The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0332-1649.

htm

State of the art of numerical modeling for induction processes

J.D. Lavers
ECE Department, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
Abstract
Purpose To provide a selective bibliography for researchers and graduate students who have an interest in induction processes applied to the electromagnetic processing of materials. Design/methodology/approach The objective is to provide references that identify seminal, early work, and references that represent the current state of the art. References are listed in categories that cover the broad range of induction modeling and application issues. Findings A brief overview of the key areas in induction processing of materials is provided, but greater emphasis and space is devoted to the references provided. Research limitations/implications The middle years of each topic area are not covered. Practical implications A very comprehensive coverage of material is provided to those with an interest in induction processing of materials. Originality/value This paper fulls an identied information/resources need. Keywords Modelling, Numerical analysis, Physical properties of materials Paper type Literature review

State of the art of numerical modeling 335

Introduction The primary purpose of this paper is to provide a review of the present state of the art with regard to the numerical modeling of induction processes. When originally conceived, the paper was intended to focus specically on induction heating, but the scope was expanded to include other induction process applications as well. In preparing the paper, it became apparent that there is a very rich literature on the subject. Thus, rather than include technical details on specic numerical methods, the decision was made to use the paper as a means of providing an extensive literature review on the subject, ranging from historical references to the present day. In the case of the references that date from the early 1980s onward, most are available electronically from various databases. One cannot review the present state of the art on a given subject without also including classical early work. An attempt has been made in the present paper to include references to that early work, work that pioneered the modeling, numerically or otherwise, of induction heating, melting, stirring, and connement/levitation devices or systems. Early analytical and numerical models In the most fundamental of terms, processes involving induction nd their genesis in the work of Michael Faraday. Heaviside (1884), among others, provided one of the very early descriptions of the fundamental process whereby a coil transfers energy to a solid conductor. Northrup (1907), on the other hand, was among the rst to reduce this concept to practice, leading to the development and installation of a 4 kHz crucible induction furnace in 1924. Shortly thereafter, Esmarch (1932) provided a basic theoretical description for such furnaces. Much of this early development was summarized in an excellent recent paper by Muhlbauer (2004).

COMPEL: The International Journal for Computation and Mathematics in Electrical and Electronic Engineering Vol. 27 No. 2, 2008 pp. 335-349 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0332-1649 DOI 10.1108/03321640810847625

COMPEL 27,2

336

For obvious reasons, the early models of induction heating and/or melting involved closed form analytical expressions (Schonbacher, 1952; Baker, 1958; Agarwal, 1959; Sundberg, 1965; Muhlbauer, 1967; Lavers and Bringer, 1971; Lupi and Morini, 1971). Special mention should be made of the classical papers of Baker (1958), only one of which is listed here due to space limitations, and of the monograph authored by Sundberg (1965). In the mid-to-late 1960s, the subject of induction heating and melting began to nd a research base within academic institutions (Muhlbauer, 1967; Lavers and Bringer, 1971; Lupi and Morini, 1971). Among the very earliest papers describing the numerical solution of an eddy current problem, in both cases using nite differences, were two that were presented at the Vth UIE Congress at Wiesbaden in 1963, one by Hegewaldt (1963), the other by Holmdahl and Sundberg (1963). In the same year, Kolbe and Reiss (1963) used coupled circuits to solve an actual industrial scale induction problem. Several years later, Reichert (1970) developed a nite difference model that was central to the design of the largest crucible induction furnaces that had been yet delivered to industrial customers. While most of the early numerical methods were based on nite differences, the induction process was in fact ideally suited to the integral equation-based coupled circuit method (Dudley and Burke, 1972). Recently, the vast majority of induction applications are modeled using the nite element method (FEM), and many such treatments are referenced in the present paper. However, it is worthwhile to look back to the early developments of the FEM (Clough, 1960), which date at least to 1960, although not for electromagnetic problems. The specic application of FEM to electromagnetic problems is generally credited to Silvester, Chari and co-workers in the early 1970s. This was an incredibly rich period for computational electromagnetics, with numerous research advances being published. Unfortunately, in this paper, space constraints only allow references to classical developments with respect to the basic method (Chari, 1970), the rst application to an eddy current problem (Silvester and Haslam, 1972), the consideration of nonlinear conductors (Chari, 1973) and traveling waves (Foggia et al., 1975), all of which relate to induction. Over the past 25 years, the numerical treatment of induction processes has developed to the point where, today, there are numerous software packages available commercially, some of which include capabilities to treat complex problems in which electromagnetic elds are coupled to material properties, thermal process, and mechanical deformations. Concurrently, a number of state of the art reviews covering various aspects of the induction heating/melting problem have appeared in the literature (Lavers, 1983, 1989; Tsukerman et al., 1995; Lupi, 2003; Nacke and Wrona, 2003; Muiznieks et al., 2004). Numerical methods for eddy current problems Finite element method for linear and nonlinear eddy current problems An induction process generally involves coupled phenomena: electromagnetic and thermal phenomena in the case of induction heating; electromagnetic elds and deformable body mechanics in the case of induction connement or levitation; electromagnetic and turbulent uid ow phenomena in the case of induction stirring. At the core of all three processes, however, is the need to solve an eddy current problem, namely to determine the time varying electromagnetic elds that act on solid

