Title: The Science of Psychology Author: Laura King 1. What is Psychology 1.

1 Defining Psychology - it uses the systematic methods of science to observe, describe, predict and explain behavior. i. Behavior - is everything that we do that can be directly observed. ii. Mental Processes - are the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but cannot be observed directly. iii. Critical Thinking - is the process of thinking reflectively and productively, as well as evaluating evidence. iv. Positive Psychology is the push for a stronger emphasis on research involving the experiences that people value, the traits associated with optimal capacities for love and work, and positive group and critic values 1.2 The Roots and Early Scientific Approaches of Psychology i. Structuralism an early school of psychology that attempted to identify the structures of the human mind 1. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) - founded the first psychology laboratory in 1879 at the University of Leipzig in Germany. He is the father of modern psychology. ii. Functionalism an early school of psychology that was concerned with the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in individuals adaptation to the environment. 1. Natural Selection an evolutionary process that favors organisms traits or characteristics that are best adapted reproduce and survive. 2. William James (1842-1910) James approach became known as functionalism 1.3 Contemporary Approach to Psychology i. The Biological Approach a psychological perspective that examines behavior and metal processes through a focus on the body, especially the brain and nervous system. 1. Neuroscience the scientific study of structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system. ii. Behavioral Approach a psychological perspective emphasizing the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants. iii. Psychodynamic Approach - a psychological perspective emphasizing unconscious thought, the conflict between biological instincts and societies demands and early family experience 1. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was the founding father of the psychodynamic approach.

iv. Humanistic Approach a psychological perspective that emphasizes a persons positive qualities, capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny. v. Cognitive Approach a psychological perspective that focuses on the mental processes involved in knowing; how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think and solve problems. vi. Evolutionary Approach a psychological perspective that uses evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction and survival of the fittest as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors. vii. Sociocultural Approach a psychological perspective that examines the ways in which the social and cultural environments influence behavior. 1.4 Areas of Specialization and Careers in Psychology i. Physiological Psychology and Behavioral Neuroscience ii. Developmental Psychology iii. Sensation and Perception iv. Cognitive Psychology v. Learning vi. Motivation and Emotion vii. Personality Psychology viii. Social Psychology ix. Industrial and Organizational Psychology x. Clinical and Counseling Psychology xi. Health Psychology xii. Community Psychology xiii. School and Educational Psychology xiv. Forensic Psychology xv. Sport Psychology xvi. Cross-Cultural Psychology 1.5 Psychology Health and Wellness i. Psychopathology the study of mental illness ii. How the mind impacts the body psychologists have come to recognize that these two aspects of human being are intricately related. The mind can influence the body. The way we think has implications for our nervous system and brain. Our motives and goals can influence our bodies as we strive to be physically fit and eat well. iii. How the body impacts the mind the body can have an influence over the mind. We think differently when our bodies are rested versus tired, healthy versus unhealthy and hot versus comfortable. 2. Psychologys Scientific Method 1.1 A Scientific Approach a scientists attitude is distinguished by four characteristics; being curious, being skeptical, being objective and thinking critically.

i. Collaboration Science takes place among a community of thinkers. Psychologists share their findings with others by making presentations at conference and publishing their work in peer-reviewed journals. Through peer review, findings are evaluated critically by others, ensuring the research published in academic journals represents the highest quality of knowledge. ii. The Five Steps in the Scientific Method 1. Observing a phenomenon a. Meta-analysis a method that allows researchers to combine the results of several different studies on a similar topic in order to establish the strength of an effect b. Theory a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain certain observations. c. Variable anything that can change 2. Formulating hypothesis and predictions a. Hypothesis an idea is arrived at logically from a theory. It is a prediction that can be tested. 3. Testing these hypothesis through empirical research 4. Drawing conclusions based on that research a. Population the entire group about which the investigator wants to draw conclusions. b. Sample the subset of the population chosen by the investigator of the study. c. Random sample a sample that gives every member of the population an equal chance of being selected. 5. Evaluating conclusions 1.2 Research Settings and Types of Research i. Research Settings 1. Naturalistic Observation observation of behavior in real-world settings with no effort made to manipulate or control the situation ii. Descriptive Research 1. Observation 2. Surveys and Interviews a. Standardized Test a test that requires people to answer a series of written or oral questions or sometimes both. b. Case Study an in-depth look at a single individual also known as case history iii. Correlational Research a research strategy that identifies the relationship between two or more variables in order to describe how these variables change together. 1. Positive and negative correlations 2. Correlation and Causation

