1. In genetic engineering, genes for antibiotic resistance in bacterial plasmids can be used as genetic markers.

Scientists used a plasmid containing genes for resistance to two antibiotics, ampicillin and tetracycline. They inserted the human gene for blood clotting protein in the plasmid. Explain how the bacteria is genetically modified to produce the human protein. Explain one benefit of the GM bacteria Describe one concern of using the bacteria with resistance to antibiotics

Firstly, the gene of interest, in this case the genes for antibiotic resistance is identified by using radioactively labeled DNA probes which are complementary to the sequence of bases of the gene. Then restriction enzyme is used to cut the above and below the complete sequence of bases to create sticky ends. The same restriction enzyme is used to cut the recipient DNA, the bacterial plasmid to create sticky ends. The genes for antibiotic resistance is inserted to the plasmid forming a new recombinant DNA which are joined in the presence of DNA ligase. The recombinant DNA is inserted in the cell and the cell with new recombinant DNA will divide to form new cells with the recombinant DNA. Cells having the new genes will produce human protein. GM bacteria can be used to artificially produce human proteins such as antibiotics or insulin at a very low cost. This will enable people with certain diseases such as diabetes to be cured at a higher chance. It is very dangerous to use bacteria with resistance to antibiotic despite its usefulness. This is because the growth of the bacteria might get uncontrollable. Besides, bacteria which are resistant might be difficult to eliminate as a very high dose might be needed to wipe out the bacteria.

2. DNA fingerprinting is a commonly used to produce DNA profiles for identification. Explain how a fingerprint is obtained Give one biological reason for not accepting DNA fingerprints as evidence in a court of law. State one reason of having a DNA profile database of all citizens DNA is extracted from blood or other sources. Restriction enzyme is used to cut the DNA into shorter fragments. The DNA fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis in an electrophoresis tank. The shorter fragments usually move faster while the longer fragments usually move slower. The DNA separation pattern on the gel is transferred to a nitrocellulose incubated with radioactively labeled DNA probes. The probes bind to the complementary bases on the DNA fragments. When X-ray is shone, a distinct pattern of band will be seen, which is a DNA fingerprint. There is a one in a million chance that the DNA fingerprint of two unrelated individuals might be the same. Hence it is unfair to accept DNA fingerprint as evidence. The DNA profile database is useful in identifying disease related genes. This will give rise to the effectiveness of medical treatment.