History of Copyright, part 1: Black Death

Inthissevenpartseries,Iwilllookatthehistoryofcopyrightfrom1350untilpresent day.Thestoryofthehistorybooksdiffersquitestronglyfromwhatyouusuallyhear fromthecopyrightindustry. WerestartingwiththeadventoftheBlackDeathinWesternEuropeinthe1350s.Like allotherplaces,Europewashithard:peoplefledwestwardfromtheByzantineEmpire andbroughtwiththemboththeplagueandscientificwritings.ItwouldtakeEurope 150yearstorecoverpolitically,economicallyandsocially. Thereligiousinstitutionsweretheonestorecovertheslowest.Notonlyweretheyhit hardbecauseofthedensecongregationofmonksandnuns,buttheywerealsothe lasttoberepopulated,asparentsneededeveryavailablechildinthefamilys economy,agriculture,etcetera,inthedecadesfollowingthePlague. Thisisrelevantbecausemonksandnunsweretheonesmakingbooksinthistime. Whenyouwantedabookcopied,youwouldgotoascribeatamonastery,andthey wouldcopyitforyou.Byhand.Nocopywouldbeperfect;everyscribewouldfix spellingandgrammaticalerrorswhilemakingthecopy,aswellasintroducesome newones. Also,sinceallscribeswereemployed(readcontrolled)bytheCatholicChurch,there wasquitesomelimitationtowhatbookswouldbeproduced.Notonlywasthe monetarycostofasinglebookastronomicalonecopyofTheBiblerequired170 calfskinsor300sheepskins(!!)buttherewasalsoalimittowhatteachingswouldbe reproducedbyapersonoftheclergy.NothingcontradictingtheVaticanwaseven remotelyconceivable. By1450,themonasterieswerestillnotrepopulated,andthemajorcostofhavinga bookcopiedwastheservicesofthescribe,anundersuppliedcraftstillinhigh demand.Thisputsthingsinproportion,giventheastronomicalcostoftheraw materialsandthattheywereaminorcostinorderingabook.In1451,Gutenberg

perfectedthecombinationofthesqueezepress,metalmovabletype,oilbasedprint inksandblockprinting.Atthesametime,anewtypeofpaperhadbeencopied fromtheChinese,apaperwhichwascheaptomakeandplentiful.Thismade scribecraftobsoletemoreorlessovernight. Theprintingpressrevolutionizedsocietybycreatingtheabilitytospreadinformation cheaply,quicklyandaccurately. TheCatholicChurch,whichhadpreviouslycontrolledallinformation(andparticularly heldacorneredmarketonthescarcityofinformation),wentonarampage.They couldnolongercontrolwhatinformationwouldbereproduced,couldnolonger controlwhatpeopleknew,andlobbiedkingsacrossEuropeforabanonthis technologywhichwrestledcontrolofthepopulacefromthem. Manyargumentswereusedtojustifythiseffort,tryingtowintheheartsofthepeople forgoingbacktotheoldorder.OnenotableargumentwasHowwillthemonksget paid?. TheCatholicChurchwouldeventuallyfailinthisendeavor,pavingthewayforthe RenaissanceandtheProtestantmovement,butnotbeforemuchbloodhadbeen spilledintryingtopreventtheaccurate,cheapandquickdistributionofideas, knowledgeandculture. ThisattemptculminatedinFranceonJanuary13,1535,whenalawwasenactedat therequestoftheCatholicChurch,alawwhichforcedtheclosureofallbookshops andstipulateddeathpenaltybyhangingforanybodyusingaprintingpress. Thislawwasutterlyineffective.Pirateprintshopslinedthecountrysborderslikea pearlnecklaceandpirateliteraturepouredintoFrancethroughcontraband distributionchannelsbuiltbyordinarypeoplehungryformorethingstoread. Next:Englandandavengefuldaughter.

