Bilingual Language Mixing: Why Do Bilinguals Code-Switch? Author(s): Roberto R.

Heredia and Jeanette Altarriba Reviewed work(s): Source: Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 10, No. 5 (Oct., 2001), pp. 164-168 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of Association for Psychological Science Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20182730 . Accessed: 03/03/2012 18:01
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164

NUMBER 5,OCTOBER 2001 VOLUME 1.0,

Recommended

Reading

of Illinois, 1105W. Nevada

IL 61801; e-mail:

St., Urbana,

larsonr@uiuc.edu.

Larson, R., & Verma, S. (1999). (See References) Robinson, J.,& Bianchi, S. (1997). The
children's hours. American Demo

activ J.L. (2000). School extracurricular Mahoney, as a moderator in the devel ity participation of antisocial Child opment patterns. Development, 71, 502-516. McHale, S.M., Crouter, A.C., & Tucker, CJ. (2000, March). Free time activities in middle childhood: Links with adjustment in early adolescence. Paper presented at the biannual meeting of the Soci ety for Research on Adolescence, Chicago. P. (1999). Mortimer, J.T., Harley, C, & Aronson, in the workplace set How do prior experiences to adulthood? In A. the stage for transitions Booth, A.C. Crouter, & M.J. Shanahan (Eds.), Transitions to adulthood in a changing economy: No work, no family, no future? (pp. 131-159). Westport, C?: Praeger. J.K., O'Malley, P.M., Bach Osgood, D.W., Wilson, man, J.G., & Johnston, L.D. (1996). Routine ac tivities and individual deviant behavior. American Sociological Review, 61,635-655. Roberts, D.F., Foehr, U.G., Rideout, V.J., & Brodie, M. (1999). Kids & media @ the new millennium. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation. of Stevenson, H.W., & Lee, S. (1990). Context achievement. Monographs of the Society for Re search in Child Development, 55(1-2). Strasburger, V.C. (1995). Adolescents and the media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Zill, N., Nord, C.W., & Loomis, L.S. (1995). Adoles cent time use, risky behavior, and outcomes: An analysis of national data. Rockville, MD: Westat.

References
in Ceci, S.J., & Williams, W.M. (1997). Schooling, telligence, and income. American Psychologist, 52,1051-1058. Fisher, E.P. (1992). The impact of play on develop ment: A meta-analysis. Play & Culture, 5,159-181. Fishman, C. (1999). The smorgasbord generation. American Demographics, 21(5), 55-60. Goodnow, J.J. (1988). Children's household work: Its nature and functions. Psychological Bulletin, 103,5-26. Heath, S.B. (1999). Dimensions of language devel from older children. In A.S. opment: Lessons Masten (Ed.), TheMinnesota Symposium on Child Psychology: Vol. 29. Cultural processes in child de velopment (pp. 59-75). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. a psychology of posi American Psychologist,

graphics, 29(12), 20-24.

Stevenson, H.W., & Stigler, J.W.

(1992). The learning gap. New York: Simon & Schuster. S. (1990). Wartella, E., & Mazzarella, A historical of chil comparison
dren's use of leisure time. In R.

Butsch (Ed.), For fun and profit: The transformation of leisure into con sumption (pp. 173-194). Philadel phia: Temple University Press.

Note
1. Address W. Larson, correspondence of Human to Reed and

Larson, R. (2000). Towards tive youth development. 55,170-183.

Department

Community

Development,

University

Larson, R., & Verma, S. (1999). How children and adolescents spend time across cultural set tings of the world: Work, play and develop mental opportunities. Bulletin, Psychological 125, 701-736.

Bilingual Language Mixing: Why Do Bilinguals Code-Switch?

Roberto R. Heredia1 and Jeanette Altarriba
Psychology and Sociology Department, Texas A&M International University, Laredo, Texas (R.R.H.), and Department of Psychology, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, New York (J.A.)

inmemory, their two languages lit tle is known about why bilinguals mix their two languages during the communicative Code process. or oc switching, language mixing, a word or a curs when in phrase one substitutes for a language or in a second word lan phrase con (Li, 1996). For example, guage una sider the sentence, "Dame sin LETTUCE por fa hamburguesa with vor" ("Give me a hamburger out LETTUCE The word please"). "lettuce" the Spanish replaces word is the word ("lechuga"). Why "lettuce" chosen instead of the cor rect Spanish the word? Given with which speed spoken language resources occurs, and the cognitive the comprehen during required sion and integration of different factors (e.g., phonologi linguistic in and semantic cal, grammatical, one would bilin formation), expect not to switch languages, guals if retrieving a word from especially a second language time takes more a word or concept than retrieving do from the same language. Why bilinguals code-switch?