a. Third variable problem the situation where an extraneous variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two others. iv. Experimental Research 1. Experiment a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more variables believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other variables are held constant. 2. Random Assignment the assignment of participants to research groups by chance. 3. Independent and dependent variables a. Independent variables the manipulated experimental factor in an experiment b. Dependent variables a factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable c. Experimental group - a group in the research study whose experience is manipulated. d. Control group a comparison group that is much like the experimental group as possible and is treated in every way like the experimental group except for the manipulated factor. e. Validity the soundness of the conclusions we draw from experiment f. Ecological validity the extent to which an experimental design is representative of the real world issues it is supposed to address. g. Internal validity the extent to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable 1.3 Analyzing the Interpreting Data i. Descriptive Statistics mathematical procedures that are used to describe and summarize sets of data in a meaningful way 1. Mean a statistical measure of central tendency that is calculated by adding all the scores in a set and then dividing by the number of scores. 2. Median a statistical measure of central tendency that falls exactly in the middle of a distribution of scores after they have been arranged from highest to lowest. 3. Mode a statistical measure of central tendency, the score that occurs most often in a set of data. 4. Range a statistical measure of variability that is the distance between the highest and lowest scores. 5. Standard deviation a statistical measure of variability that involves how much the scores vary on the average, around the mean of the sample.

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ii. Inferential Statistics mathematical methods that are used to indicate whether data sufficiently support or confirm a research hypothesis. 1.4 The challenges of conducting and evaluating psychological research i. Conducting Ethical Research ii. Minimizing Bias iii. Being wise consumer of information about psychology Biological Foundations of Behavior 1.1 The Nervous System the bodys electrochemical communication circuitry, made up of billions of interconnected cells. i. Characteristics 1. Complexity 2. Integration 3. Adaptability 4. Electrochemical Transmission ii. Divisions of The Nervous System 1. Nervous System a. Central Nervous System (CNS) - the brain and the spinal cord i. Brain ii. Spinal Cord b. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) the network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body. It is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system i. Somatic Nervous System the division of the PNS consisting of sensory nerves, whose function is to convey information to the CNS and motor nerves, whose function is to transmit information to the muscles ii. Autonomic Nervous System the division of the PNS that communicates with the bodys internal organs and monitors processes such as breathing, heart rate and digestion. It consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. 1. Sympathetic Nervous System the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body 2. Parasympathetic Nervous System the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body. 1.2 Neurons the nerve cells that handle the information processing function i. Specialized Cell Structure 1. Dendrites receive and orient information toward the cell body.