History of Copyright, part 2: Bloody Mary

OnMay23,Marywasformallydeclaredabastardbythearchbishop.Hermother, Catherine,whowasacatholicandthePopesproteg,hadbeenthrownoutofthe familybyherfatherHenry,whohadturnedprotestantjusttogetridofCatherine.This wasaninjusticeMarywouldattempttocorrectallherlife. TheKingHenryVIIIwantedasontoinherittheThroneofEnglandfortheTudor dynasty,buthismarriagewasadisappointment.Hiswife,CatherineofAragon,had onlybornhimadaughter,Mary.Worsestill,thePopewouldnotlethimdivorce Catherineinthehopeoffindingsomeoneelsetobearhimason. Henryssolutionwasquitedrastic,effectiveandnovel.HeconvertedallofEngland intoProtestantism,foundingtheChurchofEngland,inordertodenythePopeany influenceoverhismarriage.HenrythenhadhismarriagewithCatherineofAragon declaredvoidonMay23,1533,afterwhichhewentontomarryseveralotherwomen insequence.Hehadaseconddaughterwithhissecondwife,andfinallyasonwith histhirdwife.UnlikethebastardchildMary,heryoungerhalfsiblingsElizabethand Edwardwereprotestants. EdwardsucceededHenryVIIIonthethronein1547,attheageofnine.Hedied beforereachingadultage.Marywasnextinthelineofsuccession,despitehaving beendeclaredabastard.Thus,theoutcastascendedtotheThroneofEnglandwith avengeanceasMaryIin1553. Shehadnotspokentoherfatherforyearsandyears.Rather,herswasthemissionto undoherfatherswrongdoingstotheFaith,toEngland,andtohermother,andtoturn EnglandbackintoCatholicism.Shepersecutedprotestantsrelentlessly,publicly executingseveralhundred,earningherthenicknameBloodyMary. ShesharedtheconcernoftheCatholicChurchovertheprintingpress.Thepublics abilitytoquicklydistributeinformationenmassewasdangeroustoherambitionsto

restoreCatholicism,inparticulartheirabilitytodistributehereticmaterial.(Political material,inthisdayandage,wasnotdistinguishablefromreligiousmaterial.)Seeing howFrancehadfailedmiserablyinbanningtheprintingpress,evenunderthreatof hanging,sherealizedanothersolutionwasneeded.Onethatinvolvedtheprinting industryinawaythatwouldbenefitthemaswell. ShedevisedamonopolywheretheLondonprintingguildwouldgetacomplete monopolyonallprintinginEngland,inexchangeforhercensorsdeterminingwhat wasfittoprintbeforehand.Itwasaverylucrativemonopolyfortheguild,whowould beworkinghardtomaintainthemonopolyandthefavoroftheQueenscensors.This mergerofcorporateandgovernmentalpowersturnedouttobeeffectivein suppressingfreespeechandpoliticalreligiousdissent. ThemonopolywasawardedtotheLondonCompanyofStationersonMay4,1557.It wascalledcopyright. Itwaswidelysuccessfulasacensorshipinstrument.Workingwiththeindustryto suppressfreespeechworked,incontrasttotheFrenchattemptintheearlier1500sto banallprintingbydecree.TheStationersworkedasaprivatecensorshipbureau, burningunlicensedbooks,impoundingordestroyingmonopolyinfringingprinting presses,anddenyingpoliticallyunsuitablematerialthelightofday.Onlyindoubtful casesdidtheycaretoconsulttheQueenscensorsforadviceonwhatwasallowed andwhatwasnot.Mostly,itwasquiteapparentafterafewinitialconsultations. Therewasobviouslyalustforreading,andthemonopolywasverylucrativeforthe Stationers.Aslongasnothingpoliticallydestabilizingwasincirculation,thecommon peoplewereallowedtheirentertainment.ItwasawinwinfortherepressiveQueen andfortheStationerswithalucrativemonopolyontheirhands. MaryIdiedjustoneyearlater,onNovember17,1558.Shewassucceededbyher protestanthalfsisterElizabeth,whowentontobecomeElizabethIandoneofthe highestregardedregentsofEnglandever.MarysattemptstorestoreCatholicismto Englandhadfailed.Herinventionofcopyright,however,survivestothisday. Next:Thecopyrightbattlesbegin,withvictoriesforbothsides.