(linear or nonlinear) or liquid conductors. The present state of the art in terms of eddy current solution methods, as well as relevant classic references, are reviewed in this section. Biro and Preis (1990) provide an excellent review of the FEM applied to 3D eddy current problems, in which particular attention is given to the A-w and the T-V formulations, the latter of which had particular advantages for induction processes. An important feature of this paper is that attention is given to using the T-V formulation in the eddy current region, while A-w is used elsewhere. In companion papers, Takahashi and co-workers examine the accuracy of the various 3D potential formulations (Nakata et al., 1990a), particularly with regard to the impact of permeability (Nakata et al., 1990b) and the use of edge elements (Takahashi et al., 1992) which are shown to be superior to the more conventional nodal elements. The conventional potential formulations (A-w and T-V) both suffer from the fact that they yield a eld quantity that is not entirely divergence free in the eddy current region. To avoid this, Albertz and Henneberger (1998) proposed a solution that involves the use of both A and T, together with edge elements, within the eddy current region. Normally, linear eddy current problems are solved in the frequency domain. However, in the case of induction heating/melting loads fed from variable frequency inverters, the actual operating frequency will be a function of the load Q, which varies through the heating/melting cycle. Dappen and Henneberger (1996) describe an iterative solution to this problem. Time stepping methods are conventionally used to solve transient eddy current problems, for example where the forcing function in non-sinusoidal, or where the eddy current region is nonlinear. Choi and Park (1999) apply a Fourier transform approach to solve a linear eddy current problem when the input is non-sinusoidal. In the case of a nonlinear conductor, the eddy current problem may also be solved using the harmonic balance method rst described by Yamada et al. (1991). Recognizing that both the time stepping approach, as well as harmonic balance, have computational disadvantages when used with nonlinear problems, Nakata et al. (1995) proposed a 3D time-periodic FEM that exploits the periodic symmetry within the distorted waveform for A in order to improve the computation efciency. Time stepping, harmonic balance and the time-periodic FEM all provide a good estimate of the actual waveforms when the eddy current region is nonlinear. Alternatively, it is possible to dene an equivalent magnetic permeability that incorporates the impact of the material nonlinearity (El-Markaby et al., 1982; Lavers, 1983; Paoli and Biro, 1998). With this approach, excellent estimates of induced power density, for example, can be obtained using a conventional time harmonic formulation. Boundary element methods for linear eddy current problems The boundary element method has certain advantages for linear eddy current problems since it only requires that the surface of the eddy current region be cast in discrete form, whereas the coil appears only on the RHS of the resulting algebraic problem. Thus, the method is ideally suited for problems where the position of the coil, relative to the workpiece, is changing. On the negative side, however, the BEM formulation is often mathematically formidable, and the resulting algebraic problem has a fully populated coefcient matrix. Fawzi and Burke (1974) rst described the application of the BEM to an induction problem in a classic paper dating from 1974. Almost a decade later, the method was

State of the art of numerical modeling 337

COMPEL 27,2

338

extended to systems having either 2D rotationally symmetric (Fawzi et al., 1983) or 3D (Hodgkins and Waddington, 1982) loads. Subsequently, the rotationally symmetric formulation was extended to include the impact of sharp edges such as occur when heating right cylindrical billets (Ahmed et al., 1989). Muhlbauer et al. (1993) provide an excellent review of the BEM applied to 3D induction heating problems, including a discussion on the topic of approximating ferromagnetic load. In terms of applications, Todaka and Enozkizono (1996) provide a very early description of the BEM used to optimize a high-frequency induction coil. Hybrid FEM-BEM for eddy current problems While the conventional BEM may be used in an approximate sense to treat ferromagnetic eddy current regions, the underlying assumption is that the region has an appropriately chosen constant permeability. The hybrid FEM-BEM method, rst described by Salon and Schneider (1982), can be used to represent nonlinear regions more exactly. With this approach, FEM is used for the linear or nonlinear eddy current region, while BEM is used elsewhere. With this approach, the region of interest is modeled in volumetric detail, the impact of the coil appears on the RHS of the discrete problem as in conventional BEM, and the air space between the load and coil need not be incorporated directly in the solution grid. Time stepping (Pichon and Razek, 1989) and 3D (Wasner et al., 1994) hybrid formulations have been described, as have iterative (Ismail and Marzouk, 1996) and harmonic balance (Pascal et al., 2003) hybrid formulations for nonlinear loads. In terms of typical applications, the hybrid FEM-BEM has recently been used to design shielding for induction heaters (Sergeant et al., 2004). The impedance boundary condition for eddy current problems It is a characteristic of induction heating and melting that the electromagnetic penetration depth within the eddy current region is often very small relative to the conductor overall dimensions. Thus, the FEM may require numerous elements near the conductor surface in order to properly capture the behavior of the electromagnetic eld in that region. This in turn leads to a very large, potentially ill-conditioned, algebraic problem. One solution to the shallow penetration depth difculty is to use an impedance boundary condition (IBC) at the surface of the eddy current region in order to properly terminate the electric- and magnetic-eld components. Fawzi et al. (1985) provided a very early application of the IBC concept to eddy current problems. Shortly thereafter, Ahmed and Lavers (1989) used a coupled BEM-IBC formulation to predict the free surface shape in an electromagnetic casting mold for the rst time. Deeley and Xu (1995) extended the IBC to transient eddy current hl problems, while Krahenbu et al. (1997) used a simple 1D nonlinear solution to develop an IBC that can be used to model the surface condition for a ferromagnetic conductor. More recently, Yuferev and Kettunen (2000) have described a high-order IBC that improves solution accuracy by more accurately modeling surface curvature, while several groups have provided an improved IBC for nonlinear materials (Nerg and Partanen, 2001; Kost et al., 2002). Conductor motion in eddy current problems Induction processes often involve the motion of the workpiece (e.g. transverse ux thin strip heating, induction melting and stirring) or the coil (e.g. induction scan hardening).

