SERVICE-LIFE EVALUATION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE UNDER

COUPLED FORCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIONS

Koichi MAEKAWA and Tetsuya ISHIDA
University of Tokyo
7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan


ABSTRACT
The authors propose a so-called life-span simulator that can predict concrete structural
behaviors under arbitrary external forces and environmental conditions. In order to realize this
kind of technology, two computational systems have been developed; one is a thermo-hygro
system that covers microscopic phenomena in C-S-H gel and capillary pores, and the other is a
structural analysis system, which deal with macroscopic stress and deformational field. In this
paper, the unification of mechanics and thermo-dynamics of materials and structures has been
made with the ion transport of chloride, CO
2
and O
2
dissolution. This proposed integrated system
can be used for the simultaneous overall evaluation of structural and material performances
without distinguishing between structure and durability.

INTRODUCTION
For sustainable development in the coming century, it is necessary that the infrastructures
retain their required performances over the long term. In order to construct a durable and reliable
structure, it is necessary to evaluate the life cycle cost and its benefits as well as the initial cost of
construction. On the other hand, for an already deteriorated structure, a rational maintenance and
repair plan should be implemented in accordance with the condition of the structure. Considering
these points, it is therefore indispensable to grasp the structural performances under the expected
environmental and load conditions during the service life.
The objective of our research is to develop a so-called lifespan simulator that enables us to
predict the structural behavior for arbitrary conditions. Fig.1 shows the schematic representation
of the lifespan simulator of material science and mechanics of structures. Our research group has
been developing two numerical simulation tools. One is a thermo-hygro system named DuCOM
[1], which covers the micro-scale phenomena governed by thermodynamics. This computational
system is capable of evaluating the early age development of cementitious materials and
deterioration processes of hydrated products under long-term environmental actions. In the
following section, the overall scheme of this system and each material modeling will be
introduced. The other one is a nonlinear path-dependent structural analytical system named
COM3 [2][3]. For arbitrary mechanical actions including temperature and shrinkage effect, the
structural response as well as mechanical states of constituent elements can be predicted. The
solidification model of hardening concrete composite has been also installed in this system for
predicting time-dependent behavior depending on the temperature, moisture profile, and
micropore structure of materials [4].
It has to be also noted that the structural deformation and capacity are really linked with both
micro-pore based deterioration and large-scale mechanical defects represented by cracking, yielding
and damaging of materials with respect to control volume. In turn, the progress in macro-scale
material damage and defects are also dependent on both the structural deformation and
environmental boundary conditions. Here, nonlinearly accelerated change of material and structural
performances takes place simultaneously. For example, corrosion and associated volume expansion
induces additional cracks and defects which also accelerate the migration of moisture and ions. In
this paper, the unification of mechanics and thermo-dynamics of materials and structures will be
tackled for showing the possibility and future direction of research and development. The authors
understand that the unified approach of mechanics which governs stress and strain fields and
thermo-hygro physics ruling mass and energy transport associated with thermo-dynamic state
equilibrium would serve as a technicality of ensuring total performances of concrete structures as
well as structural concrete performance over the life span of concrete structures.

