlying instrument which is time-sensitive. A closely related contract is a futures contract; they differ in certain respects. Forward contracts are very similar to futures contracts, except they are not

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exchange-traded, or defined on standardized assets. Forwards also typically have no interim partial settlements or "true-ups" in margin requirements like futures such that the parties do not exchange additional property securing the party at gain and the entire unrealized gain or loss builds up while the contract is open. However, being traded OTC; forward contracts specification can be customized and may include mark-to-market and daily margining. Hence, a forward contract arrangement might call for the loss party to pledge collateral or additional collateral to better secure the party at gain.

Future Contract: In finance, a futures contract is a standardized contract between two parties to exchange a specified asset of standardized quantity and quality for a price agreed today (the futures price or the strike price) with delivery occurring at a specified future date, the delivery date. The contracts are traded on a futures exchange. The party agreeing to buy the underlying asset in the future, the "buyer" of the contract, is said to be "long", and the party agreeing to sell the asset in the future, the "seller" of the contract, is said to be "short". The terminology reflects the expectations of the parties -- the buyer hopes or expects that the asset price is going to increase, while the seller hopes or expects that it will decrease. Note that the contract itself costs nothing to enter; the buy/sell terminology is a linguistic convenience reflecting the position each party is taking (long or short). In many cases, the underlying asset to a futures contract may not be traditional commodities at all that is, for financial futures the underlying asset or item can be currencies, securities or financial instruments and intangible assets or referenced items such as stock indexes and interest rates. While the futures contract specifies a trade taking place in the future, the purpose of the futures exchange institution is to act as intermediary and minimize the risk of default by either party. Thus the exchange requires both parties to put up an initial amount of cash, the margin. Additionally, since the futures price will generally change daily, the difference in the prior agreed-upon price and the daily futures price is settled daily also. The exchange will draw money out of one party's March 20, 2012 CORPORATE FINANACE SUPERIOR UNIVERSITY

margin account and put it into the other's so that each party has the appropriate daily loss or profit. If the margin account goes below a certain value, then a margin call is made and the account owner must replenish the margin account. This process is known as marking to market. Thus on the delivery date, the amount exchanged is not the specified price on the contract but the spot value (since any gain or loss has already been previously settled by marking to market). New Issue Market: The New Issue market is that part of the capital markets that deals with the issuance of new securities. Companies, governments or public sector institutions can obtain funding through the sale of a new stock or bond issue. This is typically done through a syndicate of securities dealers. The process of selling new issues to investors is called underwriting. In the case of a new stock issue, this sale is an initial public offering (IPO). Dealers earn a commission that is built into the price of the security offering, though it can be found in the prospectus. Primary markets create long term instruments through which corporate entities borrow from capital market.

Features of primary markets are:

This is the market for new long term equity capital. The primary market is the market where the securities are sold for the first time. Therefore it is also called the new issue market (NIM). In a primary issue, the securities are issued by the company directly to investors. The company receives the money and issues new security certificates to the investors. Primary issues are used by companies for the purpose of setting up new business or for expanding or modernizing the existing business. The primary market performs the crucial function of facilitating capital formation in the economy. The new issue market does not include certain other sources of new long term external finance, such as loans from financial institutions. Borrowers in the new March 20, 2012 CORPORATE FINANACE SUPERIOR UNIVERSITY

issue market may be raising capital for converting private capital into public capital; this is known as "going public."

The financial assets sold can only be redeemed by the original holder.

Methods of issuing securities in the primary market are:

Initial public offering; Rights issue (for existing companies); Preferential issue