2. Axon part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other cells. 3. Myelin sheath a layer of fat cells, encases and insulates most axons. It speeds up the transmission of nerve impulses. ii. The Neural Impulse 1. Resting potential the stable, negative charge of an inactive neuron 2. Action potential the brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon during the transmission of a nerve impulse. 3. All-or-none principle the idea that once an electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity, it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any of its intensity. iii. Synapses and Neurotransmitters 1. Synaptic Transmission a. Synapses tiny junctions between two neurons generally where the axon of one neuron meets the dendrites or cell body of another neuron. 2. Neurotransmitters are chemical substances that carry information across the synaptic gap from one neuron to the next. a. Neurochemical Messengers i. Acetylcholine ii. GABA (Gamma Amino butyric Acid) iii. Norepinephrine iv. Dopamine v. Serotonin vi. Endorphins vii. Oxytocin 3. Drugs and Neurotransmitters a. Agonist drugs that mimics or increases a neurotransmitters effect. b. Antagonist drugs that blocks the neurotransmitters effect 1.3 Structures of the Brain and their functions i. How Researcher study the brain and their functions 1. Brain Lesioning abnormal disruption in the tissue of the brain 2. Staining a central interest in neuroscience is to identify pathways of connectivity in the brain and nervous system that allow information to get from one place to another 3. Electrical Recording also known as EEG, records the electrical activity of the brain. 4. Brain Imaging ii. Levels of Organization in the Brain 1. Hindbrain the lowest portion of the brain, consisting of the medulla, cerebellum and pons

2. Midbrain located between the hindbrain and forebrain, a region in which many nerve-fiber systems , ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portion of the brain a. Reticular Formation a midbrain system that consists of diffuse collection of neurons involved in stereotypical behaviors such as walking, sleeping, or turning to attend to a sudden noise. b. Brain stem the region of the brain that includes much of the hindbrain and the midbrain 3. Forebrain the highest level of the brain. Key structures in the forebrain are limbic system, thalamus, basal ganglia, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex a. Limbic System loosely connected network of structures including the amygdala and hippocampus that play important roles in memory and emotion. b. Thalamus forebrain structure that functions as a relay station to sort information and send it to appropriate areas in the forebrain for further integration and interpretation c. Hypothalamus small forebrain structure involved in regulating eating, drinking, and sex, directing the endocrine systems, monitoring emotions, stress and reward. iii. The Cerebral Cortex 1. Lobes the wrinkled surface of the cerebral cortex is divided into two halves called hemispheres. Each hemisphere is subdivided into four regions: a. Occipital Lobe involved in vision b. Temporal lobe involved in hearing, language processing and memory c. Frontal lobe involved in the control of voluntary muscles, intelligence and personality d. Parietal Lobe involved in registering spatial location, attention and motor control iv. The Cerebral Hemisphere and Split-Brain Research v. Integration of functions of the Brain 1.4 The Endocrine System is a set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by releasing their chemical products into the bloodstream. i. Hormones chemical messengers manufactured by the endocrine glands ii. Pituitary Gland base at the skull that controls growth and regulates other gland iii. Adrenal Gland instrumental in regulating moods, energy level and the ability to cope with stress iv. Thyroid Gland v. Ovary

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vi. Testis vii. Pancreas viii. Parathyroid Gland ix. Hypothalamus 1.5 Brain Damage, plasticity and repair i. The brain plasticity and capacity to repair 1. Collateral sprouting 2. Substitution of function 3. Neurogenesis ii. Brain tissue implants 1.6 Genetics and Behavior i. Chromosomes, Genes and DNA 1. Chromosomes threadlike structures that contain genes and DNA. Humans have 23 chromosome pairs in the nucleus of every cell. Each parent contributes one chromosome to each pair 2. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) - a complex molecule that contains genetic information; makes up chromosome. 3. Genes the units of hereditary information. They are short segments of chromosomes, composed of DNA ii. The study of Genetics 1. Molecular Genetics 2. Selective Breeding 3. Behavior Genetics iii. Genes and the Environment 1. Genotype an individuals genetic heritage, his or her actual genetic material. 2. Phenotype the expression of an individuals genotype in observable, measureable characteristics. 1.7 Psychologys biological foundations and health and wellness i. Stress and Stressors 1. Stress the response of individual charge in circumstances and events that threaten their coping abilities. 2. Stressors circumstances and events that threatens individuals and tax their coping abilities Human Development 1.1 Exploring Human Development i. Development the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout the course of life. 1. Physical Processes 2. Cognitive Processes 3. Socioemotional Processes 1.2 Child Development