In many applications, the motion of the eddy current region (direct or relative) causes, by convection, the generation of a signicant v B electric eld that must be accounted for. Similarly, in applications where the coil moves relative to the workpiece, even when the induced v B eld is small, complications arise when a FEM formulation is used. In the latter instance, coil motion must be accounted for through re-gridding, or grid distortion. Ida (1988) provided one of the rst attempts at modeling velocity effects in eddy current problems through the use of upwinding to account for instabilities caused by the v B convective term. Shortly thereafter, Rodger et al. (1989) extended the use of upwinding to 3D eddy current problems. In both instances, the moving conductor had a uniform, constant velocity. Tani et al. (1999) extended the moving conductor formulation by using a transient FEM with edge elements, with the vector potential interpolated at the upwind position, leading to a symmetric system matrix. High-speed devices have been considered by de Gersem et al. (2000), and recently, Xu et al. (2006) have extended FEM edge element upwinding to a full vector form. The previous formulations assumed that the conductor was moving relative to a stationary coil system. Niikura and Kameari (1992) have shown that instabilities can be suppressed by considering a frame of reference attached to the moving conductor, in which case the source magnetic eld has relative motion. Esposito et al. (1996) achieved similar results by considering an IE formulation, as did Kim et al. (1999) where the conductor velocity was incorporated in the BIE Greens function. Clemens et al. (2000) used a nite difference implicit time domain approach while comparing both the moving coordinate and the xed coordinate formulations. Coupled electrothermal problems in induction heating Induction heating involves the coupling of two phenomena: the electromagnetic induction of Joule losses in a conducting body, and the consequent temperature rise of that body due to the Joule heating. The two phenomena have distinctly different time scales. The electromagnetic problem generally involves high-frequency source elds, whereas the time scale of the thermal problem can be in the order of minutes. Regardless, most numerical models involve iterative time stepping in which the electromagnetic eld is determined for a temperature dependent material property distribution, the resulting Joule loss distribution is used to advance the temperature solution, the material properties are updated, and the electromagnetic eld is determined for the updated time. Using this methodology, Lavers (1983) provided one of the rst solutions to a 2D induction heating problem involving a ferromagnetic, square cross section conductor. Shortly thereafter, Masse et al. (1985) described a predictor corrector scheme that allowed a time step renement during the critical Curie transition. The same group later described a software toolbox for general coupled problems (Eustache et al., 1996), including electrothermal, that anticipated many of the developments that are just now appearing in commercial software. Over the intervening years, numerous papers have appeared on the subject of modeling coupled electrothermal problems, both linear and nonlinear (Hoppe and Kornhuber, 1990; ter Maten and Melissen, 1992; Cardelli et al., 1994; Gong et al., 1995; Dughiero et al., 1996; Nerg and Partanen, 2000). Particular attention has been given to the traveling wave and transverse ux thin heating of thin strip (Andree et al., 1994; Bukanin et al., 1995; Bianchi and Dughiero, 1995; Dughiero et al., 1995, 1997, 1998;

State of the art of numerical modeling 339

COMPEL 27,2

340

Mai and Henneberger, 1998, 1999; Wang et al., 1999). One novel innovation numerically was the use of a Preisach model to account for hysteresis effects in the workpiece (Adly, 1996). In a different vein, Tani and Yamada (1997) consider a coupled electrothermal problem with a moving conductor. Unlike the methods noted earlier to account for conductor motion, Tani and Yamada successfully employ the cubic-interpolated pseudo particle approach, a methodology that originated in uid ow analysis. The recent literature on the numerical solution of coupled electrothermal problems is rich with application-oriented research. Applications include the design of systems to heat the end regions of steel bars ( Ludtke and Schulze, 1998), models that include the load impedance matching circuit in the simulation ( Nerg et al., 1999), means to achieve heating to a specic temperature prole ( Kwak and Hahn, 2000), and the modeling of quenching ( Kawase et al., 2000) and hardening ( Wrona et al., 2004) processes in heat treatment. The improvement of electrothermal modeling continues to advance, with recent attention being given to the Curie transition ( Monzel and Henneberger, 2002), thermo-plastic deformations ( Bay et al., 2003) and the treatment of anisotropic composite materials ( Bensaid et al., 2005). Molten metal induction systems Melting systems were probably the rst major application in which the induction of eddy currents was used for process purposes. As noted previously, Northrup put a 4 kHz crucible induction furnace into service in 1924. As with induction heating, induction melting involves coupled phenomena; in this instance, the electromagnetic eld not only provides Joule heating, but it also gives rise to Lorentz forces that stir and conne the molten metal. Szekeley and Asai (1975) provided the rst comprehensive model of turbulent ow effects in an induction stirring system, building on the original work of Spaulding and Lauder. The basis of the turbulent ow model was the inclusion of one or more transport equations to describe characteristic features of turbulence. During the mid-1970s to mid-1980s, numerous research groups were examining the application of MHD to induction processes, with the crucible induction furnace providing the main focus for much of this research. The symposium on Metallurgical Applications of MHD (Moffatt and Proctor, 1982), held at Cambridge University in 1982, is now regarded as being a key milestone in the development of this area of research. When modeling induction melting systems, it is important to correctly include the actual shape of the molten metal free surface ( Lavers and Biringer, 1982). Erdmann hlbauer (1985) provided the rst practical model of a crucible furnace in which and Mu the free surface meniscus was included as a solution variable. Subsequently, similar approaches were used for electromagnetic connement elds in 2D (Lavers and Ahmed, 1988) and 3D ( Evans et al., 1991; Dumont and Gagnoud, 2000) continuous casting systems and the cold crucible ( Kawase et al., 1993). The k-1 model has long served as the basis for turbulent ow calculations in electromagnetically stirred systems. In 1995, Baake et al. (1995) noted that this model exhibited several important discrepancies when used to model the ow in an industrial scale crucible furnace. As a consequence, the group at the University of Hannover, in collaboration with colleagues at the University of Latvia, published a sequence of

