1

COMPLEX NUMBERS
BRIEF REVIEW: Cantor, Dedekind and Weierstrass etc, extended the concept of rational
numbers to a larger field known as real numbers which constitute rational as well as irrational
numbers. It is evident that the system of real numbers is not sufficient for all mathematical needs
e.g.
The solution of a polynomial in equation (1) below is but for equation (2), the values of
x are:



The value of is neither -2 nor +2. We, in fact cannot represent by an ordinary
number because there is no real number whose square is a negative quantity i.e. no real number
(rational or irrational) satisfies equation (2). It was therefore felt necessary by Euler Gauss,
Hamilton, Cauchy, Reiman and Weierstrass etc to extend the field of real numbers to the still
larger field of complex numbers. Euler for the first time introduced the symbol j with the
property and then Gauss introduced a number of the form in equation (3) below
which satisfies every algebraic equation with real coefficients.

Such a number with and , being real is known as a complex number. is called the
real part and the imaginary part of the complex number, z and denoted by:


Modulus of a Complex Number:

If equation (4) is a complex number, then its modulus (or module) is denoted by and given
by:

Conjugate Complex Numbers:
For every complex number (4), there exists its conjugate denoted by (5):



) 1 .......( .......... 0 4
2
= x
2 = x
) 2 .......( .......... 0 4
2
= + x
4 = x
4 4
1
2
= j
) 3 .......( .......... | o j z + =
1 = j
(z) r or R(z) o R
z
Re = o
(z) r or I(z) o I
z
Im = |
) 4 .......( .......... jy x z + =
| | z
2 2
| | | | y x jy x z + + = + =
) 5 .......( .......... jy x z =
2

The Representation of Complex Numbers
Recall that:







There are 4 principal formats for representing complex numbers. These include:
Graphical representation
Polar form
Vector interpretation
Spherical representation

Graphical Representation:
Equation (4) and (5) can be represented graphically. This form allows us to represent every
complex number by just one point in a plane. Also, in the reverse sense, every point in the plane
may be associated with just one complex number. Assume x = 6 and y = 2, (4) and (5) are
graphically represented thus:














Such representation as described above is called the Argand diagram.

j
j j j
j
j
j
j
j
i
j
j
j j j .j) (j j j j
+ = = =
= =
= = =
= = = =

.
1 1
1
1
1
1 . ; ; 1
2 3
3
2
2
2
1
2 2 4 2 3 2

P( z )

y
6
j
-j
z
r
z

-y
-x x
-2
2
P(z)
3

Polar Form of Complex Numbers:
From the above figure, we can transform the coordinate(s) to the polar form thus:











Note the following:







In Pictorial form:




















)
x
y
( z and r z
re re jSin Cos r
jrSin rCos z So
jy x z but
rCos x rSin y
r
x
Cos
r
y
Sin
k j j
arctan arg ; | |
) (
,
;
;
2
= = =
= = + =
+ =
+ =
= =
= =
+






t u u
u u
u u
u u
u u
1
1
2
2
3
2
=
=
=
=
t
t
t
t
j
j
e
j e
e
j e
j
j
P(r,-)

y
x
j
-i
z
r
z

-y
-x x
-2
y
P(r,)
dians and is in ra s <
4

ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE
These functions include:
Polynomial functions
Rational functions
Exponential functions
Trigonometric functions
Hyperbolic functions
Logarithmic functions
Inverse Trigonometric functions
Inverse Hyperbolic functions

POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
A polynomial function, P(z) can be defined as:


Where a
0
is not zero, a
1
.a
n
are complex constants. N is a positive integer
called the degree of the polynomial P(z) and Z is a complex variable.

RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Are defined by:

Where P(z) and R(z) are polynomials.

EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
The exponential function of a real (not complex) function is simply written as . So, for a
complex variable, z given as :
If y is used as a radian measure of the angle to define Cos y, Sin y etc, then the exponential
function in terms of real valued functions is defined by:


In case z is purely real i.e. y = 0, we have e
z
= e
x
and if z is purely imaginary i.e. x = 0, we have:


Recall that e is the base of natural logarithms (e = 2.718281828). Complex exponential functions
have properties similar to those of real exponential functions.