i. Prenatal Development 1. Germinal Period (weeks 1-2) 2. Embryonic Period (week 3-8) 3. Fetal Period (months 2-9) ii. Physical Development in Childhood 1. Reflexes 2. Motor and Perceptual Skills iii. Cognitive Development in Childhood 1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years) 2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years) 3. Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) 4. Formal operational stage (11 to 15 years) iv. Socioemotional Development in Childhood 1. Eriksons Childhood Stages a. Trust versus Mistrust (birth 1 years) b. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (toddlerhood 1 - 3 years) c. Initiative versus Guilt (Early Childhood 3 -5 years) d. Industry versus inferiority (Middle and late childhood, elementary puberty) 2. Attachment in infancy 3. Temparement 4. Parenting a. Styles i. Authoritarian parenting ii. Authoritative parenting iii. Neglectful parenting iv. Indulgent parenting b. Divorce 5. Moral Development 6. Gender Development 1.3 Adolescence i. Physical Development in Adolescence 1. Puberty a period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence. ii. Cognitive development in Adolescence 1. Adolescent Egocentrism iii. Socioemotional Development in Adolescence 1. Eriksons Theory and Identity Development a. Identity status

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i. Identity diffusion person has not yet explored meaningful alternatives and has not made a commitment. ii. Identity foreclosure person makes a commitment to an identity before adequately exploring various options iii. Identity moratorium person exploring alternative parts but has not yet made a commitment b. Ethnic Identity c. Parents and Peers 1.4 Adult Development and Aging i. Emerging Adulthood the transition between adolescence to adulthood ii. Biological theories of aging 1. Crystallized intelligence an individuals accumulated information and verbal skills. 2. Fluid intelligence an individuals ability to reason abstractly Sensation and Perception 1.1 How We Sense and Perceive the World i. Detecting, processing and interpreting experience 1. Sensation the process of receiving stimulus energies from the environment 2. Transduction the process of transforming physical energy into electrochemical energy 3. Perception the brains process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give its meaning. 4. Bottom-up processing processing that begins with sensory receptors registering environmental information and sending it to the brain for analysis and interpretation 5. Top-down processing processing of perceptual information that starts out with cognitive processing at the higher levels of the brain. 6. Sensory receptors specialized cells that detects stimulus information and transmit it to sensory nerves and the brain. ii. Sensory receptors and the brain All sensation begins with sensory receptors, specialized cells that detect and transmit information about a stimulus to sensory neurons and the brain. Sensory receptors are selective and have different neuron pathways. The three main classes of sense organs and receptors are photoreception, mechanoreception, and chemoreception. iii. Thresholds

The field that studies links between the physical properties of stimuli and a person experience of them defines absolute thresholds as the minimum amount of energy that people can detect. iv. Signal detection theory Signal detection theory focuses on decision making about stimuli in the presence of uncertainty. v. Perceiving sensory stimuli What we perceive depends in part on which stimuli engage our attention and on tendency to perceive things according to our beliefs and expectation vi. Sensory adaptation It is a change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on average level of surrounding stimulation. 1.2 The Visual System i. The visual stimulus and the eye 1. Light is a form of electromagnetic energy that can be described in terms of wavelengths. a. Three characteristics i. Hue ii. Amplitude iii. Purity The eye responds to light within a narrow range of wavelengths (400-700 mm). Light passes through the cornea and lens to the retina, the lightsensitive surface in the back of the eye that houses light receptors called rods. The fovea of the retina contains only comes and sharpen detail in an image. Ganglion cells interpret incoming visual information and send it to the brain ii. Visual processing in the brain The optic nerve transmits neural impulses to the brain. There it diverges at the optic chiasm so that what we see in the left visual field register in the right side of the brain and vice versa. In the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex, the information is integrated. Visual information processing involves feature detection, parallel processing and binding. iii. Color vision

