Page | 1

Suela Hamzi 12 December 2011

Discuss the psychological impact of becoming a victim of crime

Introduction
Being a victim of crime is a frightening experience for everyone. It can alter the victims view of the world and leave the victim with a new and difficult feeling that they may not understand. Nevertheless, fear from crime can encourage us to shape our behaviour or change our lifestyle as a self-defence mechanism in order to protect us from repetitive victimization. Andrews and Bonta (2006) in Psychodynamic Conception of Human Behaviour states that human nature fits well with the task of explaining social norms and antisocial behaviour. On numerous occasions we have heard that women have applied for permits to carry guns or have attended selfdefence classes following a series of sexual assaults or harassment. Victimization can often create major financial cost and physical injuries but the most devastating affect for victims is the psychological impact created by crime.

Psychological damages created by crime are often the most difficult aspect to cope with and have both long and shortterm psychological damage, (Mullen, P. E, 2002). It is important to recognise the need for immediate assistance and professional support for those victims due to the fact that their coping mechanisms depend largely on their experiences and how others treat them immediately after the crime. Psychological perspectives (Jones, A. 2006) recognised different factors that may influence the victims of crimes ability to cope. However, this essay will discuss only the psychological impact linked with the victims ability to cope within the family and community in the aftermath of crime. Discussions around trauma and stress reaction together with more extreme reaction where victims are unable to function within a normal range are also discussed. Post Traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD) is discussed in detail as a need to understand victims behaviour and recognise the need for immediate intervention. Considering the complexity of victimisation in general, where it can range from being a victim of assault to a victim of genocide (Dyregrov, A et al, 2000), this essay will focus the discussion on one particular group of victimization, Hate Crime Victims, however PTSD will also be covered within the context of general victimization.

Page | 2

Suela Hamzi 12 December 2011

Reasons for choosing Hate crime victimisation is because it is present everywhere, in modern countries where the Law and Justice System protects victims, as well as in its extremes, in countries like Rwanda, where victims are subject to genocide where political agenda encourage victimisation (Dyregrov, A et al, 2000).

Several authors highlight the fact that cultural differences, social values, norms and political conflicts or interests can play a large role in defining the crime, in particular Hate Crime, (Iganski, 2002). Howitt (2009) in Introduction to Forensic and Criminal Psychology

highlights the fact that Forensic and Criminal Psychology is developed differently in different parts of the world, as a consequence the difficulty is to identify the fields where accurate boundaries are to be drawn. Therefore, it is necessary to start the discussion by stating what the definition is of Hate Crime in the UK and what are the issues created by this legislation.

Victimization can often leave the victim with no idea of what to do or where to turn in the aftermath of crime. They may feel anxious and do not know who can support them. They may not only suffer from physical, emotional and financial victimization but they often are confused and sometimes lost by the complication of the Criminal Justice System, (Dyregrov et al, 2000). Currently, the major problem on recording and classifying of hate crimes is its definition. The definition used by The Association of Chief Police Officers in United Kingdom (Stonewall , 2011) is restricted to racially motivated crime incidents, however they make a distinction between a hate incident and a hate crime and assumes the following form:

A hate incident is: Any incident, which may or may not constitute a criminal offence, which is perceived by the victim or any other person, as being motivated by prejudice or hate. On other hand a hate crime is defined as: Any hate incident, which constitutes a criminal offence, perceived by the victim or any other person, as being motivated by prejudice or hate. (Stonewall, 2011)

This definition suffers from lack of description where the criminal intent for a hate crime is not causal description of the offenses just as the sex offenders intentionally and deliberately

Page | 3

Suela Hamzi 12 December 2011

target certain types of victims, for instance children and women this definition does not indicate that the victim is the case of the crime. Therefore, legislation-based definitions are not
and can never be scientific explanations about the cause-effect relationships between two variables, offenders and victim.

Secondly, people make cognitive errors because they misunderstand the differences between social reality and the perpetrators perception of the reality, (McMurren, M, 2001), for instance, some sexual offenders may believe that their offences or hate is coursed by the victim. Therefore, different, types of hate crime are not captured either by Police Statistics or by the British Crime Survey. Consequently, only of hate crimes are reported. Seven out of ten victims did not report the incident and there are two primary reasons for not reporting it where to report it and the fear of attitudes or treatment when the crime is reported. An example of this can be homophobic hate crimes when the victim may face attitude from the police, (Stonewall, 2008).

Considering the legislation issues and psychological impact created from victimisation it is unpredictable how different people will respond to hate crime. Victims of hate crime are at risk for experiencing a range of psychological problems including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), (APA, 1997), depression (Jones, A. 2006) and substance abuse (Mind, 2010). Furthermore, crime victims often have brain injuries and health related issues across children, men and women, (Shapland J, Hall M, 2007).