History of Copyright, part 3: The Monopoly Dies And Rises

AfterBloodyMaryhadenactedthecopyrightcensorshipmonopolyin1557,neither theprofitableindustryguildnorthecensoringCrownhadanydesiretoabolishit.It wouldstandfor138yearsuninterrupted. Aswehaveseen,thecopyrightmonopolywasinstitutedasacensorshipmechanism byMaryIin1557topreventpeoplefromdiscussingordisseminatingProtestant material.Hersuccessor,ElizabethI,wasjustashappytokeepthemonopolyafter Marysdeathin1558topreventpeoplefromdiscussingordisseminatingCatholic material. Duringthe1600s,Parliamentgraduallytriedtowrestlecontrolofthecensorshipfrom theCrown.In1641,Parliamentabolishedthecourtwherecopyrightcaseshadbeen tried,theinfamousStarChamber.Ineffect,thisturnedviolationofthemonopolyinto asentencelesscrime,muchlikejaywalkinginSwedentoday:whileitwasstill technicallyacrime,andtechicallyillegal,youcouldnotbetriedforitandtherewas nopunishment.Asaresult,creativityinBritainsoaredintothestratosphere. Unfortunately,thiswasntwhatParliamenthadhadinmindatall. In1643,thecopyrightcensorshipmonopolywasreinstitutedwithavengeance.It includeddemandsforpreregistrationsofauthor,printerandpublisherwiththe LondonCompanyofStationers,arequirementforpublicationlicensebefore publishinganything,therightfortheStationerstoimpound,burnanddestroy unlicensedequipmentandbooks,andarrestsandharshpunishmentsforanybody violatingthecopyrightcensorship. Fastforwardingabit,therewassomethingcalledtheGloriousRevolutionin1688,and Parliamentscompositionchangedradicallytomostlypeoplewhohadpreviously

beenatthebusinessendofcensorshipandwerentalltookeenforthattocontinue. Therefore,theStationersmonopolywasmadetoexpirein1695. Sofrom1695onward,therewasnocopyright.None.Creativitysoaredagainand historiansclaimthatmanyofthedocumentsthateventuallyledtothefoundingof theUnitedStatesofAmericawerewritteninthistime. Unfortunately,theLondonCompanyofStationerswerenothappyatallwiththenew orderwheretheyhadlosttheirlucrativemonopoly.Theygatheredtheirfamiliesonthe stairsofParliamentandbeggedforthemonopolytobereinstated. Itisnoteworthythatauthorsdidnotaskforthecopyrightmonopoly:theprintersand distributorsdid.Therewasneveranargumentalongthelinesthatnothingwouldbe writtenwithoutcopyright;theargumentwasthatnothingwouldbeprintedwithout copyright.Thisissomethingelseentirely. Parliament,havingjustabolishedcensorship,waskeenonnotreinstitutingacentral pointofcontrolwithapossibleabusepotential.TheStationersrespondedby suggestingthatwritersshouldowntheirworks.Indoingso,theykilledthreebirds withonestone.One,Parliamentwouldbeassuredthattherewasnocentralpointof controlwhichcouldbeusedtocensor.Two,thepublisherswouldretainamonopoly forallintentsandpurposes,asthewriterswouldhavenobodytoselltheirworkstobut thepublishingindustry.Three,andperhapsmostimportantly,themonopolywouldbe legallyclassifiedasAngloSaxonCommonLawratherthantheweakerCaseLaw, andthereforegivenmuchstrongerlegalprotection. Theypublishinglobbygotastheywanted,andthenewcopyrightmonopolywasre enactedin1709,takingeffectonApril10,1710.Thiswasthecopyrightlobbysfirst majorvictory. Whatweseeatthispointinhistoryiscopyrightinitsunspunform:amonopolywith heritagefromcensorshipwhereartistsandauthorswerenotevenconsidered,but whereitwasalwaysforthepublishersprofit. Also,theStationerswouldcontinuetoimpound,destroyandburnothersprinting pressesforalongtime,despitenothavingtherightanylonger.Abuseofpowercame immediately,andwouldlastuntilthepivotalEntickvs.Carringtoncasein1765,when yetanotheroftheseraidsforunlicensed(readunwanted)authorshadtakenplace. Intheverdictofthiscourtcasein1765,itwasfirmlyestablishedthatnorightmaybe deniedtoanycitizenifnotexpresslyforbiddenbylaw,andthatnoauthoritymaytake itselfanyrightnotexplicitlygivenbylaw. Thus,theveryfirstfoundationsofmoderndemocracyandcivillibertieswerewonin thebattleagainstthecopyrightmonopoly.Thereisnothingnewunderthesun. Next:ReadingBooksWithoutPaying?ThatsStealing!