1. The trichromatic theory of color perception it stipulates the three types of color receptors in the retina allow up to perceive three colors (green, red and blue) 2. The opponent-process theory states that cell in visual system respond to red-green and blue-yellow colors. iv. Perceiving shape, depth, motion and constancy 1. Shape perception is the ability to distinguish objects from their background. 2. The figure ground relationship is a principle of gestalt psychology which emphasizes their perception according to patterns. 3. Depth perception is the ability to perceive objects three-dimensionally 4. Motion perception depends on specialize neurons, feedback from the body and environmental cues. 5. Perceptual constancy is the recognition that objects are stable despite changes in the way we see them. v. Illusions 1. A visual illusion is the result of a discrepancy between reality and the perceptual representation of it. 1.3 The Auditory System i. The nature sound and how we experience it 1. Sounds or sound waves are vibrations in the air processed by the auditory system. Sound waves vary in wavelength 2. Wavelength determines frequency. 3. Pitch is the perceptual interpretation of frequency. 4. Amplitude measure in decibels, is perceived as loudness. 5. Complex sounds involved blending frequencies. 6. Timbre is the tone saturation, perceptual quality of a sound ii. Structures and functions of the ear 1. The outer ear consists of the pinna and external auditory canal and acts to funnel sound to the middle ear. 2. The middle ear the eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup vibrate in response to sound and transfer the vibration to the inner ear. 3. The fluid-filled inner ear the oval window, cochlea, and basilar membrane. 4. The movement of hair cells between the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane generates nerve impulse. iii. Theories of hearing 1. Place theory states the each frequency produces vibrations at a particular spot on the basilar membrane. It adequately explains high frequency sounds but not low-frequency sounds. 2. Frequency theory states that the perception of a sound frequency depends on how often the auditory nerve fires.

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iv. Auditory processing in the brain 1. Information about sound moves from the hair cells to the auditory nerve carries information to the brains auditory areas. The cortical destination of most fibers is the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex v. Localizing sound 1. Localizing sound involves both the timing of the sound and the intensity of the sound arriving at each ear. 1.4 Other Senses i. The skin senses 1. Touch is the detection of mechanical energy, or pressure, against the skin. 2. Touch information travels through the spinal cord, brain stem, and thalamus and on to the somatosensory areas of the parietal lobes. 3. Thermoreceptors located under the skin respond to increases and decreases in temperature. 4. Pain the sensation that warns us about damage to our bodies. ii. The chemical senses 1. Taste and smell enable us to detect and process chemicals in the environment. 2. Papillae are bumps on the tongue that contain taste buds, the receptors for taste. 3. The taste qualities sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. 4. The olfactory epithelium contains a sheet of receptor cells for smell in the roof of the nose iii. The Kinesthetic and Vestibular senses 1. The kinesthetic senses provide information about movement, posture and orientation. 2. The vestibular sense provides information about balance and movement 3. Receptors for the kinesthetic senses are embedded in muscle fibers and joints. 4. The semicircular canals in the inner ear contain the sensory receptors that detect head motion. States of Consciousness 1.1 The nature of consciousness i. Consciousness of the brain 1. Consciousness is the awareness of external events and internal sensation, including awareness of the self and thoughts about experiences. ii. Levels of awareness 1. William James described the mind as a stream of consciousness. a. Higher-level - controlled processes and selective attention

b. Lower-level - automatic processes and daydreaming c. Altered states of consciousness produced by drugs, trauma, fatigue and other factors d. Subconscious awareness -waking subconscious awareness, sleep and dreams e. No awareness unconscious thought 1.2 Sleep and dreams i. Biological rhythms and sleep 1. Biological rhythms are periodic physiological fluctuations. a. Annual or seasonal cycles b. Twenty-eight day cycles c. Twenty-four hour cycles 2. Circadian rhythm a daily behavioral or physiological cycle such as the sleep/wake cycle 3. Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) the part of the brain that keeps our biological clocks synchronized. ii. Reason of sleeping 1. Restoration 2. Adaptation 3. Growth 4. Memory iii. Sleep States 1. REM Sleep Rapid Eye Movement sleep: stage 5 of the sleep in which dreaming occurs. iv. Sleep disorders 1. Insomia 2. Sleepwalking and sleep talking 3. Nightmares and night terrors 4. Narcolepsy 5. Sleep apnea v. Dreams 1. Cognitive theory of dreaming states that proposing that dreaming can be understood by applying the same cognitive concepts that are used in studying the walking mind 2. Activation-synthesis theory states that dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in the lower part of the brain. 1.3 Hypnosis i. The nature of hypnosis 1. Hypnosis an altered state of consciousness or simply a psychological state of altered attention and expectation. ii. Explaining hypnosis