THERMO-HYGRO PHYSICS FOR CONCRETE PERFORMANCE --DuCOM --
The development of young aged concrete is intimately associated with the thermodynamic
processes, such as hydration of powders, moisture transport and micro structure development,
which show dynamic progress from 10
-1
to 10
1
[days]. It has to be noted that these phenomena
exhibit strong mutual link. For example, the development of micro structures can be achieved by
the precipitation of hydrated products, and the moisture profile in cementitious materials
influences the rate of hydration. Furthermore, properties of pore structure determine the moisture
conductivity. Our research group has been developing 3D finite element analysis program,
10
-1
Scale
10
0
-10
3
[m]
Scale
10
-6
-10
-9
[m]
10
0
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
Macroscopic cracking
Stress, Strain, Accelerations, Degree of
damage, Plasticity, Crack density etc.
Continuum Mechanics
Hydration
starts
Heat. Initial
defects
Time
(Days)
Deformational compatibility
Momentum conservation
Thermo-hygro system
State laws
Mass/energy balance
Output:
Oxidation, Carbonation,
deterioration
Unified
evaluation
Environmental Actions
Drying-wetting. Wind. Sunlight.
ions/salts etc.
Mechanical Actions
Ground acceleration
Gravity
Temperature and shrinkage effects
Output: Hydration degree, Microstructure,
Distributions of Moisture /Salt /Oxygen /CO2,
pH in pore water, corrosion rate etc.
Fig.1 Lifespan simulation for materials and structures
allowing to simulate these interactive processes (Fig.1) [1][5]. This section simply summarizes the
overall schemes and the core points, since the details were already resented in other literatures.
The hydration of both constituent minerals of cement and pozzolans is traced by
simultaneous differential equations based on the Arrhenius law of chemical reaction [6][7]. The
rate of hydration is mathematically specified in terms of temperature, free water content in
capillary pores, degree of hydration and associated cluster thickness of C-S-H gel layers
precipitated around non-reacted cement particles (Fig.2). Then, the chemical process and its
















Fig.2 Modeling of the hydration of cement and pozzolans
Fig.3 Schematic representation of moisture transport modeling in concrete
Time
H
y
d
r
a
t
i
o
n

H
e
a
t

R
a
t
e
Ca
2+
SiO4
4
Ca Ca
Ca salt
with Sp
adsorption of Sp
Sp
Consumption of Ca ion
Delaying of
Ca(OH)2 nucleation
100% % 1 25%
stage1stage2 stage3
(30%)

1%
C3S
C2S
C3A
C4AF
SG
FA
( ) H s H Q
E
R T T
i i i i T i
i

_
,

'

,
exp
0
1 1
0
Ca
2+
Ca
2+
Ca
2+
Ca
2+
+
( )

i
i
i
i
p
S
P
P
t
div K P S
t
W
t

+ = 0
Particle growth
MOISTURE
CONDUCTIVITY
Liquid + vapor
Computed from pore
structure directly
Random pore model
gel
Vapor
transport
Liquid transport
Knudsen
factor
History dependent liquid
viscosity
PORE STRUCTURE
DEVELOPMENT
Based on cement
particle expansion
Growth dependent on
the average degree
of hydration
s
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
RH
slope
MOISTURECAPACITY
Obtained from the
pore structures
(B.E.T theory)
Hysteresis isotherm
model considering
inkbottle effect
MOISTURE LOSS
DUE TO HYDRATION
Obtained directly from hydration
model. Based on reaction pattern
of each clinker component
Cement composition dependent
interaction among minerals and additive pozzolans are considered by sharing common variables
associated with pore solution, water and temperature.
During the hydration process, mass and heat energy conservations have to be satisfied with
respect to moisture and temperature. At the same time, moisture migration in terms of vapor and
liquid water and heat flux are incorporated in the conservation conditions of the second law of
thermo-dynamics. The equilibrium conditions are simultaneously to be solved together, and the mass
and energy transport resistance denoted by permeability and conductivity has to be formulated.
The permeability of vapor and liquid water is mathematically formulated based on the
micro-pore size distribution as demonstrated in Fig.3 [8][9]. The path of moisture in cement paste
is thought to be assembly of small sized fictitious pipes and its integration results in the
macroscopic permeability. Tortuosity on percolation and the thermo-dynamic activation of surface
energy onto the micro-scale viscosity of pore water are taken into account. It is to be noted that the
simple micro-mechanical modeling is applied without any variable fitting.
As a natural way, the pore structure formation model, as illustrated in Fig.4, is added in the
system dynamics of transient concrete performance modeling [1]. The statistical approach to the
Fig.5 Framework of DuCOM thermo-hygro physics
C
o
n
s
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
n