History of Copyright, part 4: The US and LibrariesCopyright Monopoly

WhentheUnitedStateswasfounded,theconceptofmonopoliesonideaswas carriedtotheNewWorldanddebatedintensely.ThomasJeffersonwasafierce opponenttothemonsterofmonopoliesonideas.Acompromisewasreached. CopyrightdidntoriginateintheUnitedStates,aswehaveseen.Theideahadbeen therebeforehandandtheFoundingFatherscarriedthelawswiththemintotheirnew country.Thetopicofmonopoliesonideas,however,wasatopicnoteasilysettled. Jeffersonwrote: Ifnaturehasmadeanyonethinglesssusceptiblethanallothersofexclusive property,itistheactionofthethinkingpowercalledanidea,whichan individualmayexclusivelypossessaslongashekeepsittohimself;butthe momentitisdivulged,itforcesitselfintothepossessionofeveryone,and thereceivercannotdispossesshimselfofit.Itspeculiarcharacter,too,isthat noonepossessestheless,becauseeveryotherpossessesthewholeofit.He whoreceivesanideafromme,receivesinstructionhimselfwithoutlessening mine;ashewholightshistaperatmine,receiveslightwithoutdarkening me.Thatideasshouldfreelyspreadfromonetoanotherovertheglobe,for themoralandmutualinstructionofman,andimprovementofhiscondition, seemstohavebeenpeculiarlyandbenevolentlydesignedbynature,when shemadethemincapableofconfinementorexclusiveappropriation. Intheend,theUnitedStatesConstitutionwasthefirstonetospecifythereasonfor copyrights(andpatents!)tobegranted.Itisveryclearandstraigtforwardinits justificationfortheexistenceofcopyrightinUnitedStateslaw:

topromotetheprogressofthesciencesandusefularts Itisparticularlynotablethatthepurposeofthemonopolywasnotforanyprofession tomakemoney,neitherwriternorprinternordistributor.Instead,thepurposeis exemplaryinitsclarity:theonlyjustificationforthemonopolyisifitmaximizesthe cultureandknowledgeavailabletosociety. Thus,copyright(intheUS,andthereforepredominantlytoday)isabalancebetween thepublicsaccesstocultureandthesamepublicsinterestofhavingnewculture created.Thisistremendouslyimportant.Inparticular,noteherethatthepublicisthe onlylegitimatestakeholderinthewordingandevolutionofcopyrightlaw:the monopolyholders,whilecertainlybeingbenefactorsofthemonopoly,arenot legitimatestakeholdersandshouldhavenosayinitswording,justlikearegiment townshouldhavenosayinwhetherthatregimentisactuallyneededfornational security. ItisusefultopointatthewordingoftheUSConstitutionwhenpeoplefalselybelieve thatthecopyrightmonopolyexistssothatartistscanmakemoney.Itneverdid,notin anycountry.

Meanwhile in the United Kingdom

InthemeantimeintheUnitedKingdom,bookswerestillquiteexpensive,mostly becauseofthecopyrightmonopoly.Bookcollectionswereonlyseeninrichmens homes,andsomestartedbenevolentlytolendbookstothecommonpeople. Thepublisherswentmadaboutthis,andlobbiedParliamenttooutlawthereadingof abookwithoutfirstpayingfortheirowncopy.Theytriedtooutlawthepubliclibrary beforethelibraryhadevenbeeninvented.Readingwithoutpayingfirst?Thats stealingfromtheauthors!Takingthebreadrightoutoftheirchildrensmouths! ButParliamenttookadifferentstance,seeingthepositiveimpactofreadingon society.TheproblemperceivedbyParliamentwasnottheselfdescribedeternal plightofthecopyrightmonopolists,buttheproblemthatrichmeninsocietydictated whowouldreadandwhowouldnt.Itseemedbeneficialtosocietytolevelthe playingfield:tocreatepubliclibraries,accessibletopoorandrichalike. Thecopyrightmonopolistswentabsolutelyballisticwhentheyheardaboutthisidea. Youcantletanybodyreadanybookforfree!Notasinglebookwillbesoldever again!Nobodywillbeabletoliveofftheirwriting!Noauthorwillwriteasinglebook everagainifyoupassthislaw! Parliamentinthe1800swasmuchwiserthantoday,however,andsawthecopyright monopoliststantrumforwhatitwas.Parliamenttookastrongstancethatpublic accesstoknowledgeandculturehadalargerbenefittosocietythanthecopyright monopoly,andsoin1849,thelawinstitutingpubliclibrariesintheUKwaspassed.The firstpubliclibraryopenedin1850. Andasweknow,notasinglebookhasbeenwritteneversince.Eitherthat,orthe copyrightmonopolistsrantaboutnothingbeingcreatedwithoutastrongmonopoly

wasasfalsethenasitiswhenrepeatedtoday. (Note:insomeEuropeancountries,authorsandtranslatorsgetsomepenniesfor everybooklentfromalibrary.Itshouldbestronglynotedthatthisisnota compensationforanimaginarylossofincome,asifeveryreductioninthemonopoly requiredcompensation,butanationalculturalgrantwhichhappenstomeasure popularityandthereforesuitabilityforthatgrantusingstatisticsfromlibraries.Besides, thegrantappearedintheearly1900s,longafterlibraries.)