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1. Ernest Hilgard (1977) proposed that hypnosis involves a special divided state of consciousness, a sort of splitting of consciousness into separate components. iii. Application of hypnosis 1. Used for treatment of alcoholism, somnambulism, suicidal tendencies, post traumatic disorder, stress disorder, migraines, over eating and smoking 2. Pain control technique during surgery in America 1.4 Psychoactive drugs i. Use of psychoactive drugs 1. Psychoactive drugs substances that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perceptions and change moods ii. Types of psychoactive drugs 1. Depressants are psychoactive drugs that slow down mental and physical activities. a. Alcohol b. Barbiturates c. Tranquilizers d. Opiates 2. Stimulants increases the central nervous system activity a. Nicotine b. Caffeine c. Amphetamines d. Cocaine e. Inhalants 3. Hallucinogens modify a persons perceptual experience and produce visual images that are not real a. Marijuana b. MDMA (Ecstasy) c. LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide) 1.5 Consciousness and health and wellness i. The meditative state of the mind Learning 1.1 Types of Learning i. Learning a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience ii. Behaviorism a theory of learning the focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of such mental activity as thinking, wishing and hoping. iii. Associative Learning learning in which a connection, or an association, is made between two events.

1.2 Classical Conditioning learning by which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. 1. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) a stimulus, that produces a response without prior learning 2. Unconditioned response (UCR) an unlearned response that is automatically elicited by an unconditioned stimulus 3. Conditioned stimulus (CS) a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the conditioned response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus. 4. Conditioned response (CR) the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after the pairing of a conditioned stimulus that occurs after the pairing of a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. ii. Acquisition the initial learning of the stimulus-response link, which involves a neutral stimulus being associated with an unconditioned stimulus and becoming the conditioned stimulus that elicits the conditioned response. iii. Generalization the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response iv. Discrimination the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to others. v. Extinction the weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the conditioned stimulus. vi. Spontaneous recovery - the process by which conditioned response can recur after a time delay without further conditioning 1.3 Operant Conditioning a form of associative learning in which the consequence of a behavior change the probability of the behaviors occurrence i. Shaping rewarding approximations of a desired behavior ii. The Skinner Box B.F Skinner conducting an operant conditioning study in his behavioral laboratory. The rat being studied is in a Skinner Box iii. Reinforcement the process by which a stimulus or an event strengthens or increases the probability of a behavior or an event that it follows. 1. Positive reinforcement following a behavior with a rewarding stimulus to increase the frequency of the behavior 2. Negative reinforcement following a behavior with the removal of an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of the behavior 3. Primary reinforcement the use of reinforcers that are innately satisfying 4. Secondary reinforcement the use of reinforcers that are learned and conditioned 1.4 Observational Learning i. Four components