groundbreaking papers in which the Large Eddy Simulation method was applied to induction stirring ( Baake et al., 2003; Umbrashko et al., 2005, 2006). In a somewhat similar vein, Lavers et al. (2006) noted that the conventional k-1 model was insufcient in certain regions of an EMS continuous casting system, and that the more detailed Reynolds stress model should be used. Optimization of induction heating and melting systems With the advanced development of numerical modeling tools for induction processes, it was a natural progression to use those tools for optimization purposes. One of the earliest papers on this topic was that of in Pham and Hoole (1995). Since that time, a variety of classical optimization techniques ( Favennec et al., 2003; Dappen and Henneberger, 1997; Horii et al., 2000; Sergeant et al., 2003; Yang et al., 2004; Zgraja, 2005; Hosseini et al., 2006) have been applied to induction processes and applications ( Hedia et al., 1998; Bauer and Henneberger, 1999; Byun et al., 2000; Galunin et al., 2004; Di Barba et al., 2004; Miyagi et al., 2006). Recent advances in eddy current computational methods Software to numerically model induction processes has advanced to the point where, today, several very sophisticated packages are available commercially that are capable of taking most, if not all, of the various factors noted in this paper into consideration: 2D and 3D, linear and nonlinear, time stepping, conductor motion, coil motion, optimization, and full electrophysical (i.e. multiphysics) coupling. Nevertheless, new solution methods for the eddy current problem continue to emerge. Whether any of the new methods has the exibility or power to supersede the existing FEM, BEM and hybrid approaches remains to be seen. Of the emerging methods, perhaps to most intellectually interesting are the so-called meshless or element free approaches to solving the electromagnetic PDEs (Cingiski et al., 1998; Herault and Marechal, 1999; Viana et al., 2004; Ho et al., 2004a, b, 2005; Lee et al., 2006; Li and Lee, 2006; Yang et al., 2006; Illoul et al., 2006; Xuan et al., 2004; Viana et al., 2006; Bottauscio et al., 2006; Parreira et al., 2006). These methods offer advantages in terms of eliminating: the need to mesh the problem, the need to adapt the mesh as the problem geometry changes, and the noncontinuity of solution derivatives. Equally interesting is development of a new class of exible local approximation methods by Tsukerman (2005), the use of a matched asymptotic expansion technique for shallow penetration depth problems by Bioul and Dupret (2005), the application of fast multipole methods to induction heating problems (Sabariego et al., 2006), and the development of the cell method for electrothermal problems by Bullo et al. (2005, 2006a, b).
References Historical material Esmarch, W. (1932), Zur theorie der kernlosen induktionso fen, Wiss. Veroff. D. Siemens-Konzerns, Vol. 10, pp. 172-96. Heaviside, O. (1884), The induction of currents in cores, The Electrician, Vol. 12, pp. 583 et seq. Muhlbauer, A. (2004), Historical overview of induction melting and heating, International Symposium on Heating by EM Sources, Padua, June 23-25. Northrup, E.F. (1907), Some newly observed manifestations of forces in the interior of electric currents, Phys. Rev., Vol. 24, pp. 474 et seq.

State of the art of numerical modeling 341

COMPEL 27,2

Analytical models Agarwal, P.D. (1959), Eddy current losses in solid and laminated iron, AIEE Trans., Vol. 78, pp. 169-79. Baker, R.M. (1958), Classical heat ow problems applied to induction billet heating, Trans. AIEE, Vol. 77, pp. 106-12.

342

Lavers, J.D. and Bringer, P.P. (1971), An analysis of the coreless induction furnace: axial distribution of electric and magnetic elds, Elektrowarme Int. B, Vol. 29, pp. 232-7. Lupi, S. and Morini, A. (1971), Induction heating of cylindrical rods using multiple coils, Elektrowarme Int., Vol. 29 No. 12, pp. 663-7. hlbauer, A. (1967), Uber die elektrodynamischen krafte in der schmelze von induktionsofen, Mu Elektrowarme Int. B, Vol. 25, pp. 461-73. Schonbacher, K. (1952), Zur berechnumg von induktionsofen, ETZ A, Vol. 73, pp. 735-67. Sundberg, Y. (1965), Induction Heating, Vastra Trykeri Aktiebolag, Vasteras. Classical papers on numerical methods for induction processes Chari, M.V.K. (1970), Finite element analysis of nonlinear magnetic elds in electric machines, PhD dissertation, McGill University, Montreal. Chari, M.V.K. (1973), Finite element solution of the eddy current problem in magnetic structures, IEEE Trans Power App. & Syst., Vol. 92, pp. 62-72. Clough, R.W. (1960), The nite element method in plane stress analysis, Proceedings 2nd ASCE Conference on Electronic Computing, Pittsburgh, PA. Dudley, R. and Burke, P.E. (1972), The prediction of current distribution in induction heating installations, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., Vol. 8, pp. 565-71. Foggia, A., Sabonnadiere, J.C. and Silvester, P. (1975), Finite element solution of saturated traveling wave magnetic eld problems, IEEE Trans. Power App. & Syst., Vol. 94, pp. 866-71. Hegewaldt, F. (1963), Berechnung der stromverdrangung nach einem differenzenverfahren, Paper 632, V. UIE Congress, Wiesbaden. Holmdahl, G. and Sundberg, Y. (1963), Berechnung von induktionserwarmung mit digitalrechner, Paper 633, V. UIE Congress, Wiesbaden. Kolbe, E. and Reiss, W. (1963), Eine methode zur numerischen bestimmumg der stromdichteverteilung in induktiv erwarmten korpern unterschiedlicher geometrischer form, Wiss. Zeit. der TH Illmenau, Vol. 9, pp. 311-7. Reichert, K. (1970), Die numerische berechnung der elekromagnetisch verursachten stromung in induktionstiegelofen, Scientia Electrica, Vol. XVI No. 4, pp. 126-46. Silvester, P. and Haslam, C.R.S. (1972), Magnetotelluric modeling by the nite element method, Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 20, pp. 872-91. Review articles numerical methods for induction processes Lavers, J.D. (1983), Numerical solution methods for electroheat problems, IEEE Trans. Mag., Vol. 19, pp. 2566-72. Lavers, J.D. (1989), Computational methods for the analysis of molten metal electromagnetic connement systems, ISIJ Int., Vol. 29, pp. 983-1005. Lupi, S. (2003), Modeling for research and industrial development in induction heating, 4th International Conference on EM Processing of Material EPM 2003, October 14-17, pp. 543-50.