Meanwhile in Germany
Germanyhadnocopyrightmonopolyduringthistime.Severalhistoriansarguethat thisledtotherapidproliferationofknowledgethatenabledGermanytotakethe industrialleadovertheUnitedKingdomknowledgecouldbespreadcheaplyand efficiently.Soinaway,GermanysleapfroggingoftheUnitedKingdomprovedBritish Parliamentright:thenationalinterestofaccesstocultureandknowledgedoes supersedethemonopolyinterestofthepublishers. Next:MoralRightsontheContinent.

History of Copyright, part 5: Moral Rights

Inthelate1800s,thepublisherseverstrengtheningcopyrightmonopolyhadlopsided thecreatorschancesofmakinganyrevenueoffoftheirworks.Basically,allthe moneywenttopublishersanddistributors,andcreatorswereleftstarving,duetothe copyrightmonopoly.(Justliketoday.) ApersoninFrancenamedVictorHugowouldtaketheinitiativetotrytolevelthe playingfieldbyinternationalizingaFrenchtraditionknownasdroitdauteur,writers right,intothecopyrightmonopoly.Also,hewouldtrytomakethecopyright monopolyinternational:untilnow,ithadjustbeenanationalmonopoly.AFrench writercouldsellhismonopolytoaFrenchpublisher,andthepublisherwouldenjoy monopolypowersinFrance,butnotinGermanyortheUnitedKingdom.Hugosought tochangethis. Paradoxically,thecopyrightandpatentmonopolieswereforgottenwhenfreemarket lawswereenactedacrossEuropeinthemid1800s.Patentlawstilltalksabout preventionofdisloyalcompetitionasjustificationforitsexistence,whichisa remnantfromwhenguildsdictatedproducts,craftsmen,andprices;ifabusiness practicesloyalcompetitionintheirindustrysegmenttoday,weraidthematdawn andhaultheirasstocourt.Thecopyrightmonopolyisasimilarremnantfromthe printingguildofLondon. VictorHugowouldtrytobalancetheimmensepowersofthepublishersbygiving creatorssomerightsunderthecopyrightmonopolyaswell,unfortunately impoverishingthepublicfurther.(Itisimportantheretorememberthattherearethree partiestothecopyrightconflict:creators,publishers,andthepublic.Ironically,the publicistheonlylegitimatestakeholderinthemonopolysdesign.) WhileHugodidntlivetoseethefruitionofhisinitiative,theBerneConventionwas signedin1886.Itsaidthatcountriesshouldrespectthecopyrightsofothercountries,

andanagencyBIRPIwassetupaswatchdog.Thisagencyhasmutated,grown andswelledandistodayWIPO,whichstilloverseestheBerneConvention,whichhas alsoswelled,mutatedandbeenhijackedtwice.(Moreonthisinthenextpartinthe series.) So,atthispoint,therearefouraspectsofthecopyrightmonopoly,whichhavemore differencesbetweenthemthansimilarities: One,thecommercialmonopolytofixationsofawork.Thisistheoriginalmonopoly grantedtoLondonsprintingguildinexchangeforcensorship. Two,thecommercialmonopolytoperformancesofawork.Ifsomebodyperformsa workpubliclyonaforprofitstage,themonopolyholderhasarighttodemand money. Three,thedroitmoraltobeacknowledgedascreator.Therightforanauthororartist tobeacknowledgedascreatorofhisorherwork,actingasprotectionagainst counterfeitingandagainstplagiarism. Four,thedroitmoraltovetoanimproperperformanceofthework.Ifanartistfeels thataperformanceslightstheworkorthenameoftheartist,theyhavetherightto denythatperformancethelightofday. Thedroitsmoralsareverydifferentinnaturefromthecommercialmonopoliesinthat theycannotbesoldortransferred.Thissetsthemsharplyapartfromthejustification thatconvincedBritishParliamenttoreenactthecopyrightmonopolyin1709. Itisalsonoteworthyhowoftenthesefouraspectsaredeliberatelyconfusedtodefend themostcontroversialanddamagingofthemonopolies,thecommercialmonopoly onfixations(andlaterduplication).Youwilloftenhearpeoplefromthecopyright industrydefendingthemonopolybyaskingwouldyouwantsomebodyelsetotake yourworkandclaimitwastheirs?.However,thisisthequiteuncontroversialthird part,thedroitmoralofattributionandcredit,whichcannothonestlybeusedto defendanyofthetwocommercialmonopolies. TheUnitedStatesdidntlikemoralrights,bytheway,sotheystayedoutsideofthe BerneConventionuntiltheycoulduseitforleverageagainstToyotaahundredyears later.Wellreturntothatinpartsevenofthisseries. Next:Therecordindustryhijacksthecopyrightmonopoly.