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1. Attention 2. Retention 3. Motor Reproduction 4. Reinforcement or incentive conditioning 1.5 Cognitive Factors in Learning i. Latent Learning unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior ii. Insight Learning a form of problem solving in which the organisms develops a sudden insight into or understanding of the problems solution Memory 1.1 The nature of memory i. Memory the retention of information over time through the processes of encoding, storage and retrieval 1.2 Memory encoding - the process by which information gets into memory storage i. Attention ii. Levels of processing the idea that encoding occurs on a continuum from shallow to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory. 1. Shalow Level 2. Intermediate Level 3. Deepest Level iii. Elaboration extensiveness of processing at any given level of memory iv. Imagery the most powerful way to make memory 1.3 Memory storage retention of information over time and the representation of information in memory i. Sensory memory holds information from the world in its original sensory form for an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory and other senses ii. Short term memory a limited capacity memory system in which information is retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless strategies are used to retain it longer iii. Long term memory a relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time. 1.4 Memory retrieval the memory process of taking information out of storage i. Serial position effect the tendency for items at the beginning and at the end of list to be recalled more readily than those in the middle. ii. Retrieval cues and the retrieval task 1. Recall and recognition 2. Encoding specifying 3. Context and state at encoding and retrieval iii. Special cases of retrieval 1. Retrieval of autobiographical memories 2. Retrieval of emotional memories

3. Memory of traumatic events 4. Repressed memory 5. Eyewitness testimony 1.5 Forgetting i. Encoding failure occurs when information was never entered into long term memory ii. Retrieval failure problem in retrieving information from memory 1. Inference Theory states that people forget not because memory are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember. 2. Decay Theory states that when something new is learned, a neurochemical memory trace is formed. But over time this trace tends to disintegrate. 3. Tip of the tongue phenomenon (TOT) the effortful retrieval that occurs when people are confident that they know something but cannot pull it out of memory. 4. Retrospective Memory remembering the past 5. Prospective Memory remembering information about doing something in the future including memory for intentions 6. Amnesia the loss of memory 1.6 Science of memory i. Mnemonics specific visual / or verbal memory aids ii. Mnemonic strategies 1. Method of loci develop an image to be remembered 2. Keyword Method attach vivid imagery to words 3. Acronyms create word from first letter of items to be remembered 1.7 Memory and health and wellness i. The vital role of autobiographical memory it allow us to learn from our experiences. Thinking, Intelligence and Language 1.1 The cognitive revolution in psychology i. Cognitive Psychology is the study of such mental processes of forming ideas, solving problems and making decisions. ii. Artificial Intelligence (AI) the science of creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people. iii. Cognition the way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking and knowing. 1.2 Thinking manipulating information mentally, as when we form concepts, solve problems, make decision and reflect in a creative and critical manner. i. Concepts mental categories that are used to group objects, events and characteristics.

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ii. Problem solving an attempt to find an appropriate way of attaining a goal when the goal is not readily available. 1. Steps in problem solving a. Find and frame problems b. Develop good problem solving strategies i. Algorithms strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem ii. Heuristics -shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest, but do not guarantee, a solution to a problem c. Evaluate Solutions d. Rethink and redefine problems and solution over time i. Fixation using a prior problem solving strategy and failing to lock at a problem from a fresh, new perspective iii. Reasoning and decision making 1. Reasoning the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusion. a. Inductive reasoning from specific to general b. Deductive reasoning from general to specific 2. Decision Making evaluating alternatives and making choices among them. iv. Thinking critically and creatively 1. Critical thinking ability to grasp deeper meaning of ideas, and ability that keeps an open mind about different approaches and perspective, and ability decide for themselves. a. Mindfulness being alert and mentally present for ones everyday activities b. Open-mindedness being receptive to the possibility of other ways of looking at things c. Creativity ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and come up with unconventional solutions to problems. v. Expertise the quality of having a particular talent. 1.3 Intelligence problem solving skills and the ability to adapt to and learn from lifes everyday experience i. Measuring intelligence 1. Reliability the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance 2. Mental age (MA) an individuals level of mental development relative to that of others. 3. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) an individuals metal age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100