Muiznieks, A., Krauze, A. et al. (2004), State of the art of numerical modelling of industrial single crystal CZ and FZ growth, Int. Symp. on Heating by EM Sources HES-04, June 23-25, pp. 423-30. Nacke, B. and Wrona, E. (2003), New 3D simulation tools for the design of complex induction hardening problems, 4th Int. Conf. on EM Processing of Material EPM 2003, October 14-17, pp. 551-6. Tsukerman, I.A., Konrad, A., Bedrosian, G. and Chari, M.V.K. (1995), A survey of numerical methods for transient eddy current problems, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 29, pp. 1711-6. Finite element method for linear and nonlinear eddy current problems Albertz, D. and Henneberger, G. (1998), Calculation of 3D eddy current elds using both electric and magnetic vector potential in conducting regions, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 34, pp. 2644-7. Biro, O. and Preis, K. (1990), Finite element analysis of 3-D eddy currents, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 26, pp. 418-23. Choi, M.J. and Park, I-H. (1999), Transient analysis of magnetodynamic systems using Fourier transform and frequency sensitivity, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 35, pp. 1155-8. Dappen, S. and Henneberger, G. (1996), Time harmonic eddy current calculation with capacitive circuit parameters, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 32, pp. 1101-5. El-Markaby, M.S., Fawzi, T.H. and Ahmed, M.T. (1982), Approximate treatment of nonlinear eddy current problems, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 18, pp. 1737-9. Lavers, J.D. (1983), Finite element solution of nonlinear two dimensional TE-mode eddy current problems, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 19, pp. 2201-3. Nakata, T., Takahashi, N. et al. (1990a), Investigation of effectiveness of various methods with different unknown variables for 3-D eddy current analysis, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 26, pp. 442-5. Nakata, T., Takahashi, N. et al. (1990b), Effects of permeability of magnetic materials on errors of the T-V method, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 26, pp. 698-701. Nakata, T., Takahashi, N. et al. (1995), Practical analysis of 3-D dynamic nonlinear magnetic eld using time periodic nite element method, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 31, pp. 1416-9. Paoli, G. and Biro, O. (1998), Time harmonic eddy currents in nonlinear media, COMPEL, Vol. 17, pp. 567-75. Takahashi, N., Nakata, T. et al. (1992), Investigation of effectiveness of edge elements, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 28, pp. 1619-22. Yamada, S., Biringer, P. and Bessho, K. (1991), Calculation of nonlinear eddy current problems by the time harmonic balance nite element method, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 27, pp. 4122-4. Boundary element methods for linear eddy current problems Ahmed, M.R., Lavers, J.D. and Burke, P.E. (1989), Boundary element application of induction heating devices with rotational symmetry, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 25, pp. 3022-4. Fawzi, T.H. and Burke, P.E. (1974), Use of surface integral equations for the analysis of TM-induction problems, Proc. IEE, Vol. 121, pp. 1109-16. Fawzi, T.H., Ali, K.F. and Burke, P.E. (1983), Boundary integral equation analysis of induction devices with rotational symmetry, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 19, pp. 36-44. Hodgkins, W.R. and Waddington, J.F. (1982), The solution of 3-dimensional induction heating problems using an integral equation method, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 18, pp. 376-80.

State of the art of numerical modeling 343

COMPEL 27,2

Muhlbauer, A., Muiznieks, A. and Lebmann, H-J. (1993), The calculation of 3D high frequency electromagnetic elds during induction heating using the BEM, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 29, pp. 1566-9. Todaka, T. and Enozkizono, M. (1996), Optimal design method with the boundary element method for a high frequency quenching coil, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 32, pp. 1262-5.