) 6 .......( .......... ......... ) (
1
2
2
1
1 0 n n
n n n
a z a z a z a z a z P + + + + + =


) 7 ( .......... .......... ..........
) (
) (
) (
z R
z P
z F =
x
e
; jy x z + =
) 8 ........( )......... sin ( . y j Cosy e e e e e
x jy x jy x z
+ = = =
+
) 9 ( .......... .......... .......... sin y j Cosy e
jy
+ =
5

In polar form,















Illustrations:
1) Show that
2 1 2 1
.
z z z z
e e e
+
=



























RHS LHS Hence
e RHS
e
e e
e e e e
e e
y y j y y e
y y y y j y y j y y e
y j y y j y e e RHS
y j y e y j y e e e
RHS LHS
z z
jy x jy x
jy x jy x
jy jy x x
y y j x x
x x
x x
x x
x x z z
=
=
=
=
=
=
+ + + =
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
=
+
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+
+
,
.
. . .
.
)] sin( ) .[cos(
] sin . sin cos . sin sin . cos cos . .[cos
)] sin ).(cos sin [(cos .
) sin (cos ). sin (cos .
2 1
2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
2 1 2 1
1 2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1 2 1
) ( ) (
) (
2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1






) 2 1 0 ( ; 2 0
) 2 sin( ) 2 cos( 1 ,
0
exp
0 0 |
arg |
;
) sin (cos
:
) sin (cos .
, , n n and y x
n j n e Now
where r the origin excluding
plane e complex the entir unction is onential f nge of the So, the ra
e of z every valu for i.e. e Also, |e
y e and e r |e
y e r where
re j r e
tten as can be wri
y j y e e e e e
z
z z
z x z
x
j z
x jy x jy x z
= = =
+ = =
=
= >
= = = =
= =
= + =
+ = = =
+





t t t t
u
u
u u
u
6


2) Show that
2 1 2 1
/
z z z z
e e e

=















3) Find all values of z such that 1 =
z
e
Solution:
.....) , , (n n) ( z
o or x
eger. n is an ; where n ; y x
e ; e e e
orm; i.e. onential f numbers in
ex two compl quality of ciple of e g the prin ate u We can equ
.e e .e e
RHS LHS
LHS .e e e So, e
radian in angle is where the
RHS j e call that
j jy x
j jy x
jy x jy x z
j
2 1 0 2 1 0
0 1 log
int 2 0
exp
sin
1 sin cos Re
0
0
= + + =
= =
+ = =
= =
=
=
= = =
= = + =
+













RHS LHS Hence
e LHS
e
e
e
e e
e e
e
e
LHS
RHS LHS
z z
jy x jy x
jy x
jy x
jy x
jy x
y j y x
y j y x
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

+ +
+
+
+
+
,
.
.
2 1
2 2 1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2 2
1 1 1
) ( ) (
) sin .(cos
) sin .(cos



7

4) Find the values of z for which 1
4
=
z
e
Solution:
n

z
....) , , n n

; y x
y ; x
e ; e e e
j e call that
e e e e e e
j y j x
j
j y j x jy x z
2
2
2 1 0 ( 2
2
0
2 4 0 4
1 2 sin 2 cos Re
. .
2 4 0 4
2
2 0 4 4 ) ( 4 4
+ =
= + = =
= =
= =
= + =
= = =
+

t



5) Find the values of z for which 1
3
=
z
e
Solution:
n

z
....) , , n n

; y x
y ; x
e ; e e e
e e e e e e
j y j x
j y j x jy x z
2
3
2
2 1 0 ( 2
3
2
0
2 3 0 3
. .
2 3 0 3
2 0 3 3 ) ( 3 3
+ =
= + = =
= =
= =
= = =
+

t


















8

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Recall that trigonometric functions of real variable x include sinx, cosx, tanx etc. For complex
variables, trigonometric functions are defined in terms of exponential functions as follows:
jz jz
jz jz
jz jz
jz jz
jz jz
jz jz
jz jz jz jz
jz jz jz jz
jy jy
jy jy
jy
jy
e e
e e j
z
z
e e j
e e
e e j
e e
z
z
z
e e
j
z
z
e e z
z
j
e e
z
e e
z
e manner: In the sam
j
e e
y
* ** from Subtract
e e
y
** * & Adding
** ..... .......... y......... j y and e
* . .......... y......... j y call:e

+
= =
+

=
+

= =

= =
+
= =

=
+
=

=
+
=
=
+ =
) (
tan
1
cot
) (
2
2 cos
sin
tan
2
sin
1
csc ;
2
cos
1
sec
2
sin ;
2
cos
2
sin
: 1 1
2
cos
: 1 1
1 sin cos
1 sin cos Re


Many of the properties satisfied by real trigonometric functions are also satisfied by complex
trigonometric functions: e.g.
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
2 2
2 2 2 2
tan tan 1
tan tan
) tan(
sin sin cos cos ) cos(
sin cos cos sin ) sin(
tan tan cos ) cos(
sin sin ; csc cot 1
sec tan 1 ; 1 cos sin
z z
z z
z z
z z z z z z
z z z z z z
z - (-z) z; z
z - (-z) z z
z z z z