History of Copyright, part 6: Hijacked By Record Industry

Duringmostofthe20thcentury,abattleofprominenceragedbetweenperforming musiciansandtherecordindustry.Formostofthecentury,musicianswereregarded astheimportantpartyinlawandincommonsense.However,therecordindustry wouldratherseemusiccorporativized.Activeinterventionbytheselfdeclaredly fascistregimeinItalytippedthescalesinthisdirection. Copyrightinthe20thcenturywasnotcharacterizedbybooks,butbymusic.The1930s sawtwomajordevelopmentsthataffectedmusicians:theGreatDepression,which causedmanymusicianstolosetheirjobs,andmovieswithsound,whichcausedmost oftherestofmusicianstolosetheirjobs. Inthisenvironment,twoinitativesweretakeninparallel.Musiciansunionstriedto guaranteeincomeandsustenancetothepeoplewhowerenowjobless,made redundantaswesaytodayinexecutivespeak.UnionsallovertheWestwere concernedaboutthespreadofmechanizedmusic:anymusicthatisntperformed liveandthereforedidntneedperformingmusicians.Theywantedsomepowerover thespeakertechnology,andthequestionwasraisedthroughtheInternational LabourOrganization(apredecessortotheUNagencywiththesamename). Atthesametime,therecordindustrytriedtoexerttheexactsamepowerover speakers,radioandmusicians.However,theentirepoliticalandbusinessworldatthat timeregardedthemasaservicecontractortothemusicians.Theycouldgoabout runningtheirbusinessiftheywereservicemindedenough,orgobankrupttrying,and werentworthdiddlysquatmorethanthattoanyone.Anyone,withjustone exception: FascistItaly. (Thisword,fascist,isloadedwithemotiontoday.Italysregimeatthistimewereself

declaredfascists.Imusingthewordtodescribethemexactlyastheydescribed themselves.) In1933,thephonographicindustrywasinvitedtoRomebyConfederazioneGenerale FascistadellIndustriaItalianaandundertheprotectionofsame.Atthisconference, heldonNovember1014,aninternationalfederationofthephonographicindustry wasformed.Itwouldlaterbemoreknownunderitsacronym,IFPI.Itwasagreedthat IFPIwouldtrytoworkwithintheBerneConventiontoestablishproducersrightssimilar tothoseofthemusiciansandartists(whichwerealwayssoldtopublishers). IFPIcontinuedtomeetincountrieswhichwelcomedtheircorporativistagenda,so theymetinItalythenextyeartoo,inStresa.1935andonwardsprovedabitturbulent fortheworldatlarge,butItalystillenactedcorporativistrightsoftherecordindustryin 1937. Negotiationsforacopyrightlikemonopoly,attachedtoBerneandtherefore international,wasstilltootemptingfortherecordindustrytoresist.Soafterthewar, IFPIreconvenedinparafascistPortugalin1950.Italywasntsuitableanymore,andthe conferencereadiedadrafttextthatwouldgivethemcopyrightidentical monopolies,socalledneighboringrights,forproducingandprintingcreativeworks suchasmusic.Thismonopolywouldbepracticallyidenticaltothecommercial copyrightmonopolyforfixationsofacreativework. TheneighboringrightswereratifiedbyBIRPI(todayWIPO)in1961inthesocalled RomeConvention,givingtherecordindustrycopyrightidenticalmonopolies.Atthe sametime,ILOsattempttogivemusicianssimilarrightshadflopped,waned,and failed. Since1961,therecordindustryhasfeverishlydefendedcopyright,despitethefact thatitdoesntenjoyanycopyrightmonopoly,onlythecopyrightidenticalmonopoly knownasneighboringrights. Oneneedstoremembertwothingsatthispoint: First,therecordindustryisconfusingallthesemonopoliesonpurpose.Itkeeps defendingitscopyright,whichitdoesnthave,andtalksnostalgicallyabouthow thiscopyrightmonopolywascreatedduringingreatwisdomduringthedawnofthe Enlightenment[insertsunsetandkittenshere],referringtotheStatuteofAnnein1709, whichwasntthefirstcopyrightanyway.Inreality,theneighboringrightsmonopolies werecreatedinfascistcountries(literally!)inasundermilitarizedrecentEuropeaslate as1961.Thesemonopolieshavebeencontroversialandquestionedfromdayonein 1961,andwerecertainlynottheproductofanyEnlightenmentwisdom. Second,wewerebutahairsbreadthfromstillregardingtherecordlabelsasservice bureausformusicians,hadILOnotfailed,insteadofthechokeholdonmusiciansthat theyhavebeenforthepastdecades.Thiswouldhavebeenthecaseifithadnot beenfortwointerveningfascistgovernmentsfascistintheliteralsenseoftheword supportingtherecordindustryincorporativizingsocietyandbecomingthe copyrightindustry. Next:Thecopyrightmonopolygetshijackedagain.