Stock Exchange:
A stock exchange provides services for stock brokers and traders to

trade stocks , bonds, and other securities. Stock exchanges also provide facilities for issue and redemption of securities and other financial instruments, and capital events including the payment of income and dividends. Securities traded on a stock exchange include shares issued by companies, unit trusts, derivatives, pooled investment products and bonds. To be able to trade a security on a certain stock exchange, it must be listed there. Usually, there is a central location at least for record keeping, but trade is increasingly less linked to such a physical place, as modern markets are electronic networks, which gives them advantages of increased speed and reduced cost of transactions. Trade on an exchange is by members only. The initial offering of stocks and bonds to investors is by definition done in the primary market and subsequent trading is done in the secondary market. A stock exchange is often the most important component of a stock market. Supply and demand in stock markets is driven by various factors that, as in all free markets, affect the price of stocks (see stock valuation). There is usually no compulsion to issue stock via the stock exchange itself, nor must stock be subsequently traded on the exchange. Such trading is said to be off March 20, 2012 CORPORATE FINANACE SUPERIOR UNIVERSITY

exchange or over-the-counter. This is the usual way that derivatives and bonds are traded. Increasingly, stock exchanges are part of a global market for securities.

The functions of stock exchange are as following 1. Main activities:

To promote the savings and for them to be canalized towards of carrying through investment projects that otherwise wouldnt be possible you need that the issuing institution of the securities to be admitted for quoting. The negotiations will be done on the primary market. To provide liquidity to the investors. The investor can recuperate the money invested when needed. For it, he has to go to the stock exchange market to sell the securities previously acquired. This function of the stock market is done on the secondary market.

2. Functions as an organization are:

To guarantee the legal and economic security of the agreed contracts. To provide official information about the quantities that are negotiated and of the quoted prices. To fix the prices of the securities according to the fundamental law of the offer and the demand.

Specifying a bit more and centering on the two main agents that intervene in the market, investors and companies, we could do the following classification: 3. Functions in favor of the investor:

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It permits him the access to the profitable activities of the big companies. It offers liquidity to the security investments, through a place in which to sell or buy securities. It permits for the investor to have a political power in the companies in which he invests its savings due that the acquisition of ordinary shares gives him the right (among other things) to vote in the general shareholders meetings of the company in question. It offers the possibility of diversifying your portfolio by enlarging

the field of strategy of investments due to alternative options, as could be the derived market, the money market, etc. 4. Function in favor of the companies:

It supplies them with the obtaining of long-term funds that permits the company to make profitable activities or to do determine projects that otherwise wouldnt be possible to develop for lack of financing. Also, this funding signifies a less cost than if obtained at other channels. The securities quoted at the stock exchange market usually have more fiscal purpose advantages for the companies. It offers to the companys free publicity, which in other way would suppose considerable expenses. The institution is objecting of attention of the media (television, radio, etc.) in case any important change in its owners (the share holders).

5. Constant following of the quotations. Therefore we can see how the stock exchange market supposes a great advantage to the companies, but there are also some inconveniences to have in mind:

First of all, they need of a series of conditions to be apt to enter to the quotations, not all the companies that apply can do it. The issuing of shares may suppose a loss of power for the founders of the company. Anyway, this is very relative because it will depend on the grade

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of atomization on the participations of the new shareholders and of the percentage of shares that the founders keep over the total capital of the company.

If for example a 49% of the share capital is in hands of the founders, these could lose the control of in case the other 51% would be in hands of one main shareholder. However, this rarely happens, due that the share capital that usually goes to the stock market tends to be distributed between a great number of shareholders that acquire modest participations in respect to that of the capital of the company the founders may still keep control with share capital is distributed between a great number of participants.

Now then, the property of these shares implies the possession of certain rights over the company in which you participate.

These are: political rights, among which appears the possibility of participating in the general share holders meetings and in the administration of the company by means of the execution of your rights to vote; and the economic right, which embraces the possibility of receiving dividends, preferential rights of subscription, the transmission of shares (selling) and the right to the liquidity value. This last implies that at the moment in which the company is liquidated, what remains is proportionally divided between the shareholders. 5. The possession of all these rights is what reduces the power of the founders.

The shares may pass to be property of unknown people to the founders. At the moment in which they are object of quotations at the stock exchange market any supplier of capital may have them. If its a company that previously knew all its shareholders, considering this as an asset of value to the company. The stock market quotation may generate an important change that will not always be positive.

The companies that are quoted at the stock market offer a better transparency, in a way that the general public may have access to any information related to their evolution and activities.

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This makes them have a greater control and to supervise every movement done.

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