ii. Genetic and environmental influences on intelligence 1. Heritability the proportion of the IQ differences in a population that is attributed to genetic differences iii. Extremes of intelligence 1. Gifted descriptive individuals who have an IQ of 130 or higher and or superior talent in a particular area. 2. Mental Retardation a condition of limited mental ability in which the individual has a low IQ usually below 70, has difficulty adapting to everyday life and has an onset of these characteristics in the so-called developmental period iv. Theories of multiple intelligence 1. Stenbergs Triarchic Theory - Robert J. Sternberg states that intelligence comes from in multiple forms a. Analytical Intelligence - ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare and contrast. b. Creative Intelligence ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine. c. Practical Intelligence ability to apply, implement, and put ideas into practice. 2. Gardners Eight Frames of Mind Howard Garner suggest that there are 8 types of intelligence. a. Verbal b. Mathematical c. Spatial d. Musical e. Interpersonal f. Intrapersonal g. Naturalist 1.4 Language a form of communication whether spoken, written, or signed that is based on a system of symbols. i. The structure of language 1. Phonology a languages sound system 2. Morphology a languages rules for word formation 3. Syntax a languages rules for the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences. 4. Semantics the meaning of words and sentences in a particular language ii. Biological and environmental influences on language 1. Language Universals 2. Language and the Brain iii. Early development of language iv. Language and education

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1. Whole-language approach an approach to learning to read that stresses that reading instruction should parallel a childs natural language learning, so reading material should be whole and meaningful 2. Phonics approach an approach to learning to read that emphasizes basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds. 1.5 Thinking, problem solving and health and wellness i. Cognitive appraisal and coping 1. Problem-focused coping 2. Emotion-focused coping 3. Approach coping 4. Avoidant coping ii. Strategies for successful coping Motivation and Emotion 1.1 Theories of motivation 1. Motivation the force that moves people to behave, think and feel the way they do. ii. The evolutionary approach 1. Instinct an innate (unlearned), biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to be universal throughout a species. iii. Drive reduction theory explains that as a drive become stronger, the more we are motivated to reduce it. 1. Drive an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need 2. Need a deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation iv. Optimum arousal theory 1. Yerkes-Dodson Law stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than low or high arousal 1.2 Hunger i. The biological hunger 1. Gastric Signals 2. Blood chemistry 3. Brain Processes ii. Obesity and eating behavior iii. Dieting 1.3 Sexuality i. The biology of sex 1. Brain areas that involved in sex a. Hypothalamus b. Cerebral Cortex c. Limbic System 2. Sex Hormones powerful chemicals that are controlled by the master gland in the brain, the pituitary.

a. Estrogen the main class of female sex hormones, produced principally by the ovaries. b. Androgens the class of sex hormones that predominate in males, they are produced by the testes in males and by the adrenal glands in both males and female. ii. Sexual behavior and orientation 1. Sexual Orientation the direction of the persons erotic interest, whether heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual 1.4 Everyday Life i. Maslows hierarchy of human needs 1. Self-actualization the highest and most elusive of Maslows need, the motivation to develop ones full potential as a human being. 2. Esteem 3. Love and belongingness 4. Safety 5. Physiological ii. Self-determination theory a theory of motivation that proposes that three basic organismic needs characterized intrinsic motivation 1. Competence 2. Relatedness 3. Autonomy iii. Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation 1. Intrinsic motivation motivation that is based on internal factors 2. Extrinsic motivation motivation that involves external incentives iv. Self-regulation the process by which an organism pursues important objectives, centrally involving getting feedback about how we are doing in our goal pursuits. 1.5 Emotion feeling or affect that can involve physiological arousal, consciousness experience and behavioral expression. i. The biology of emotion 1. James Lange Theory states that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment 2. Cannon-Bard Theory states that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously ii. Cognitive Factors 1. Two factor theory of emotion states that emotion is determined by two main factors physiological arousal and cognitive labeling iii. Behavioral factors 1. Facial feedback hypothesis the idea that facial expression can influence emotions as well as reflect them iv. Sociocultural factors

1. Display rules socio cultural standards that determine when, where and how emotions should be expressed. v. Classifying emotions 1. The wheel model 2. Two-dimensional approach