History of Copyright, part 7: Hijacked by Pfizer

ToyotastruckattheheartoftheAmericansoulinthe1970s,andallherpoliticians startedcarryingmentalTheEndIsNighsigns.ThemostAmericanthingsofall cars!TheAmericanCars!werentgoodenoughfortheAmericanpeople.Theyall boughtToyotainstead.ThiswasanapocalypsegradesignthatUnitedStateswas approachingitsendasanindustrialnation,unabletocompetewithAsia. Thisisthefinalpartinmyseriesaboutthehistoryofthecopyrightmonopoly.The periodof1960to2010ismarkedbytwothings:one,therecordlabeldrivencreepage ofthecopyrightmonopolyintothenoncommercial,privatedomainwhereitwas alwaysacommercialonlymonopolybefore(hometapingisillegalandsuch nonsense)andthemonopolythereforethreateningfundamentalhumanrights,and two,thecorporatepoliticalexpansionofthecopyrightmonopolyandother monopolies.Theformerdevelopment,wherethecopyrightindustrycriedimpending doomoneverynewtechnologytogetmorebenefitsforthemselvesisastorybyitself; here,Iwillfocusonthelatterdevelopment. WhenitwascleartopoliticiansthattheUnitedStateswouldnolongerbeableto maintainitseconomicdominancebyproducinganythingindustriallyvaluableor viable,manycommitteeswereformedandtaskedwithcomingupwiththeanswerto onecrucialquestion:HowcantheUSmaintainitsglobaldominanceif(orwhen)itis notproducinganythingcompetitivelyvaluable? Theresponsecamefromanunexpecteddirection:Pfizer. ThepresidentofPfizer,EdmundPratt,hadafuriousopedpieceinaNewYorkTimes onJuly9,1982titledStealingfromtheMind.Itfumedabouthowthirdworld