Abstract often Bilingual speakers from one lan code-switch to another, guage especially are used when both languages in the environment. This article the potential theoreti explores for this lan cal explanations the costs and guage behavior, benefits associated guage switching, dominance of language direction short, code functional principles rule-governed of the and with lan the role in the In

progress significant Although in understand has been made of ing the psycholinguistics is research code switching, to examine the cognitive needed the bi mechanisms underlying to integrate and lingual's ability separate two languages during the communicative process.

Keywords bilingualism; bilingual code switching; cognition

switch.

follows switching and grammatical and is a complex, phenomenon.

Although ten on how

much

has been writ organize

bilinguals

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CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

165

LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY
One of the most frequent explana tions of why bilinguals code-switch is that they do it to compensate for lack of language proficiency. The ar is that bilinguals code gument switch because do not know they either language completely. Not sur when asked about their prisingly, bi code switching, Spanish-English are to point out their linguals quick in "lack of formal knowledge" Spanish and English (cf. Grosjean, of allow this for

& Morales, the sen 1985). Thus, tence "Pete wants a VERDE motor cycle" would the adjective be incorrect because the should follow structure.

using wanted

this Spanish if they word to refer to this concept.

Spanish grammatical A third problem this concerning is that the notion of lan hypothesis is not clearly de guage proficiency fined. Do reading and writing take over spoken precedence language? tests Most language proficiency consider termining not clear writing written variable. whether language However, the de it is and take

ISCODE SWITCHING A TIME-CONSUMING PROCESS?

in the bilin A general finding literature is that sentences gual compre sentences. hend than monolingual In a classic study, French-English read both monolingual bilinguals and mixed-language passages. con in the monolingual Sentences were entirely or in English dition con French. In the mixed-language words the code-switched dition, or were in English haphazardly favor French, with some passages ing the English and others favoring the French When tions structure. grammatical answered ques bilinguals they read si were found code-switched containing to read and take longer words

1982).
One view weakness major it does not is that

language over precedence This reliance on

reading skills should

the possibility that code switching is due to failure to retrieve the cor rect word. This inability to remem ber is reminiscent of the classic tip (TOT) phenomenon, of-the-tongue un in which people are sometimes able to remember information that one of us they know. For example, this every time he tries experiences to remember the Spanish word for estimate ("presupuesto"). The rea son for the difficulty is not does not know the correct but that he does not use that he word, this word to English faster to re code switch of retrieval

ing is problematic linguals receive their formal educa a tion in one language although interac of their personal majority in the other lan take place When their reading and guage. are tested in both abilities writing in which the language languages, formal educa received more they tions tion will usually fare better. For ex ample, Spanish-English bilinguals in south Texas receive typically in English, their formal education and most tion other of their personal and communication interac with

language. spoken reading and writ because most bi

the code-switched and the sentences. However, monolingual when the participants read the sen to slower aloud, they were read the mixed-language passages ones (Kolers, than the monolingual tences

lently, between

about passages no differences

Switching frequently. it easier and makes trieve the word. be a Thus,

problem a combination of by related factors such as lan closely guage use and word frequency. A second with this problem view is that it cannot explain the that code switching is gov finding erned by a grammatical structure. For example, and English Spanish differ in relation to how adjectives are used. In the adjective English, a the noun precedes (e.g., "I want green noun tomato"). In Spanish, the (e.g., the adjective precedes un tomate verde"). "quiero

ing may affected

in takes place bilinguals or in both Spanish languages. When their reading and writing abilities are tested, these bilinguals appear cient in Spanish. This disparity is not due to their lack of knowledge of Spanish, but due to a differential
in usage.

1966). Although
have been

these findings
on method these

less fluent

and

less profi

challenged

that people the notion Finally, as a strategy in order code-switch to be better understood is another alternative. Some ideas plausible are better in one communicated For exam than another. language "cari?o" im the Spanish word ple, a combination of liking and plies affection. Neither of these English truly conveys of the Spanish word. meaning two Spanish-English Thus, bilinguals in English would achieve conversing a greater level of understanding by words alone the

results ological grounds, have been replicated using other methodologies. a time is code switching Why Macnamara consuming process? and Kushnir that a (1971) proposed deter "two switch mechanism" two mines which of the bilingual's will be "on" or mental lexicons of language viewed the input processing. They at lower lev switch as functioning els of perception and the output as a mecha switch higher-order nism that is under the bilingual's control and responsible voluntary of the language for the selection used in producing speech. "off" during the course

language ish-English an occur between and a adjective noun if the adjective is placed only to the rules of the lan according guage of the adjective (Lederberg

Span can switching

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166 VOLUME 10, NUMBER 5,OCTOBER 2001

to this model, the in According switch is responsible for select put to be lexicon ing the appropriate the comprehen employed during sion of a sentence. this Although and beyond it takes an ob control, voluntary servable amount of time to operate. switch the presentation of a during if the acoustic sig sentence, spoken nal matches this switch se English, Thus, lects the English system linguistic to process im the sentence. One is that once the portant assumption English "turned is system linguistic the Spanish on," linguistic is "turned off." Because systems cannot be the process is material is automatic

ters. Li (1996) found that this differ ence in phonological structure affected Chinese pro bilinguals' of English code-switched cessing words: They took longer to recog nize English code-switched words CC containing those containing Other initial CV clusters than to initial clusters.

1993). These mod (e.g., De Groot, els emphasize the relationships be across tween words languages. Concrete words (e.g., "house") are more than abstract words likely of (e.g., "faith") to share a number across semantic lan features concrete words therefore, guages; across will have similar meaning Because abstract words languages. less, they are more overlap likely to have language-specific meanings. To date, these models have been most in explaining successful find from studies word ings involving translation and differences be tween abstract and concrete words. can these models Unfortunately, not be easily extended to explain in code the process involved across switching languages. certain connectionist, However, or network, that assume models many language-processing ties occur simultaneously special model mention. of lexical activi deserve

important reported influence the recognition of code words include context (e.g., semantic

factors

switched

system both linguistic active

context), phonetics the code-switched (e.g., whether is pronounced to word according the phonetics of the first or second over and homophonic language), whether there are words lap (e.g., that are pronounced similarly) across the two languages. Discuss or not code ing whether switching is a time-consuming process, Li ar stud experimental gued that when ies utilize the appropriate method ology some show words and take into consideration factors, the results code-switched from recog of these

simultaneously, of code-switched ing slowed down. How

gered? that this mecha (1971) suggested nism relies on the distinctiveness of code of each lan the linguistic guage. Thus, before lexicon, appropriate selecting the bilingual the

is the input switch trig Macnamara and Kushnir

that recognizing is no different

nizing monolingual

words.

the incoming acoustic sig analyzes nal at the lowest perceptual level (i.e., the phonetic level). possible have suggested Other researchers that the input switch may be regu lated by a continuous monitoring that remains active during system
language processing. However, re

Grosjean, simulate that occur during of a code-switched model relies that during language signals
in turn

The bilingual access (L?wy & was designed to 2000) the ongoing processes the recognition word. This

BILINGUAL MEMORY MODELS

An important limitation of the on code research is the switching to gen lack of models from which erate testable research hypotheses. some investigators are Currently, this issue utilizing addressing a that propose models bilingual structure composed of separate but interconnected language-specific lexicons and a that how (i.e., mental conceptual contains information dictionaries) store memory about

the assumption the course of spoken the incoming recognition, phonemes,

words. How

on

activate
activate

which
the

that this in suggest findings may function only put mechanism lan when know what bilinguals guage to expect and when they are time to activate the given enough cent appropriate Current cerned language. research is more con

phonemes are propriate language recognized on the preceding context depends structure and the phonological of to the language. Thus, according two these models, the bilingual's can be activated or deac languages tivated pending ferences under to different de degrees on the similarities or dif between consideration the two languages (e.g., Li, 1996).

and words

from

the ap

than previous studies with the on-line processing of studying and identifying spoken language some of the factors the influencing of code-switched recognition For

words.

the English instance, allows both consonant language consonant (CC) and consonant at the begin vowel (CV) clusters vs. of a word ning (e.g., "flight" in contrast, al "bear"). Chinese, lows CV clusters but lacks CC clus

the world works (e.g., Kroll & An important issue Stewart, 1994). is the extent to for these models which the lexicons and the general store are interconnected. Other memory features models explain bilingual to specific by referring word of various types

LANGUAGE DOMINANCE
One of important shortcoming most models and general accounts

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CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

167

of bilingualism the assumption first language Some models

is that they rely on that the bilingual's status. has special

(e.g., Kroll & Stewart, the first-language lexi 1994) depict con as and containing more bigger than the second-lan information lexicon. As a consequence, guage the first

retrieved words English as ex than Spanish words, were In fact, participants pected. to retrieve than faster English in all conditions? words Spanish even when to Spanish listening sentences (Heredia, 2000a). These a reliance on the results suggest guals faster second first what language They language. counterintuitive rather than the seem some ifwe assume

of cepts of Spanish. An implication this interpretation is that during when early stages of bilingualism, on tend to rely more bilinguals their first language, their code would involve switching mostly intrusions from their first language as they communicate in their sec as the sec ond language. However, ond language becomes the domi nant language, their code switching would from tend to consist the second of intrusions as they language

ac is always language cessed faster, and is always the pri Given this argu mary language. one would that code ment, expect would take place only switching is speaking the That is, bilin language. experience more first guals would as they com interference language in their second municate language when the bilingual second than second-language as they communicate This would language. of their limited second may be interference in their first be because of their this bi

that the bilingual's first language is If the reference, or base, language. were the bilinguals' base Spanish they language, faster to access words than in English. Likewise, they should have been faster to access than English words Spanish words sen as to English listened they
tences.

should

have been in Spanish

knowledge

How plained? certain

can We

these

results

be ex

in their first lan In short, we suggest that guage. an im dominance language plays ac role in how bilinguals portant cess their two We argue languages. that bilingual lexical representation is not a static but a dynamic repre in which sentational the system can fall in first language strength, communicate while comes the second language language. be the dominant

Although language. the case for beginning

bilin linguals, Spanish-English in south Texas report more guals when interference English they in Spanish, communicate and little or no interference from Spanish in En when communicate they In other words, these bilin more when code-switch guals they in Spanish communicate than use when they English. Are these observations sup In a recent ported by research? glish. study, Spanish-English bilinguals to English sentences listened (e.g., to admit that aWAR "It is difficult sometimes and brings profits") their Spanish translations. Immedi ately
"war"

that after a suggest level of fluency and fre in a sec of use is attained quency a ond language, shift oc language curs and the second language as if itwere behaves the bilingual's In other words, first language. the more second becomes language than the first lan readily accessible comes to and the bilingual guage, more on it. Other studies have rely had similar findings (e.g., Altarriba, 1992, 2000; Heredia, 1997), lending support for this interpretation. What is the mechanism underly shift? One possi ing this language bility is that it is due to frequency of language usage. That is, regard a less of which language bilingual learned first, perhaps the more ac tive (dominant) deter language mines lexicon is accessed which faster (Heredia, 1997). Consider the case of most bilin Spanish-English in the United Al States. guals is Span though their first language most of their ish, they obtain in English. Like formal education inter wise, many of their everyday actions involve As a re English. and concepts of sult, the words ac become more English readily than the words cessible and con

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The research we have reviewed

that language accessibility suggests be the key factor in code switch may switch ing. Bilinguals languages a word in a base whenever language is not currently accessible. At issue is or not this switch is time whether some evi consuming. Although dence that language suggests is strategic and occurs switching have enough only when bilinguals time to select the appropriate lexi to con, empirical research is needed as well as the clarify the linguistic influencing

after
or

the critical
"guerra")

word
in each

(e.g.,
sen

named tence, the participants or sually presented English Span was ish target word that either related ("peace," "paz") or unre lated ("light," "luz") to the critical word. that bi The results showed were faster to name En linguals

a vi

factors psycholinguistic this language switch.

glish target words while listening to Spanish sentences than to name Spanish English tening words while sentences. to English to listening lis Also, when bilin sentences,

progress Although significant in formulating mod has been made els of bilingual it is un memory, can be ap clear how these models plied to code switching. Theoretical to explain how the is needed work two linguistic systems bilingual's interact. For example, why is it that interference experience bilinguals

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VOLUME 10,NUMBER 5, OCTOBER 2001

languages while processing have the them, and, simultaneously, to keep the languages sepa ability rate? Is the input switch a viable Theories explaining how are and how languages integrated should pro they remain separate vide the foundation for research on occurs in normal, how switching language. Finally, applied research (e.g., Al tarriba & Santiago-Rivera, 1994) has revealed that code switching is often in counseling set used strategically as clients choose to a tings, speak in second language when trying to dis tance themselves from emotional events. often range Because associated of emotions the first with is language a broader spoken construct?

across

lexical on

and

conceptual

constraints sen eye fixa

Professional 25/388-397.