Several authors highlight the fact that victims of hate crime may develop more extreme mental health and well-being consequences compared to other types of crime victims, (Iganski, 2008). However, common signs and symptoms manifest from trauma reaction and extreme stress can include physical, cognitive, emotional and behaviour factors (American Psychological Association, 1997) recognises four stages of psychological reaction to a hate crime:

In the first stage victims may experience shock, anger, guilt or disbelief at what they have been through. These reactions can also reappear at a later stage such as when the victim has to attend the trial. Those first initial reactions can be followed by a period of disorganisation. The psychological effect can be manifested as distressing thoughts about crime, nightmares, depression, guilt, fear and loss of confidence. Life for the victim can slow

Page | 4

Suela Hamzi 12 December 2011

down and gradually it may feel meaningless. Previous belief in the justice system may no longer provide any reassurance e.g. gay victims not reporting their victimization to the police, (Stonewall, 2008). Victims can manifest new behavioural reactions including the use of alcohol or substance misuse, isolating themselves from the community, avoidance of people and situations associated with the crime and social withdrawal.

Acceptance of this victimisation and reconstruction of the behaviour is usually the third stage which leads to the fourth stage of normalization and adjustment. It is critical on the recovery stage that victims can accept the reality and start to move on, however sometimes they are not able to adjust their life and this can trigger a devastating reaction to criminal victimization such as PTSD.

American Psychological Association (2002) recognises two psychological levels of attack: the attack can take place on ones physical self, also on ones very identity. The research highlights that the emotional damage, intensive fear from another repetitive victimization, anger, vulnerability, learning issues and difficulty interpersonal relations are all symptoms of PTSD that is created by crime.

Fear and anxiety created by the threat of the same sort of harm can promote the decision to fight the threat or escape from it. Encarta (2008) suggested that some victims of hate crime following the experience can alter choices in life. However, it cannot be ignored the fact that fear can have an input on momentary psychological distortion like increasing or reducing the heart rate, rapid change in blood pressure, change in some glands which can impact emotional reactions. With a high emotional reaction the similarity between reactions increases therefore, extreme fear, extreme anger, or antipathy have more in common than the same response in less a extreme situation. Consequently, fear can lead to a violent physical expression such as loss of voice or shaking hands. In contrast it may also result in an attempt to cover itself by means of unfriendliness. Psychological and high stress situations can overwhelm ones equilibrium. It can alter a victims relationship or obstruct their sense of security in their family and community where they live, (Blackburn, R, 1995). Confrontation with intentional human cruelty can damage their sense of justice, break the assumptions of social norms and politeness, and it can bring into the victims mind strange instincts. They also have a tendency to interpret all of the

Page | 5

Suela Hamzi 12 December 2011

negative events in their lives as a consequence of lack of self-identity (McMurren, M, 2001). Understandably, interventions are needed to work with victims to regain the balanced view that allows them to recognise the dangers created by societys prejudices and not be overwhelmed psychologically by a sense of personal vulnerability and powerlessness. It is highlighted from Hate Crimes Hurt More (2001) that the motivation of hate crime offenders violates the principals at the heart of the victims self. Sometimes the message sent to the victim of hate crime is you are not fit to live in this society and this can scare the victim deeply. It is a difficult feeling to face the fact that you are beaten just because of who you are. Hirchis on SelfControl Variation on Psychodynamic Theory (2004) reflects how self control is an important constraint to develop strong ties with attachment, commitment, involvement and the belief in the validity of law.

Furthermore, a victim of hate crime can experience multiple victimisations. They can be blamed from the people and institutions they come in contact with (Stonewell, 2008). The fear of being treated unfairly and negatively by those who are supposed to protect and support you affects the motivation of the victims to report and seek any sort of help for recovery. As mentioned at the beginning just of hate crimes are reported as a consequence of disbelief on people and institutions, e.g. police.

Nevertheless, the pathological environment of ongoing abuse can trigger different psychiatric symptoms in many domains for example cognitive, somatic, behavioural, emotional and relational issues, (National Institute of Mental Health, 2001). Traumatised victims can demonstrate anxiety and agitation and over time can manifest numerous somatic symptoms. Symptoms like constant headaches, back pain, stomach disturbance or pelvic pain are extremely common and may increase over the time and may be symptoms of a chronic PTSD.