344

Hybrid FEM-BEM for eddy current problems Ismail, K.S. and Marzouk, R.A. (1996), Iterative hybrid nite element boundary element method for the analysis of induction heating system with nonlinear charge, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 32, pp. 3212-8. Pascal, R., Conraux, P. and Bergheau, J-M. (2003), Coupling between nite elements and boundary elements for the numerical simulation of induction heating processes using a harmonic balance method, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 39, pp. 1535-8. Pichon, L. and Razek, A. (1989), Hybrid nite element and boundary element method using time stepping for eddy current calculation in axisymmetric problems, Proc. IEE, Pt. A, Vol. 136, pp. 217-22. Salon, S.J. and Schneider, J.M. (1982), A hybrid nite element boundary integral formulation of the eddy current problem, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 18, pp. 461-6. Sergeant, P., Adriano, U. et al. (2004), Passive and active electromagnetic shielding of induction heaters, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 40, pp. 675-8. Wasner, S., Krahenbuhl, L. and Nicolas, A. (1994), Computation of 3D induction hardening problems by combined nite and boundary element methods, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 30, pp. 3320-3. The impedance boundary condition for eddy current problems Ahmed, M.R. and Lavers, J.D. (1989), Boundary element analysis of the electromagnetic casting mold, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 25, pp. 2843-5. Deeley, E.M. and Xu, X. (1995), An improved model for a transient surface impedance boundary condition, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 31, pp. 1674-7. Fawzi, T.H., Ahmed, M.T. and Burke, T.E. (1985), On the use of the impedance boundary conditions in eddy current problems, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 21, pp. 1835-40. Kost, A., Bastos, J.P.A., Miethner, K. and Janicke, L. (2002), Improvement of nonlinear impedance boundary conditions, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 38, pp. 573-6. ` Krahenbuhl, L., Fabregue, O., Wanser, S. et al. (1997), Surface impedances, BIEM and FEM coupled with 1D nonlinear solution to solve 3D high frequency eddy current problems, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 33, pp. 1167-72. Nerg, J. and Partanen, J. (2001), A simplied FEM based calculation method for 3-D induction heating problems using surface impedance formulations, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 37, pp. 3719-22. Yuferev, S. and Kettunen, L. (2000), Implementation of high order surface impedance boundary conditions using vector approximating functions, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 36, pp. 1606-9. Conductor motion in eddy current problems Clemens, M., Weiland, T. and Wilke, M. (2000), Transient eddy current formulation including moving conductors using the FI method, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 36, pp. 804-8. de Gersem, H., vande Sande, H. and Hameyer, K. (2000), Motional magnetic nite element method applied to high speed rotating devices, COMPEL, Vol. 19, pp. 446-51.

Esposito, N., Musolino, A. and Raugi, M. (1996), Modeling of three-dimensional nonlinear eddy current problems with conductors in motion by an integral formulation, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 32, pp. 764-7. Ida, N. (1988), Modeling of velocity effects in eddy current applications, J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 63, pp. 3007-9. Kim, D-H., Hahn, S-Y., Park, I-H. and Cha, G. (1999), Computation of three-dimensional electromagnetic eld including moving media by indirect boundary integral equation method, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 35, pp. 1932-8. Niikura, S. and Kameari, A. (1992), Analysis of eddy current and force in conductors with motion, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 28, pp. 1450-3. Rodger, D., Karaguler, T. and Leonard, P.J. (1989), A formulation for 3D moving conductor eddy current problems, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 25, pp. 4147-9. Tani, K., Nishino, T., Yamada, T. and Kawase, Y. (1999), Transient nite element method using edge elements for moving conductor, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 35, pp. 1384-6. Xu, E.X., Simkin, J. and Taylor, S.C. (2006), Streamline upwinding in a 3D edge element method modeling eddy currents in moving conductors, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 42, pp. 667-70. Coupled electrothermal problems in induction heating Adly, A.A. (1996), Solution of induction heating problems involving media with hysteresis, J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 78, pp. 4675-7. Andree, W., Schulze, D. and Wang, Z. (1994), 3D eddy current computation in the transverse ux induction heating equipment, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 30, pp. 3072-5. Bay, F., Labbe, V., Favennec, Y. and Chenot, J.L. (2003), A numerical model for induction heating processes coupling electromagnetism and thermomechanics, Int. J. Num. Meth. in Engng., Vol. 58, pp. 839-67. Bensaid, S., Trichet, D. and Fouladgar, J. (2005), 3-D simulation of induction heating of anisotropic composite materials, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 41, pp. 1568-71. Bianchi, N. and Dughiero, F. (1995), Optimal design techniques applied to transverse ux induction heating systems, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 31, pp. 1992-5. Bukanin, V., Dughiero, F., Lupi, S., Nemkov, V. and Siega, P. (1995), 3D-FEM simulation of transverse ux induction heaters, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 31, pp. 2174-7. Cardelli, E., Gimignani, M. and Raugi, M. (1994), Numerical modeling of 3-D coupled electromagnetic and heating diffusion problems, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 30, pp. 3335-8. Dughiero, F., Forzan, M. and Lupi, S. (1996), Solution of coupled electromagnetic and thermal problems in induction heating applications, 3rd Int. Conf. on Comp. EM, IEE Conf. Publ. 420, pp. 301-5. Dughiero, F., Forzan, M. and Lupi, S. (1997), 3D solution of electromagnetic and thermal coupled eld problems in the continuous transverse ux heating of metal strips, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 33, pp. 2147-50. Dughiero, F., Lupi, S. and Siega, P. (1995), Calculation of forces in traveling wave induction heating systems, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 31, pp. 3560-2. Dughiero, F., Forzan, M., Lupi, S. and Tasca, M. (1998), Numerical and experimental analysis of an electro-thermal coupled problem for transverse ux induction heating equipment, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 34, pp. 3106-9.