=
=
=
= =
= = +
= + = +






9

Illustration:
6) Prove that 1 cos sin
2 2
= + z z
Solution: Recall that:

1
4
4
4
2 2
4
2
4
2
4
2 .
4
. . .
2 2
1 cos sin ,
2
sin ;
2
cos
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
= =
+ + + +
=
+ +
+

+
=
+ +
+

+
=
|
.
|

\
| +
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
= +

=
+
=





z j z j z j z j
z j z j z j z j
z j jz jz z j jz jz jz jz jz jz
jz jz jz jz
jz jz jz jz
e e e e
e e e e
e e e e e e e e e e
e e
j
e e
LHS
RHS LHS
z z So
j
e e
z
e e
z






HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Are defined as follows:

z z
z z
z z
z z z z
z z
z z z z
e e
e e
z
z
z
e e z
echz
e e z
hz
e e
e e
z
e e
z
e e
z

+
= =

= =
+
= =
+

=
+
=

=
sinh
cosh
coth ;
2
sinh
1
cos
2
cosh
1
sec ; tanh
2
cosh ;
2
sinh





The following properties hold:

2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
2 2
2 2 2 2
tanh tanh 1
tanh tanh
) tanh(
sinh sinh cosh cosh ) cosh(
sinh cosh cosh sinh ) sinh(
tanh tanh cosh ) cosh(
sinh sinh ; csc 1 coth
sec tanh 1 ; 1 sinh cosh
z z
z z
z z
z z z z z z
z z z z z z
z - (-z) z; z
z - (-z) z h z
z h z z z

=
=
=
= =
= =
= =



10

These properties can easily be proved from the definitions.
Illustration:
7) Show that 1 sinh cosh
2 2
= z z
1
4
4
4
2 2
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
. .
2 2
sinh cosh ,
2
sinh ;
2
cosh
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
= =
+ + +
=
+

+ +
=
+

+ + +
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=

=
+
=





z z z z
z z z z
z z z z z z z z
z z z z
z z z z
e e e e
e e e e
e e e e e e e e
e e e e
z z So
e e
z
e e
z







Exercise: The proofs of others are left as exercise
Try the following:

1
4
j) (1
Tanh that Show (3.)
cos3z (b)
cos2z (a)
find 2, z cos If 2.)
jtanz tanhjz cosz; coshjz jsinz; sinhjz
jtanhz tanjz coshz; cosjz jsinhz; sinjz
csc 1 coth z;
2
sech z
2
tanh 1 1.)
2 2
=
+
=
= = =
= = =
= =
t
z h z


LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
z arithm of l the natura z, called write w , then we e If z
w
log ln = =
Thus the natural logarithmic function is the reverse of the exponential function and can be defined as
follows:
) 2 (
... 2 , 1 , 0 ), 2 ( ln ln
t u u
t u
k j j
re re z where
k k j r z w
+
= =
= + + = =



Note that z is a multiple valued (in this case, infinitely many valued) function with the principal
value or branch. The principal value of
11

quivalent. or its e where j r ed as imes defin z is somet 2 0 ln ln s s +
However, any other interval of length like s s t etc can be used.
The logarithmic function for real bases other than e can be defined. Thus if
w
a z = , then
w
z
a
= log . Where 0 > a and 1 , 0 = a . In this case,
a w
e z
ln
= and so
a
z
w
ln
ln
=
Illustration:
8) Evaluate (i) ) 4 ln( ; (ii) ) 3 ln( j

Solutions:
( )
,....) 2 , 1 , 0 ( :
) 2 ( 4 ln
) 2 ( ln ) 4 ln(
0 tan
4
0
tan ) arg(
4 ) 0 ( ) 4 ( | |
0 4 . .
) 4 ln( ) (
1 1
2 2
=
+ + =
+ + =
= =
|
.
|

\
|
=
= + = =
+ =
=

k Note
k j
k j r
z
z r
j z e i
w Let i




t t
t u
t

( )
,....) 2 , 1 , 0 ( :
) 2
6
11
( 2 ln
) 2
6
11
( ) 2 ln( ) 3 ln(
6
11
6 3
1
tan ) arg(
2 ) 1 ( ) 3 ( | |
) 1 ( 3 3 ) (
1
2 2
=
+ + =
+ + =
=
|
.
|

\
|

= =
= + = =
= =

k Note
k j
k j j
or z
z r
j j z ii



t
t
t
t
t t
u


Assessment Exercise
j) - ( (c) j (b) j - a 2 3 ln ;
2
3
2
1
ln ;
2
3
2
1
ln ) (
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|



12

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
To define the inverse of sine function i.e. arcsine of z, z
1
sin