PTSD is a common psychological reaction to highly disturbed traumatic events and it is characterised by repetitive, interfering memories of the incident, (The American Psychiatric Association, 1997). Researchers highlight the fact that victims of crime are at high risk of developing conditions like PTSD. In accordance to the DSM-IV, PTSD is:

Page | 6

Suela Hamzi 12 December 2011

the development of some characteristic symptoms following exposure to extreme traumatic stress or involving direct personal experience of an event that involves acute or threatening death or serious injury, or other threat to ones physical integrity; or witnessing an event that involves death, injury, or threat to the physical integrity of another person, or learning about unexpected or violent death, serious harm, or threat of death or injury experienced by a family member or other close associate

(American Psychiatric Association, 1997)

Victims of crime who suffer from severe trauma in their lives can result in developing certain symptoms which mental health professionals refer to as PTSD. This condition can leave a person injured psychologically, physically and socially. The National Centre for Post Trauma Stress Disorder (2009) states that: all people with PTSD have lived through a traumatic event that caused them to fear for their lives, see horrible things, and feel helpless. Strong emotions caused by the event create changes in the brain that may result in PTSD.

Additionally, the DSM-IV also gives some traumatic event examples that might lead a person to PTSD symptoms for example, violent personal assault (such as sexual assault, physical attack, robbery, mugging, etc.), being kidnapped or taken hostage, terrorist attack, torture, natural or man-made disasters.

The affect on the victim can be severe and longlasting due to the fact that a violent criminal act is committed by another person. The victims symptoms are persistent avoidance of anything that is associated with the trauma of crime. The constant avoidance can stimulate a reduced interaction with the outside world usually soon after the traumatic event, this can be referred as psychic numbing. This process provoked from psychological pressure, automatically shuts the mind down, to protect the victims psychic from further trauma and allows the victim to function for some necessary tasks, (NCVC, 2011). Victims will try to avoid thoughts, feelings, places, people or conversations around trauma events. This is the main reason why some of the victims start to isolate themselves and refuse to leave their home, they start to develop agoraphobia which can lead to secondary PTSD as a consequence of victimization. It is important to recognize the fact that victims of crime can

Page | 7

Suela Hamzi 12 December 2011

manifest significant deficits on maintaining relationships with their children and partners due to reduced and limited ability to give love or empathise with feelings.

Most of the time victims of crime can experience flashbacks. Flashbacks can occur at any time and can provoke the same fear and anxiety as they felt when the event took place (NCPTSD, 2011). Victims of crime, especially rape, might be triggered from different things like a smell, such as aftershave (used by perpetrator) which can bring back memories of sexual assault.

PTSD symptoms linked with flashbacks can create physical damage, victims might experience two types of flashbacks, Affective and Somatic flashbacks. Victims who

experience Somatic flashbacks can experience pain or sensation in some parts of the body linked with trauma and can be provoked by triggers, (Salter, 2004). Usually, a somatic flashback can create other types of physical illness as a result of PTSD such as headaches, back pain etcetera. On the other hand, an Affective flashback is created by emotions and feelings and is a common symptom in victims of crime. Symptoms can be manifested as depression, anxiety or panic attacks.

Very often victims of crimes may become regular substance or alcohol users as a coping mechanism to avoid dealing with feelings. As PTSD is a syndrome of avoidance and might provoke physical pain victims might be treated with medication. Therefore, the victim might become dependent upon prescription drugs in an attempt to avoid the pain.

Furthermore, PTSD can create permanent brain injuries or disabilities and family members or friends can often be confused and do not understand the condition of the victim, (NCPTSD, 2011). The victim may become pressurised psychologically, the occurrence of suicidal thoughts and self-harm can start as a consequence of not being understood. They often feel shame and start to cure themselves with drugs or alcohol in an attempt to psychologically numb or block out victimization memories. When we talk about victimization we need to consider some support around it. Early intervention with victims of hate crimes can reduce the potential of developing PTSD and can reduce anxiety. The National Center for Victims of Crime (2011) in its National Conference stated that: Due to the high risk for victims and survivors of developing crime-

Page | 8

Suela Hamzi 12 December 2011

related PTSD, mental health referrals and services for crime victims should be provided to all victims (NCPTSD 2011)

Psychological impact of victims of hate crime is not limited to individuals it can escalate from one individual to its community. Hate crimes can put an entire community under psychological pressure. McDonnald and Hogue (2007) talk about hate crime and secondary victims, community members, highlights the fact that hate motivated crimes committed against one person may adversely affect primarily and secondary victims behaviour.

Hate crimes motivated over aggression are viewed as a very effective method that separates aggression from intention, this includes the intention to harm the victim via aggression, but also as an instrument to violate the identity of a group of people, e.g. hate crime against different race or gender, ( National Victim Assistance, 2008). Those victimizations can lead the entire community or group to restrict their behaviour. Those behaviour changes are shaped as a consequence of coping response to the current victimisation of one person and as an attempt to avoid future repetitive victimizations, (Craig, 2003).