State of the art of numerical modeling 345

COMPEL 27,2

Eustache, P., Meunier, G. and Coulomb, J.L. (1996), Finite element toolbox for generic coupling (magnetic, thermal, etc.), IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 32, pp. 1461-4. Gong, L., Hagel, R. and Unbehauen, R. (1995), A new approach to the nonlinear eddy current eld coupled to the nonlinear heat transfer, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 31, pp. 733-6. Hoppe, R.H.W. and Kornhuber, R. (1990), Multi-grid solution of two coupled Stefan equations arising in induction heating of large slabs, Int. J. Num. Meth. in Engng., Vol. 30, pp. 779-801. Kawase, Y., Miyatake, T. and Hirata, K. (2000), Thermal analysis of steel blade quenching by induction heating, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 36, pp. 1788-91. Kwak, I-G. and Hahn, S-Y. (2000), Design sensitivity of transient electro-thermal problems for the specic temperature distribution, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 36, pp. 1148-52. Ludtke, U. and Schulze, D. (1998), Numerical simulation of continuous induction steel bar end heating with material properties depending on temperature and magnetic eld, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 34, pp. 3110-3. Mai, W. and Henneberger, G. (1998), Calculation of transient temperature distribution in TFIH device using the impedance boundary condition, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 34, pp. 3094-7. Mai, W. and Henneberger, G. (1999), Field and temperature calculations in transverse ux inductive heating devices heating non-parametric materials using surface impedance formulations for nonlinear eddy current problems, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 35, pp. 1590-3. Masse, P., Morel, B. and Breville, Th. (1985), A nite element prediction correction scheme for magneto-thermal coupled problems during Curie transition, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 21, pp. 1871-3. Monzel, C. and Henneberger, G. (2002), Temperature solver for highly nonlinear ferromagnetic materials for thin moving sheets in transversal ux induction heating, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 38, pp. 937-40. Nerg, J. and Partanen, J. (2000), Numerical solution of 2D and 3D induction heating problems with non-linear material properties taken into account, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 36, pp. 3119-21. Nerg, J., Tolsa, K. and Silventoinen, P. et al., (1999), A dynamic model for the simulation of induction heating devices, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 35, pp. 3592-4. Tani, K. and Yamada, T. (1997), New approach to coupled magnetic and thermal problem in induction heating system with traveling conducting plate using cubic interpolated pseudo-particle method, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 33, pp. 1706-9. ter Maten, E.J.W. and Melissen, J.M.B. (1992), Simulation of inductive heating, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 28, pp. 1287-90. Wang, Z., Huang, W., Jia, W. et al. (1999), 3D multield FEM computation of transverse ux heating for moving strips, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 35, pp. 1642-5. Wrona, E., Nacke, B. and Schwenk, W. (2004), Solving complex induction hardening tasks by numerical methods, Int. Symp. on Heating by EM Sources HES-04, June 23-25, pp. 593-8. Molten metal induction systems Baake, E., Muhlbauer, A., Jakowitsch, A. and Andree, W. (1995), Extension of the k-1 model for the numerical simulation of the melt ow in induction crucible furnaces, Met. & Mat. Trans. B, Vol. 26B, pp. 529-36.

346

Baake, E., Nacke, B., Umbrashko, A. and Jakovics, A. (2003), Turbulent ow dynamics, heat transfer and mass exchange in the melt of induction furnaces, COMPEL, Vol. 22, pp. 39-47. Dumont, B. and Gagnoud, A. (2000), 3D nite element method with impedance boundary condition for the modeling of molten metal shape in electromagnetic casting, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 36, pp. 1329-32. Erdmann, W. and Muhlbauer, A. (1985), Praxisnahe Berechnung des elektrischen und magnetohydrodynamischen verhaltens von induktionstiegelofen, Elektrowarme Int. B, Vol. 43, pp. 270-7. Evans, J.W., Cook, D.P. and Nishioka, S. (1991), Mathematical and physical modeling of electromagnetically supported melts in three dimensions, in Szekeley, J., Evans, J.W., Blazek, K. and El-Kaddah, N. (Eds), Magnetohydrodynamics in Process Metallurgy, TMS, Warrendale, PA, pp. 35-53. Kawase, Y., Yamaguchi, T. and Hayashi, N. (1993), 3-D nite element analysis for molten metal shapes in an electromagnetic melting system, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 29, pp. 1554-7. Lavers, J.D. and Ahmed, M.R. (1988), A BEM to predict the shape of a molten metal free surface in an EM connement eld, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 24, pp. 2521-3. Lavers, J.D. and Biringer, P.P. (1982), The inuence of system geometry on the electromagnetic stirring forces in crucible induction melting furnaces, Proc. Symp. Metallurgical Applications of Magnetohydrodynamics, Cambridge, UK, September 6-11, pp. 62-77. Lavers, J.D., Tallback, G.R., Lavers, E.D., Beitelman, L.S. and Curran, C.P. (2006), Flow control in continuous casting with dual coil EMS: a computational simulation study, Proceedings of 5th International Symposium EPM, Sendai, Japan, October 23-26, pp. 33-8. Moffatt, H.K. and Proctor, M.R.E. (Eds) (1982), Proc. Symp. Metallurgical Applications of Magnetohydrodynamics, Cambridge, UK, September 6-11. Szekeley, J. and Asai, S. (1975), The general mathematical statement of turbulent recirculatory ows, Trans. ISIJ, Vol. 15, pp. 270-5. Umbrashko, A., Baake, E., Nacke, B. and Jakovics, A. (2005), Experimental investigations and numerical modelling of the melting process in the cold crucible, COMPEL, Vol. 24, pp. 314-23. Umbrashko, A., Baake, E., Nacke, B. and Jakovics, A. (2006), Modeling of the turbulent ow in induction furnaces, Met. & Mat. Trans. B, Vol. 37B, pp. 831-8. Optimization of induction heating and melting systems Bauer, T. and Henneberger, G. (1999), Three-dimensional calculation and optimization of the acoustic eld of an induction furnace caused by electromagnetic forces, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 35, pp. 1598-601. Byun, J-K., Choi, K., Roh, H-S. and Hahn, S-Y. (2000), Optimal design procedure for a practical induction heating cooker, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 36, pp. 1390-3. Dappen, S. and Henneberger, G. (1997), A sensitivity approach for the optimization of loss efciencies, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 33, pp. 1836-9. Di Barba, P., Forghani, B. and Lowther, D.A. (2004), Discrete-valued design optimization of a multiple coil inductor for uniform surface heating, Int. Symp. on Heating by EM Sources HES-04, Padua, Italy, June 23-25, pp. 521-8. Favennec, Y., Labbe, V. and Bay, F. (2003), Induction heating processes optimization: a general optimal control approach, J. Comp. Phys., Vol. 187, pp. 68-94.

