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P
art 1 of this series
Our multi-part series on introduced basic
power amplifier tech- concepts, discussed
nologies and applications the characteristics of sig-
continues with a review of nals to be amplified, and
amplifier configurations, gave background infor-
classes of operation, mation on RF power
device characterization devices. Part 2 reviews
and example applications the basic techniques, rat-
ings, and implementation
methods for power amplifiers operating at HF
through microwave frequencies.
system eliminates the expensive nents and are used primarily as and “shorted” means no more 1/10 to
tuners, but creates a substantial cali- chokes and by-passes. Matching, tun- 1/3 of the fundamental-frequency
bration challenge of its own. The wide ing, and filtering at microwave fre- impedance [FR17].
availability of turn-key load-pull sys- quencies are therefore accomplished A wide variety of class-F PAs have
tems has generally reduced the appli- with distributed (transmission-line) been implemented at UHF and
cation of active load-pull to situations networks. Proper operation of power microwave frequencies [36-41].
where mechanical or electronic tun- amplifiers at microwave frequencies Generally, only one or two harmonic
ing becomes impractical (e.g., mil- is achieved by providing the required impedances are controlled. In the X-
limeter-wave frequencies). drain-load impedance at the funda- band PA from [42], for example, the
mental and a number of harmonic output circuit provides a match at the
6c. STABILITY frequencies. fundamental and a short circuit at
The stability of a small-signal RF the second harmonic. The third-har-
amplifier is ensured by deriving a set Class F monic impedance is high, but not
of S-parameters from using mea- Class-F operation is specified in explicitly adjusted to be open. The 3-
sured data or a linear model, and terms of harmonic impedances, so it dB bandwidth of such an output net-
then establishing the value of the k- is relatively easy to see how trans- work is about 20 percent, and the effi-
factor stability parameter. If the k- mission-line networks are used. ciency remains within 10 percent of
factor is greater than unity, at the Methods for using transmission lines its maximum value over a bandwidth
frequency and bias level in question, in conjunction with lumped-element of approximately 10 to 15 percent.
then expressions for matching tuned circuits appear in the original Dielectric resonators can be used
impedances at input and output can paper by Tyler [34]. In modern in lieu of lumped-element traps in
be evaluated to give a perfect conju- microwave implementation, however, class-F PAs. Power outputs of 40 W
gate match for the device. Amplifier it is generally necessary to use trans- have been obtained at 11 GHz with
design in this context is mainly a mission lines exclusively. In addition, efficiencies of 77 percent [43].
matter of designing matching net- the required impedances must be
works which present the prescribed produced at a virtual ideal drain that Class E
impedances over the necessary speci- is separated from the output network The drain-shunt capacitance and
fied bandwidth. If the k factor is less by drain capacitance, bond-wire/lead series inductive reactance required
than unity, negative feedback or lossy inductance. for optimum class-E operation result
matching must be employed in order Typically, a transmission line in a drain impedance of R + j0.725R
to maintain an unconditionally stable between the drain and the load pro- at the fundamental frequency,
design. vides the fundamental-frequency –j1.7846R at the second harmonic,
A third case is relevant to PA drain impedance of the desired value. and proportionately smaller capaci-
design at higher microwave frequen- A stub that is a quarter wavelength tive reactances at higher harmonics.
cies. There are cases where a device at the harmonic of interest and open At microwave frequencies, class-E
has a very high k-factor value, but at one end provides a short circuit at operation is approximated by provid-
very low gain in conjugate matched the opposite end. The stub is placed ing the drain with the fundamental-
condition. The physical cause of this along the main transmission line at frequency impedance and preferably
can be traced to a device which has either a quarter or a half wavelength one or more of the harmonic
gain roll-off due to carrier-mobility from the drain to create either an impedances [44].
effects, rather than parasitics. In open or a short circuit at the drain An example of a microwave
such cases, introduction of some posi- [35]. The supply voltage is fed to the approximation of class E that pro-
tive feedback reduces the k-factor drain through a half-wavelength line vides the correct fundamental and
and increases the gain in conjugately bypassed on the power-supply end or second-harmonic impedances [44] is
matched conditions, while maintain- alternately by a lumped-element shown in Figure 13. Line l2 is a quar-
ing unconditional stability. This tech- choke. When multiple stubs are used, ter-wavelength long at the second
nique was much used in the early era the stub for the highest controlled harmonic so that the open circuit at
of vacuum-tube electronics, especially harmonic is placed nearest the drain. its end is transformed to a short at
in IF amplifiers. Stubs for lower harmonics are placed plane AA'. Line l1 in combination
progressively further away and their with L and C is designed to be also a
6d. MICROWAVE IMPLEMENTATION lengths and impedances are adjusted quarter wavelength to translate the
At microwave frequencies, lumped to allow for interactions. Typically, short at AA' to an open at the tran-
elements (capacitors, inductors) “open” means three to ten times the sistor drain. The lines l1 to l4 provide
become unsuitable as tuning compo- fundamental-frequency impedance, the desired impedance at the funda-
mental. The implementation using an power, but class F has about 15 per- HF/VHF Single Sideband
FLK052 MESFET is shown in Figure cent higher efficiency. Class E has the One of the first applications of
14 produces 0.68 W at X band with a highest efficiency. Gain compression RF-power transistors was linear
drain efficiency of 72 percent and occurs at a lower power level for class amplification of HF single-sideband
PAE of 60 percent [42]. E than for class F. For a given effi- signals. Many PAs developed by
Methods exist for providing the ciency, class F produces more power. Helge Granberg have been widely
proper impedances through the For the same maximum output adapted for this purpose [56, 57]. The
fourth harmonic [45]. However, the power, the third order intermodula- 300-W PA for 2 to 30 MHz uses a pair
harmonic impedances are not critical tion products are about 10 dB lower of Motorola MRF422 Si NPN transis-
[30], and many variations are there- for class F than for class E. Lower- tors in a push-pull configuration. The
fore possible. Since the transistor power PAs implemented with smaller PA operates in class AB push-pull
often has little or no gain at the high- RF power devices tend to be more from a 28-V supply and achieves a
er harmonic frequencies, those efficient than PAs implemented with collector efficiency of about 45 per-
impedances often have little or no larger devices [42]. cent (CW) and a two-tone IMD ratio
effect upon performance. A single- of about –30 dBc. The 1-kW amplifier
stub match is often sufficient to pro- Millimeter-Wave PAs is based upon a push-pull pair of
vide the desired impedance at the Solid-state PAs for millimeter- MRF154 MOSFETs and operates
fundamental while simultaneously wave (mm-W) frequencies (30 to 100 from a 50-V supply. Over the frequen-
providing an adequately high GHz) are predominantly monolithic. cy range of 2 to 50 MHz it achieves a
impedance at the second harmonic, Most Ka-band PAs are based upon drain efficiency of about 58 percent
thus eliminating the need for an pHEMT devices, while most W-band (CW) with an IMD rating of –30 dBc.
extra stub and reducing a portion of PAs are based upon InP HEMTs.
the losses associated with it. Most Some use is also made of HBTs at the 13.56-MHz ISM Power Sources
microwave class-E amplifiers operate lower mm-W frequencies. Class A is High-power signals at 13.56 MHz
in a suboptimum mode [46]. used for maximum gain. Typical per- are needed for a wide variety of
Demonstrated capabilities range formance characteristics include 4 W Industrial, Scientific, and Medical
from 16 W with 80-percent efficiency with 30-percent PAE at Ka band [53], (ISM) applications such as plasma
at UHF (LDMOS) to 100 mW with 250 mW with 25-percent PAE at Q generation, RF heating, and semicon-
60-percent efficiency at 10 GHz [47], band [54], and 200 mW with 10-per- ductor processing. A 400-W class-E
[48], [44], [49], [50], [51]. Optical sam- cent PAE at W band [55]. Devices for PA uses an International Rectifier
pling of the waveforms [52] has veri- operation at mm-W are inherently IRFP450LC MOSFET (normally
fied that these PAs do indeed operate small, so large power outputs are used for low-frequency switching-
in class E. obtained by combining the outputs of mode DC power supplies) operates
multiple low-power amplifiers in cor- from a 120-V supply and achieves a
Comparison porate or spatial power combiners. drain efficiency of 86 percent [58, 26].
PAs configured for classes A (AB), Industrial 13.56-MHz RF power gen-
E, and F are compared experimental- 6e. EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS erators using class-E output stages
ly in [50] with the following conclu- The following examples illustrate have been manufactured since 1992
sions. Classes AB and F have essen- the wide variety of power amplifiers by Dressler Hochfrequenztechnik
tially the same saturated output in use today: (Stolberg, Germany) and Advanced
July 2003 31
High Frequency Design
RF POWER AMPLIFIERS
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wave Computer-Aided Engin-eering, Institute of Technology, Pasadena, 1999. AR347, Motorola Semiconductor
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37. A. N. Rudiakova and V. G. Jimenez-Martin, A. Asensio-Lopez, G. 58. N. O. Sokal, “Class-E RF power
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output impedance on power added effi- Markovic, M. Forman, and Z. Popovic, Author Information
ciency of Si-bipolar power transistors,” “Switched-mode high-efficiency micro- The authors of this series of arti-
Int. Microwave Symp. Digest, vol. 3, pp. wave power amplifiers in a free-space cles are: Frederick H. Raab (lead
1945-1948, Boston, MA, June 13-15, power-combiner array,” IEEE Trans. author), Green Mountain Radio
2000. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 46, no. 10, Research, e-mail: f.raab@ieee.org;
40. F. Huin, C. Duvanaud, V. Serru, pt. I, pp. 1391-1398, Oct. 1998. Peter Asbeck, University of
F. Robin, and E. Leclerc, “A single supply 51. M. D. Weiss and Z. Popovic, “A 10 California at San Diego; Steve
very high power and efficiency integrat- GHz high-efficiency active antenna,” Cripps, Hywave Associates; Peter B.
ed PHEMT amplifier for GSM applica- Int. Microwave Symp. Digest, vol. 2, pp. Kenington, Andrew Corporation;
tions,” Proc. 2000 RFIC Symp., Boston, 663-666, Anaheim, CA, June 14-17, Zoya B. Popovic, University of
MA, CD-ROM, June 11-13, 2000. 1999. Colorado; Nick Pothecary,
41. B. Ingruber et al., 52. M. Weiss, M. Crites, E. Bryerton, Consultant; John F. Sevic, California
“Rectangularly driven class-A harmon- J. Whitacker, and Z. Popovic, “"Time Eastern Laboratories; and Nathan O.
ic-control amplifier,” IEEE Trans. domain optical sampling of nonlinear Sokal, Design Automation. Readers
Microwave Theory Tech., pt. 1, vol. 46, microwave amplifiers and multipliers,” desiring more information should
no. 11, pp. 1667-1672, Nov. 1998. IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., contact the lead author.
42. E. W. Bryerton, M. D. Weiss, and vol. 47, no.12, pp. 2599-2604, Dec. 1999.
Z. Popovic, “Efficiency of chip-level ver- 53. J. J. Komiak, W. Kong, P. C. Notes
sus external power combining,” IEEE Chao, and K. Nichols, “Fully monolithic 1. In Part 1 of this series (May
Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 47, 4 watt high efficiency Ka-band power 2003 issue), the references contained
no. 8, pp. 1482-1485, Aug. 1999. amplifier,” Int. Microwave Symp. in Table 1 were not numbered cor-
43 S. Toyoda, “Push-pull power Digest, vol. 3, pp. 947-950, Anaheim, rectly. The archived version has been
amplifiers in the X band,” Int. CA, June 14-17, 1999. corrected and may be downloaded
Microwave Symp. Digest, vol. 3, pp. 54. S.-W. Chen et al., “A 60-GHz from: www.highfrequencyelectronics.
1433-1436, Denver, CO, June 8-13, 1997. high-efficiency monolithic power ampli- com — click on “Archives,” select
44. T. B. Mader and Z. Popovic, “The fier using 0.1-µm pHEMTs,” IEEE “May 2003 — Vol. 2 No. 3” then click
transmission-line high-efficiency class- Microwave and Guided Wave Lett., on the article title.
E amplifier,” IEEE Micro-wave and vol.5, pp. 201-203, June 1995. 2. This series has been extended
Guided Wave Lett., vol. 5, no. 9, pp. 290- 55. D. L. Ingram et al., “Compact W- to five parts, to be published in succe-
292, Sept. 1995. band solid-state MMIC high power sive issues through January 2004.