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INTRODUCTION
REMOTE SENSING REMOTE Never coming into contact with, at a distance SENSING to measure or record
INTRODUCTION
What is remote sensing ? Remote Sensing Is .
through the analysis of data/information collected by a sensor that is not in physical contact with the object, surface/area or phenomenon under investigation....
INTRODUCTION
Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area or phenomena through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object, area or phenomena under investigation
Collect data
Data: In the form of force distribution, acoustic wave distribution or electromagnetic energy distribution.
INTRODUCTION
Interpretation of atmospheric and earth surface features are based on the measurements made by the sensor
Usually the image is produced from digital data The sensor scan the earth line by line Data in digital form is process ( display, enhance, manipulated ) using the computer which is more efficient.
INTRODUCTION
A: Rotating Mirror B: Detectors C: Instantaneous Field of View D: Ground Resolution Cell E: Angular Field of View F: Swath
A: Linear Array of Detectors B: Focal Plane of Image C: Lense D: Ground Resolution Cell
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The energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
DATA COLLECTION
Remotely sensed collected using either:
data
are
passive remote sensing: (record naturally occurring electromagnetic radiation that is reflected or emitted from terrain) active remote sensing:(man-made electromagnetic energy e.g radar)
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DATA COLLECTION
Format and quality of the data varies widely. These variations are dependent upon the resolution of the sensor. Resolution (or resolving power) is a measure of the ability of an optical system to distinguish between signals that are spatially near or spectrally similar.
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There are four types of resolution that effect the quality and nature of the data collected :
Radiometric resolution refers to the sensitivity of the sensor to incoming radiance (i.e., How much change in radiance must there be on the sensor before a change in recorded brightness value takes place?). This sensitivity to different signal levels will determine the total number of values that can be generated by the sensor(Jensen, 1996).
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RADIOMETRIC RESOLUTION
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SPATIAL RESOLUTION
Spatial resolution is a measurement of the minimum distance between two objects that will allow them to be differentiated from one another in an image (Sabins, 1978; Jensen, 1996). This is a function of sensor altitude, detector size, focal size and system configuration. For aerial photography the spatial resolution is usually measured in resolvable line pairs per millimeter on the image. For other sensors it is given as the dimensions, in meters, of the ground area which falls within the instantaneous field of view of a single detector within an array - or pixel size (Logicon, 1997)
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SPATIAL RESOLUTION
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SPECTRAL RESOLUTION
Spectral resolution: The number and size of the bands which can be recorded by a sensor .Sensors also are unique with regard to what portions of the electromagnetic spectrum they see. Different remote sensing instruments record different segments, or bands, of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The Figure illustrates this principle by showing the spectral reflectance curves, or spectral signatures, generated when two sensors are used on the same target. Both sensors cover the same range of the electromagnetic spectrum (2 to 2.5 um). The solid bars at the top of the graph represent the specific segments of electromagnetic energy that each sensor can detect and record. The first sensor (shown in red) has 17 bands in this range, while the second sensor (shown in blue) records the energy in only four bands. As can be seen, the reflectance curve of the first sensor has greater detail, which may be useful in distinguishing its target from other objects with similarcompositions.
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TEMPORAL RESOLUTION
Temporal resolution refers to the amount of time it takes for a sensor to return to a previously recorded location. This aspect of resolution becomes important when change detection being done. Most orbital remote sensing platforms will pass over the same spot at regular time intervals that range from days to weeks depending on their orbit and spatial resolution. Data collected on multiple dates allows the scientist to chart changes of phenomena through time.
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16 days 16 days
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Tree Brain
Eye
Design of sensors which have better spatial & spectral resolution. Spot 4 & Spot 5 Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Ikonos 1 m spatial resolution Quickbird 0.6 m spatial resolution Hyperspectral sensors MODIS, Hyperion
Status of RS in Malaysia?
Space segment
User segment
Ground segment
Application
RS data can be used for a great variety of practical applications, all of which relate, in general, to Earth resources. Such as: 1. Agriculture 2. Forestry 3. Land Use 4. Disaster 5. Geology 6. Water Resources 7. Environment 8. Fishery 9. Weather 10. Mapping
Temperature (C) < 18.6 C 18.7 - 21.7 C 21.8 - 24.9 C 25 .0 - 28.0 C 28.1 - 31.2 C 31.3 - 34.3 C
SEMENYIH DAM
GROUND TRUTHING
E 426644 N347370
P4 P3
P2
SEMENYIH DAM
E 431955 N341197
E 426466 N347149
Evaluating the effect of urban development to the creation of sedimentation and water quality in the area of Port Klang.
Electromagnetic energy (E) relates with the frequency, through a Plank constant, h i.e.:E=h h = 6.3 x 10-34 Js (2)
(m) near IR: 0.7-1.3 m mid IR: 1.3-3 m thermal IR: 3-14 m
reflected
emitted
Passive sensor
Different earth surfaces emit and reflect with varying degrees of efficiency
different temperature, colour, wavelength shape, size, location variation daily, monthly, annual, seasonal quantization levels 6-bit, 8-bit
radiometric e.g.
iv) Radiometric response Radiometric response refers to the dynamic range, or the number of different output levels used to record the radiant energy for a single measurement.
NATURE OF AN IMAGE
A remotely sensed image is not a photograph. It is a numerical representation of a target (usually an area of the Earth's surface) in terms of the spatial variation of reflectance over the area in a specific spectral band. An image consists of a set of reflectance values stored in numerical form in a manner suitable for input to a computer. In most cases this representation is in matrix form, in which a single cell or pixel of the matrix holds the reflectance value for the corresponding ground area.
NATURE OF AN IMAGE
The reflectance values are rescaled normally to the range 0-255 in order to facilitate their storage and transfer Multi spectral images consist of two or more registered images showing the variations in reflectance in two/more separate spectral bands Hardware and software specially designed to input and process digital images provide the capability to produce a pictorial rendition of targets. The images that we see on a computer screen are made up of picture elements (abbreviated as pixels).
NATURE OF AN IMAGE
Pixel: A picture element has both spatial and spectral properties. The spatial property defines the dimensions of the corresponding ground area. The spectral property defines the intensity of the spectral response for a pixel in a particular band
NATURE OF AN IMAGE
A horizontal row of pixels in an image forms a scan line which is either collected sequentially as the sensor moves left to right or simultaneously through the use of a linear array of photo detectors. In the former case the energy reflected from the ground is focused on to a single detector, and the continuous signal for one scan line is converted to a set of discrete pixel values. In the latter case electromagnetic radiation from the ground is focused onto a set of 'n' detectors, one for each pixel.
NATURE OF AN IMAGE
An image is composed of pixels geographically ordered and adjacent to one another consisting of 'n' pixels in the x direction and 'm' pixels in the y direction.
NATURE OF AN IMAGE
Picture element - pixel. pixel
NATURE OF AN IMAGE
When only one band of the EM spectrum is sensed, the display device (usually a colour monitor) renders the pixels in shades of grey
Multispectral sensors detect reflectance in more than one band of the EM spectrum
NATURE OF AN IMAGE
When combined into the red, green, blue guns of a colour monitor, they form a range of colours
NATURE OF AN IMAGE
A multi spectral image is composed of 'n' rows and 'm' columns of pixels in each of three or more spectral bands. A single image set may therefore contain several co-registered digital images representing the spectral reflectance in different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
These different data sets are referred to as spectral bands, bands, or channels
Radiation Laws
Concepts of EMR emission: The amount of radiation emitted by an object is determined primarily by its : 1. 2 Internal temperature; and Emissivity
Kinetic temperature the internal temperature of an object measured by direct contact Radiant temperature the amount of energy radiated (emitted) by an object measured remotely
Radiation Laws
A Blackbody is a hypothetical, ideal radiator that totally absorbs and reemits all energy incident upon it. Most celestial objects are close to being black bodies. Radiation Laws describe the shape of the spectral emission from a blackbody. Fig: Spectral distribution of energy radiated from blackbodies of various temperatures.