State of the art of numerical modeling 347

COMPEL 27,2

348

Galunin, S., Zlobina, M., Blinov, Yu., Nacke, B. et al. (2004), Numerical optimization in design of induction heating systems, Int. Symp. on Heating by EM Sources HES-04, Padua, Italy, June 23-25, pp. 557-63. Hedia, H., Henrotte, F., Dular, P., Remacle, J.-F. and Legros, W. (1998), Optimization of the width of a thin plate in a transverse ux induction furnace, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 34, pp. 3118-21. Horii, M., Takahashi, N. and Narita, T. (2000), Investigation of evolution strategy and optimization of induction heating model, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 36, pp. 1085-8. Hosseini, S.H., Kashtiban, A.M. and Alizadeh, G. (2006), Particle swarm optimization and nite element based approach for induction heating cooker design, SICE-ICASE Int. Joint Conf. Proc., Busan, Korea, October 18-21, pp. 4624-7. Miyagi, D., Takahashi, N., Uchida, N. and Ozaki, K. (2006), Improvement of zone control induction heating equipment for high speed processing of semiconductor devices, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 42, pp. 292-4. Pham, T.H. and Hoole, S.R.H. (1995), Unconstrained optimization of coupled magneto-thermal problems, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 31, pp. 1988-91. Sergeant, P.L., Dupre, L.R., De Wulf, M. and Melkebeek, J.A.A. (2003), Optimizing active and passive magnetic shields in induction heating by a genetic algorithm, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 39, pp. 3486-94. Yang, X., Wang, Y., Liu, F. et al. (2004), The use of neural networks combined with FEM to optimize the coil geometry and structure of transverse ux induction equipment, IEEE Trans. Appl. Superconductivity, Vol. 14, pp. 1854-7. Zgraja, J. (2005), The optimization of induction heating system based on multiquadratic function approximation, COMPEL, Vol. 24, pp. 305-13. Recent advances in eddy current computational methods Bioul, F. and Dupret, F. (2005), Application of asymptotic expansions to model two-dimensional induction heating systems. Part I: calculation of electromagnetic eld distribution, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 41, pp. 2496-505. Bottauscio, O., Chiampi, M. and Manzin, A. (2006), Element free Galerkin method in eddy current problems with ferromagnetic media, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 42, pp. 1577-84. Bullo, M., Dughiero, F., Guarnieri, M. and Tittonel, E. (2005), A 2-D formulation for eddy current anisotropic problems with the cell method, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 41, pp. 1368-71. Bullo, M., DAmbrosio, V., Dughiero, F. and Guarnieri, M. (2006a), Coupled electrical and thermal transient conduction problems with a quadratic interpolation cell method approach, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 42, pp. 1003-6. Bullo, M., Dughiero, F., Guarnieri, M. and Tittonel, E. (2006b), Nonlinear coupled thermo-electromagnetic problems with the cell method, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 42, pp. 991-4. Cingiski, V., Miyamoto, N. and Yamashita, H. (1998), Element-free Galerkin method for electromagnetic eld computations, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 34, pp. 3236-9. Herault, C. and Marechal, Y. (1999), Boundary and interface conditions in meshless methods, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 35, pp. 1450-3. Ho, S.L., Yang, S., Wong, H.C. and Ni, G.Z. (2004a), A meshless collocation method based on radial basis functions and wavelets, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 40, pp. 1021-4. Ho, S.L., Yang, S., Ni, G.Z., Wong, H.C. and Wang, Y. (2004b), Numerical analysis of thin skin depths of 3-D eddy current problems using a combination of nite element and meshless methods, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 40, pp. 1354-7.

Ho, S.L., Yang, S., Wong, H.C., Lo, E.W.C. and Ni, G.Z. (2005), Renement computations of electromagnetic elds using FE and meshless methods, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 41, pp. 1456-9. Illoul, L., Yvonet, J., Chinesta, F. and Clenet, S. (2006), Application of the natural element method to model moving electromagnetic devices, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 42, pp. 727-30. Lee, K-M., Li, Q. and Sun, H. (2006), Effects of numerical formulation of magnetic eld computation using meshless methods, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 42, pp. 2164-71. Li, Q. and Lee, K-M. (2006), An adaptive meshless method for magnetic eld computation, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 42, pp. 1996-2003. Parreira, G., Fonseca, A.R. and Lisboa, A.C. et al., (2006), Efcient algorithms and data structures for element free Galerkin method, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 42, pp. 659-62. Sabariego, R.V., Sergeant, P., Gyselinck, J. and Dular, P. et al., (2006), Fast multipole accelerated nite element-boundary element analysis of shielded induction heaters, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 42, pp. 1407-10. Tsukerman, I. (2005), Electromagnetic applications of a new nite-difference calculus, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 41, pp. 2206-25. Viana, S.A., Rodger, D. and Lai, H.C. (2004), Meshless local Petrov-Galerkin method with radial basis function applied to electromagnetics, IEE Proc. Sci. Meas. Technol., Vol. 151, pp. 449-51. Viana, S.A., Rodger, D. and Lai, H.C. (2006), Application of the local radial basis point interpolation method to solve eddy current problems, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 42, pp. 591-4. Xuan, L., Zeng, Z., Shankar, B. and Udpa, L. (2004), Element free Galerkin method for static and quasi-static electromagnetic eld computation, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 40, pp. 12-20. Yang, S.Y., Ho, S.L., Ni, P.H. and Ni, G.Z. (2006), A combined wavelet-FE method for transient electromagnetic eld computations, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, Vol. 44, pp. 571-4. Corresponding author J.D. Lavers can be contacted at: doug.lavers@utoronto.ca

State of the art of numerical modeling 349

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints