where in the last line we have introduced polar coordinates to perform the integral.

Finally, change variables to X =

2
+ x
2
to obtain
(x, t) = 2c
_

x
(X ct)dX (6)
= 2c(ct x),
so that in one dimension the wake which is left behind the leading edge of the signal
has a constant amplitude!
2. Jackson 6.20. In this problem we are to demonstrate causality in the Coulomb gauge.
We have a dipole source which is ashed on and o at t = 0. The charge and current
densities are
(x, y, z, t) = (x)(y)

(z)(t), J
z
(x, y, z, t) = (x)(y)(z)

(t) (7)
(therefore the equation of continuity is satised). The dipole has unit strength and
points in the z direction.
(a) We start by calculating the scalar potential, which is
(x, t) =
1
4
0
_
(x

, t)
|x x

|
d
3
x

(8)
=
1
4
0
(t)
_

dz

1
_
x
2
+ y
2
+ (z z

)
2
d(z

)
dz

=
1
4
0
(t)
_

dz

(z

)
d
dz

_
_
1
_
x
2
+ y
2
+ (z z

)
2
_
_
=
1
4
0
(t)
z
r
3
,
which certainly looks acausal.
(b) Next, calculate the transverse part of the current. I think that it is easier to nd
the longitudinal part of the current rst, using
J
l
(x, t) =
1
4

J(x

, t)
|x x

|
d
3
x

(9)
=
1
4

(t)
_
(x

)(y

(z

)
|x x

|
d
3
x

=
1
4

(t)
_
z
r
3
_
.
Therefore the transverse current, J
t
= J J
l
, is
J
t
(x, t) =

(t)
_
(x) z
1
4

_
z
r
3
__
. (10)
2
To obtain the expression quoted in the text, we need to take the gradient of z/r
3
,

_
z
r
3
_
=
3( z r) r
r
3
+
z
r
3
+
4
3
(x) z, (11)
where the last term comes from treating the gradient as in Eq. (4.20) in Jackson.
The nal result is
J
t
(x, t) =

(t)
_
2
3
(x) z
z
4r
3
+
3
4r
3
( z r) r
_
. (12)
(c) Now lets calculate the vector potential in the Coulomb gauge, which is
A(x, t) =

0
4
_
J
t
(x

, t
r
)
R
d
3
x

, (13)
where t
r
= t R/c is the retarded time, and R = |x x

|. Using our results

from the previous section, we have
J
t
(x

, t
r
) =

(t R/c)
_
(x

) z +
1
4

_
1
r

_
_
, (14)
where r |x|, r

|x

|. Inserting this into Eq. (13), we have

A(x, t) =

0
4
_

(t r/c)
r
z +
1
4

t
_
d
3
x

(t R/c)
R

_
1
r

_
_
(15)
Integrate by parts twice in the integral above:
_
d
3
x

(t R/c)
R

_
1
r

_
=
_
d
3
x

1
r

_
(t R/c)
R
_
(16)
=

z
_
d
3
x

1
r

(t R/c)
R
,
where in the rst line the surface terms which appear in the integration by parts
are zero. Now lets do the integral by changing variables from x

to R = x x

;
we then expand 1/|x R| in spherical harmonics, and notice that only the l = 0
term will contribute once we perform the integral over d:
_
d
3
x

1
r

(t R/c)
R
=
_
d
3
R
(t R/c)
R|x R|
(17)
=
_

0
(4R
2
dR)
c(R ct)
Rr
>
= 4c
_
1
r
_
r
0
R(R ct) dR +
_

r
(R ct)dR
_
= 4c
_
ct
r
(r ct) + (ct r)
_
(t),
3
where r > is the larger of r and R.
With this little nugget, we can go back and work out the vector potential.
A(x, t) =

0
4
_

(t r/c)
r
z (18)
+c

z

t
_
ct
r
(r ct)(t) + (ct r)(t)
_
_
=

0
4
_
c
2

(r ct)
r
z + c
2

z
_
(r ct)(t)
r
__
.
Then

A
t
=
1
4
0
_
c

(r ct)
r
z

z
_
c(r ct)(t) (t)(r)
r
__
. (19)
In the expression above we can set (t) = (r) = 1. For the electric eld we then
have
E =
A
t
(20)
=
1
4
0
(t)

z
_
1
r
_
+
1
4
0
_
c

(r ct)
r
z

z
_
c(r ct) (t)
r
__
=
c
4
0
_

(r ct)
r
z

z
_
(r ct)
r
__
.
We see that the acausal terms have cancelled, and that the electric eld is causal,
as it should be. An analogous calculation can be carried out for the magnetic
eld, and it too is causal. The causality would have been readily apparent in
the Lorentz gauge, but as the above calculation shows, it is quite obscure in the
Coulomb gauge.
With the above expression it is straightforward to obtain the eld components
given in Jackson.
3. The London equation for the (static) magnetic eld in a superconductor is
B =
1

2
B, (21)
where is the London penetration depth.
(a) To start with, assume that a superconductor occupies the region x > 0 and that
x < 0 is vacuum in which there is a uniform magnetic eld B = B
0
z. Show
that the magnetic eld in the superconductor is B = B
0
e
x/
z. This result gives
meaning to the term penetration depth for .
4