Psychology:

Research and Practice,

reading mixed-language tences: Evidence from tions and naming times.

De Groot, A.M.B.

Memory

& Cognition, 24,477-492. Grosjean, F. (1988). Exploring the rec ognition of guest words in bilin gual speech. Language and Cognitive
Processes, 3, 233-274.

effects in bi (1993). Word-type tasks: Support for a mixed lingual processing system. In R. Schreuder & B. representational Weltens (Eds.), The bilingual lexicon (pp. 27-51). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Grosjean, F. (1982). Life with two languages: An in troduction to bilingualism. MA: Cambridge, Harvard University Press. and hier Heredia, R.R. (1997). Bilingual memory archical models: A case for language domi nance. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6,34-39. Heredia, R.R. (2000, May). Bilingual lexical access and code-switching. Paper presented at the Fifth on Applied Conference Univer Linguistics, sidad de Las Americas, Puebla, Mexico. Kolers, P. (1966). Reading and talking bilingually. American Journal of Psychology, 3,357-376. interfer Kroll, J.F., & Stewart, E. (1994). Category ence in translation and picture naming: Evi dence for asymmetric connections between bilingual memory representations. Memory and Language, 33,149-174. Journal of

C. (1993). Social moti Myers-Scotton, vation for code switching: Evidence from Africa. Oxford, England:
Clarendon.

Note 1. Address correspondence to Rob erto R. Heredia, Psychology and Soci Texas A&M Department, ology International University, Laredo, TX 78041-1900.

than the second

be language, language switching comes a defense mechanism. Further research should address how code References
of transla Altarriba, J. (1992). The representation tion equivalents in bilingual memory. In R.J. Harris (Ed.), Cognitive processing in bilinguals Elsevier Science. (pp. 157-174). Amsterdam: and J. (2000). Language processing in Spanish-English retrieval bilin memory guals. Spanish Applied Linguistics, 4,215-245. A.L. (1994). Cur Altarriba, J., & Santiago-Rivera, on using linguistic and cul rent perspectives tural factors in counseling the Hispanic client. Altarriba,

C. (1985). Code A.R., & Morales, Lederberg, Evidence switching by bilinguals: against a third grammar. Journal of Psycholinguistic Re search, 14,113-136. L?wy, N., & Grosjean, F. (2000). Bilingual model of lexical access: A connectionist model of bilingual manu spoken word recognition. Unpublished script, Laboratoire de traitement du langage et de la parole, Universit? de Neuch?tel, Neuch? tel, Switzerland. Li, P. (1996). Spoken switched words guals. 757-774. Macnamara, word recognition of code bilin by Chinese-English and Language, 35, Journal of Memory

switching techniques might provide an effective means of directing the access of information from memo ries of different Recommended emotional content.

Reading

Altarriba, J., Kroll, J.F., Sholl, A., & Rayner, K. (1996). The influence of

in J.,& Kushnir, S. (1971). Linguistic of bilinguals: The input switch. dependence Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 20,480-487.

The Projective Way of Knowing: A Useful Heuristic That Sometimes Misleads

Raymond
Psychology

tion is often made uncritically, with the consequence that peo ple end up assuming ers have knowledge do not have. Keywords knowledge; consensus; trism projection; expertise; false egocen that oth that they

S. Nickerson1
Department, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts

Abstract For many purposes, people need a reasonably good idea of what other people know. This an argument article presents that evidence considers use their own knowl people and

edge as a basis models of what

for developing other specific is influenced in People's behavior what many ways by they know about what other people know. Ef fective conversation, for example, de pends not only on shared knowledge

know?in people particular, that they tend to assume that other people know what they use know. This is a generally ful heuristic, but the assump

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