, we write:
w z Then
z w
sin
sin
1
=
=



Also, we define other inverse trigonometric or circular functions z
1
cos

, z
1
tan

etc.
These functions are multiple-valued and can be expressed in terms of natural logarithms as
follows:
( ) ( )
( )
( )
) 1 ln( sin ,
) 1 ln(
1
) 1 ln(
1
2
1 2 2
2
4 4 2
1 * 2
) 1 ( * 1 * 4 2 2
0 1 ) ( 2
0 ) ( 2 . 2
Re
2
) 1 ln(
1
sin ) 1 (
2 1
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2 1
z jz j z Hence
z jz
j
w z jz jw
z jz e
z jz
e
z jz
e
jz jz
e e jz e
e jz e e e e e jz
us: written th
j
e e
z where
z jz
j
z
jw jw jw
jw jw jw
jw jw jw jw jw jw
jw jw
=
= =
=

=

=

= =
= =

=
=

13

( ) ( )
( )
( )
) 1 ln( cos ,
) 1 ln(
1
) 1 ln(
1
2
1 2 2
2
4 4 2
1 * 2
) 1 ( * 1 * 4 2 2
0 1 ) ( 2
0 ) ( 2 . 2
2
) 1 ln(
1
cos ) 2 (
2 1
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2 1
=
= =
=

=

=

= = +
= + + =
+
=
= =

z z j z Hence
z z
j
w z z jw
z z e
z z
e
z z
e
z z
e e z e
e z e e e e e z
e e
z where
w z z
j
z
jw jw jw
jw jw jw
jw jw jw jw jw jw
jw jw




( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=

+
= = + +
= + + = + +
= + +
= +
= + = +
+

+
= =

jz
jz
j
z w Hence
jz
jz
j
w
jz
jz
jw
jz
jz
e jz jz e
e jz e jz e jz e jz e
e e jz e jze
e e e jz e jz
like terms collect and Expand
e e e e jz e e e e jz
e e j
e e
z But
jz
jz
j
z that show w z if
jw jw
jw jw jw jw jw
jw jw jw jw
jw jw jw jw
jw jw jw jw jw jw jw jw
jw jw
jw jw
1
1
ln
2
1
tan ,
1
1
ln
2
1
1
1
ln 2
1
1
0 1 1 .
0 . 1 1 . 0 1 1
0 .
. .
:
) .( ) (
) (
)
1
1
ln(
2
1
tan , tan ) 3 (
1
2
2
2
1 1








14

OTHERS:
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|

= =
|
|
.
|

\
|

= =



j z
j z
j
z t w,show tha z ) if (
z
z
j
z t w,show tha z ) if (
z
z j
j
z t w,show tha z ) if (
ln
2
1
cot cot 6
1 1
ln
1
sec sec 5
1
ln
1
csc csc 4
1 1
2
1 1
2
1 1


Note that they are all multiple-valued functions.

Illustration:
9) Find the values of 2 sin
1

Solution:
t
t
t
t
t
t
k j Hence
j k j
e j
j j
j j j j j So
z jz j z jz
j
z call
j k
2
2
) 3 2 ln( 2 sin ,
2
2
) 3 2 ln( 2 sin
). 3 2 ( ln 2 sin
) 3 2 ln( 2 sin
) 3 2 ln( ) 2 1 2 ln( 2 sin ,
) 1 ln( ) 1 ln(
1
sin Re
1
1
2
2 1
1
2 1
2 2 1
+ + =
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
(

=
=
=
= =

|
.
|

\
|
+

Assessment Exercise
2 csc ; 2 ) (
1
(b) c a
-1
os

INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
If e of z olic rse hyperb d the inve z is calle w then w z
-
sin sinh sinh
1
= =
Other inverse hyperbolic functions are similarly defined:
| | | |
(

+
= + = + + =

z
z
z ; z z z ; z z z
1
1
ln
2
1
tanh 1 ln cosh 1 ln sinh
1 2 1 2 1

In each case, the constant t k 2 has been omitted. They are all multiple valued functions.
15

| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | j k j
e j j j
j j j j j
j j j j j
j k
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
+ = + =
+ = + =
+ = + =

|
.
|

\
|
+



t
t
t
t
2
2
2 1 ln cosh
. 2 1 ln cosh . 2 1 ln cosh
. 2 1 ln cosh 2 ln cosh
1 1 ln cosh 1 ln cosh
1
2
2 1 1
1 1
1 2 1

OTHERS:
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
=

1
1
ln
2
1
coth 6
1 1
ln sec 5
1 1
ln csc 4
1
2
1
2
1
z
z
z ) (
z
z
z h ) (
z
z
z h ) (


Assessment Exercise
)] ( [ j;(b) (a)
-
1 ln sinh sinh
1 1