countrieswerestealingfromthem.(Bythis,hereferredtomakingmedicinefromtheir ownrawmaterialswiththeirownfactoriesusingtheirownknowledgeintheirown timefortheirownpeople,whowerefrequentlydyingfromhorriblebutcurablethird worldconditions.)MajorpolicymakerssawaglimpseofananswerinPfizersand Prattsthinking,andturnedtoPrattsinvolvementinanothercommitteedirectlyunder thePresident.ThiscommitteewasthemagicACTN:AdvisoryCommitteeonTrade Negotiations. WhattheACTNrecommended,followingPfizerslead,wassodaringandprovocative thatnobodywasreallysurewhethertotryitout:theUSwouldtrylinkingitstrade negotiationsandforeignpolicy.Anycountrywhodidntsignlopsidedfreetrade dealsthatheavilyredefinedvaluewouldbebrandedinamyriadofbadways,the mostnotablebeingtheSpecial301watchlist.Thislistissupposedtobealistof nationsnotrespectingcopyrightenough.Amajorityoftheworldspopulationisonit, amongthemCanada. Sothesolutiontonotproducinganythingofvalueininternationaltradewasto redefineproducing,anything,andvalueinaninternationalpoliticalcontext, andtodosobybullying.Itworked.TheACTNblueprintsweresetinmotionbyUS TradeRepresentatives,usingunilateralbullyingtopushforeigngovernmentsinto enactinglegislationthatfavoredAmericanindustryinterestes,bilateralfreetrade agreementsthatdidthesame,andmultilateralagreementsthatraisedthebar worldwideinprotectionofAmericaninterests. Inthisway,theUnitedStateswasabletocreateanexchangeofvalueswherethey wouldrentoutblueprintsandgetfinishedproductsfromthoseblueprintsinreturn.This wouldbeconsideredasafairdealunderthefreetradeagreementswhich redefinedvaluearticifially. TheentireUSmonopolizedindustrywasbehindthispush:thecopyrightindustries,the patentindustries,allofthem.TheywentforumshoppingandtriedtogotoWIPO repeatingthehijackoftherecordindustryin1961toseeklegitimacyandhostship foranewtradeagreementthatwouldbemarketedasBernePlus. Atthispoint,itbecamepoliticallynecessaryfortheUStojointheBerneConvention forcredibilityreasons,asWIPOistheoverseerofBerne. However,WIPOsawrightthroughthisschemeandmoreorlesskickedthemrightout thedoor.WIPOwasnotcreatedtogiveanycountrythatkindofadvantageoverthe restoftheworld.Theywereoutragedattheshamelessattempttohijackthe copyrightandpatentmonopolies. So,anotherforumwasneeded.TheUSmonopolyindustryconsortiumapproached GATTtheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTradeandmanagedtoget influencethere.Amajorprocesswasinitiatedwherebyabouthalfoftheparticipating countriesinGATTweretricked,coercedorbulliedintoagreeingwithanew agreementunderGATT,anagreementwhichwouldlockintheBerneConvention andstrengthentheUSindustryconsiderablyontopofthatbyredefiningproducing, thingandvalue.ThisagreementwascalledTRIPs.UponratificationoftheTRIPs agreement,theGATTbodywasrenamedWTO,theWorldTradeOrganization.The52

GATTcountrieschoosingtostayoutoftheWTOwouldsoonfindthemselvesinan economicpositionwhereitbecameeconomicallyimpossibletonotsignthe colonializingterms.Onlyonecountryoutoftheoriginal129hasnotrejoined. TRIPshasbeenunderconsiderablefireforhowitisconstructedtoenrichtherichat theexpenseofthepoor,andwhentheycantpaywithmoney,theypaywiththeir healthandsometimestheirlives.Itforbidsthirdworldcountriesfrommakingmedicine intheirownfactoriesfromtheirownrawmaterialswiththeirownknowledgetotheir ownpeople.Afterseveralnearrevolts,someconcessionsweremadeinTRIPsto allowforthis. Butperhapsthemosttellingstoryofhowimportanttheartificialmonopoliesaretothe UnitedStatesdominancecamewhenRussiasoughtadmissionintotheWTO(for incomprehensiblereasons).ToallowRussiaadmission,theUnitedStatesdemanded thattheRussialegalmusicshopAllofMP3shouldbeclosed.Thisshopsoldcopiesof MP3filesandwasclassifiedasaradiostationinRussia,payingappropriatelicense feesandwasfullylegal. Now,letsgobackabittoreviewwhatwasgoingon.ThiswastheUnitedStatesand Russiasittingatthenegotiatingtable.Formerenemieswhokepteachotherat nucleargunpoint24hoursaday,7daysaweek,throughsandstormandblizzard.The UnitedStatescouldhavedemandedandgottenanything.Absolutelyanything. SowhatdidtheUnitedStatesdemand? ItaskedforRussiatocloseabloodyrecordstore. Thatswhenyourealizehowmuchthereistothesemonopolies. Toconclude: Filesharingisnotjustaprivatematter.Itsamatterofglobaleconomicdominance, andalwayshasbeen.Letskeepsharingandmovethatpowerfromthemonopolists tothepeople.Teacheverybodytoshareculture,andthepeoplewillwinagainstthe constrainersofliberties,justashappenedatthestartofthisseries,whenpeople learnedtoreadforthemselvesandtoppledtheCatholicChurch. (Lately,thecopyrightandpatentindustrieshavesoughttorepeattheTRIPstrickwith ACTA,whichtheynowcallTripsPlus.Thisisnotfinishedyetasthelastwordhasnt beensaid.) Thisconcludesthehistoryofthecopyrightmonopolyasof2011.Letsmakesurewe canwriteanotherchapterintenyearsandarefreerthanevertopublish,shareand spreadit.