Radiation Laws
The relation between peak wavelength and radiant body temperature is governed by: Wiens Displacement Law: as the temperature of an object increases, the wavelengths at which the object emits most energy (appears brightest) decreases max = A/T (4) where:
max = wavelength of maximum emitted energy (m) A = Weins constant = 2898 mK T = temperature (K)
Radiation Laws
Stefan-Boltzman Law The amount of energy emitted from a blackbody is primarily a function of its temperature: (5) M = T4 where: M = total radiant exitance ( Wm-2) = Stefan-Boltzman constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 Wm-2 K-4 The point to note is that radiation increases with T4 (a very high exponential increase) i.e hotter objects emit more energy
Radiation Laws
For a greybody (not a blackbody), equation 5 can be written as: (6) M = T4 = emissivity of the object ( - between 0 and 1) Emissivity = the ratio of energy radiated from an object with the energy radiated from a blackbody at the same temperature
M GB = M BB
Radiation Laws
Perfect reflector, = 0, whitebody Perfect absorber, = 1, blackbody Example of emissivity values: Water = 0.98 Brick = 0.93 Tree leaves = 0.96
Radiation Laws
Emissivity is Crucial ! Different substances at the same temperature can emit different amounts of radiation because of their different emissivities
M GB = M BB
MBB = T4
MGB = T4
Radiation Laws
Radiant
Terminology of Temperatures
Scattering:
The type of scattering which occurs depends on the size of the interfering particles in the atmosphere relative to the wavelength of energy incident upon them: Rayleigh scattering: Upper atmosphere scattering, sometimes called clear atmosphere scattering Consists of scattering from atmospheric gasses e.g., atmospheric molecules O2 and N2 Is wavelength dependent Atmospheric particles have a diameter smaller than the incident wavelength.
Mie scattering: Particle size = wavelength e.g., water vapour, dust, pollen, smoke wavelength dependent: affects longer wavelengths more than Rayleigh scattering dominant in the lower atmosphere
Scattering: Summerization
Atmospheric windows
The wavelength ranges in which the atmosphere is particularly Atmosphere transmissive of energy
blocks energy
Important windows
Band (m)
0.3 - 0.9 1.0 - 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.5 4.0 4.6 4.9 8.0 13.0
Region
Visible Near/Reflected IR Near/Reflected IR Near/Reflected IR Near/Reflected IR Thermal IR Thermal IR Thermal IR
Absorption occurs when energy is absorbed into the object. Temperature of the object increases.
Spectral signature is a (unique) representation of the spectral reflectance curve for an object
A fundamental premise in remote sensing is that we can identify and learn about objects and features on the earth surface by studying the spectral characteristics of the radiation (and/or emitted) by these features.
Vegetation
Always manifest the peak and valley configuration Reflectance peaks in green and NIR (grass is red!) The green color of healthy vegetation is due to absorbing properties of a chemical compound in leaves called chlorophyll, which strongly absorbs radiation in the red and blue wavelengths but reflects green wavelengths
Vegetation
Vegetation
The internal structure of healthy leaves act as excellent diffuse reflectors of near-infrared wavelengths. If our eyes were sensitive to near-infrared, trees would appear extremely bright to us at these wavelengths. In fact, measuring and monitoring the near-IR reflectance is one way we can determine how healthy (or unhealthy) vegetation may be. Dips in reflectance of vegetation also occur at 1.4, 1.9 and 2.7 mm because water in the leaf absorbs strongly at these wavelengths. Measuring the spectral characteristics of vegetation at these wavelengths is therefore a function of moisture level in the leaf.
Soil
Less peak & valley variation Factors affecting: moisture content soil texture (proportion of sand, silt & clay) surface roughness iron oxide Coarse sandy soils well drained low moisture content high reflectance Poorly drained fine texture soils lower reflectance
Soil
Reflectance increases from VIS to NIR & MIR depends on soil characteristics
Water
Generally low reflectance in VIS, decreases to zero in NIR depends on water quality Thus water typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter wavelengths, and darker if viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths If there is suspended sediment present in the upper layers of the water body, then this will allow better reflectivity and a brighter appearance of the water The topography of the water surface (rough or smooth) can also lead to complications for water-related interpretation due to potential problems of specular reflection
Urban Surfaces
Highly variable mix of individual surface types Spatial pattern important TIR useful for heat emission study
The Atmosphere
noninterfering
Sensor
Users