To protect their community and their identity some victims of hate crime decide to tell their story as a support method for people who may become victims of crime. Furthermore, victims who have a voice have advocated for change to laws, they have joined Voluntary organisations which work with victims of crime to give their contribution to raise the awareness around crime and psychological implications for victims, (Victims Support, 2010). Their motivation to change things by putting lots of effort in creating a safer environment and more secure neighbourhoods is extremely contributory to our society. Therefore, putting in place interventions that can help those victims to overcome the victimization process by reducing psychological trauma and transforming them step by step from a victim of crime to a human asset for the community is a beneficial task for both victim and the community where they live .

Finally, it is important to remember that every one of us can experience victimisation once in our lifetime. In some studies it has been shown that psychological implication linked with their victimization can have a devastating impact on victim of crime and their loved ones, (NVAA, 2008). The trauma of crime can throw its victims into a state of shock, fear, anxiety, anger or in more severe psychological implication e.g. PTSD (Mullen, P. E, 2002). Coping

Page | 9

Suela Hamzi 12 December 2011

with and recovering from victimization is a complex process, it is important to support those victims in a professional way to understand how the crime has effected them psychologically, (McMurren, M. 2001), and what type of intervention can help them to recover. Sadly, some victims may never be able to do so due to psychological damage and permanent brain injuries that victimization has created.

Bibliography
American Psychological Association, (1997), Hate crimes: Causes, consequence, and current policy: What does social science research tells us? [Accessed on 14th November 2011], from: www.apa.org/ppo/issues/pflyer.html

Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (2006). Defining criminal behaviour, exploring sources of variation, and some major findings from PCC. In D. A. Andrews, & J. Bonta. The psychology of criminal conduct (4th ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Anderson

Blackburn, R. (1995). Aggression and Violent Crime. In: R. Blacburn. The Psychology of Criminal Conduct: Theory, Research and Practice. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Craig, K.M.(2003).Examining hate motivated aggression: A review of the social psychological literature on hate crimes as a distinct form of aggression, in Perry, B. (Ed.). Hate and bias crime: A reader. New York: Routledge.

Dyregrov, A., Gupta, L., Gjestad, R., & Mukanoheli, E. (2000). Trauma exposure and psychological reactions to genocide among Rwandan children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13 (1), 3-21

Howitt, D. (2009). Introduction to Forensic and Criminal Psychology, 3rd Edition, Chpt 20/21. Iganski, P. (2008). Hate crimes and the city, Bristol, UK: The policy press

Iganski, P. (2002). How Hate Hurts, Departments of Sociology, University of Essex, UK. (p. 25-35)

Page | 10

Suela Hamzi 12 December 2011

Iganski, P. (2001) Hate crimes hurt more. American Behavioral Scientist, 45 (4). pp. 626-38. ISSN Online ISSN: 1552-3381 [Accessed on 28 November 2011] from:
http://abs.sagepub.com/content/45/4/626

Jones, A. (2006). Psychological perspectives. In: A. Jones. Genocide: a comprehensive introduction. Oxon, UK: Routledge.

McMurren, M. (2001). Offenders with Personality Disorders. In: C. Hollin (Ed.). Handbook of offender assessment and treatment (pp. 467-479). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.

Mind. (2010). Achieving justice for victims and witnesses with mental distress: A mental health toolkit for prosecutors and advocates.[Accessed 30th November 2011] from: http://www.mind.org.uk/assets/0000/9950/Prosecutors__toolkit.pdf

Mullen, P. E. (2002) Serious Mental Disorder and Offending Behaviours. In: J. McGuire (Ed). Offender Rehabilitation and Treatment: Effective Programmes and Policies to Reduce ReOffending. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.

The National Centre for Post Trauma Stress Disorder (2009), Annual Report for Congress, [Accessed 10th November 2011]
http://www.apa.org/news/events/2011/traumatic-stress.aspx

National Institute of Mental Health, (2001). Helping children and adolescents cope with violence and disasters. [Accessed 1st December 2011]

Salter, E (2004) Journal of Traumatic Stress, Volume 17, Issue 4 [Accessed 28th November 2011] from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jts.v17:4/issuetoc

Stonewall. (2008). Serves You Right. London: Stonewall. [Accessed 10th Nov 2011] from: http://www.stonewall.org.uk/documents/servesyouright.pdf Stonewall (2011), Hate Crime Definition, [Accessed 7th Dec 2011] from:
http://www.stonewall.org.uk/at_home/hate_crime_domestic_violence_and_criminal_law/2638.asp

Page | 11

Suela Hamzi 12 December 2011

Shapland J, Hall M.(2007) What do we know about the effect of crime on Victims. International Review ofVictimology.Vol.14, [Accessed on 28th November 2011] from: http://irv.sagepub.com/content/14/2/175.full.pdf+html The nature of Emotions (2008), Microsoft Encarta Essay Tree, [Accessed, 12th October 2011], from:
http://essaytree.com/psychology/the-nature-of-emotions-write-a-one-page-essay-discussing-the-nature-ofemotions-how-do-they-differ-from-motives/