l
a
w
s

s
a
t
i
s
f
i
e
d

?
Hydration
computation
Microstructure
computation
Pore pressure
computation
N
e
x
t
I
t
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
START
yes
no
Chloride
transport and
equilibrium
I
n
c
r
e
m
e
n
t

t
i
m
e
,

c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
Carbon dioxide
transport and
equilibrium
Corrosion model
Ion equilibrium
model
( )
( ) ( ) 0 , +

i i i i i
i
Q div
t
S
J
Governing
equations
Size, shape, mix proportions,
initial and boundary conditions
Temperature,
hydration level of
each component
Bi-modal porosity
distribution,
interlayer porosity
Pore pressures,
RH and moisture
distribution
Dissolved and
bound chloride
concentration
Carbon dioxide
transport and
equilibrium
Gas and dissolved
CO
2
concentration
pH in pore water
Gas and dissolved
O
2
concentration
Corrosion rate,
amount of O
2
consumption
Fig.4 Outline of the pore structure development computation
Matrix micro
pore structure
H
y
d
r
a
t
i
o
n

D
e
g
r
e
e

o
f

M
a
t
r
i
x
Total surface area (/m
3
)
Capillaries, gel, and interlayer
dr
r
ro
( )
r r r

Representative
CSH grain
Outer products
density at r
particle
radius
Mean
separation

max

m
The particle growth
Volume and weight of
inter and outer products
Bulk porosity of
Capillaries,
gel and interlayer
por osi
t y
0.0
1.0
outer
product
inner product
unhydrated
core
micro pore structural geometry of hardened cement paste having interlayer, C-S-H gel and
capillary pores is used. The porosity distribution of hydrated and non-hydrated compounds around
referential cement particles is calculated and the surface area of micro-pores is estimated
mathematically. By assuming statistical distribution function with regard to the pore sizes, the
authors extend the geometrical description of micro pores. The connective mode of each pore
volume is also defined with simple probability on the basis of which the path-dependency of
isotherm of moisture is successfully described [10].
Recently, in addition to the above modeling related to early age development phenomenon,
the authors have been extending the scope of DuCOM in order to cover the deterioration and
resolution of cementitious materials and steel corrosion. Here, concentrations of chloride ion,
oxide, and carbon dioxide were added to the thermo-hygro system, as additional degrees of
freedom to be solved (Fig.5). Each physical variable should satisfy the law of mass conservation
shown in Fig.5, same as the story in terms of the temperature and moisture profile computation in
the previous discussions. Potential term S(), flux term J(), and sink term Q() constituting the
governing equations, are formulated as a nonlinear function of variables
i
based on
thermodynamic theory. The obtained material properties are shared through common variables
beyond each sub-system, therefore interactive problem, such as corrosion due to simultaneous
attack of chloride ions and carbon dioxide, can be simulated in a natural way. Coupling these
materials modeling, an early age development process and deterioration phenomenon during the
service period can be evaluated for arbitrary materials, curing and environmental conditions in a
unified manner. In the following sections, the authors will introduce the general ideas of each
material modeling and its coupling system.

Formulation of Chloride Ion Transport
It is a well-known fact that chlorides in cementitious materials have free and bound
components. The bound components exist in the form of chloro aluminates and adsorbed phase on
the pore walls, making them unavailable for free transport. It has been reported that the amount of
bounded chlorides would be dependent on the binders, electric potential of pore wall, and pH in
pore solutions. However, their exact mechanisms are still not clear. In this paper, the free and
bound components of chlorides under equilibrium conditions are tentatively expressed by the
following empirical equations proposed by Maruya et al. as [11],
( )
tot
tot
tot
tot fixed
C
C
C
C

0 . 3
0 . 3 1 . 0
1 . 0
543 . 0
1 . 0 35 . 0 1
1
25 . 0
(1)
where, C
tot
; total amount of chloride [wt% of cement] (=C
free
+ C
bound
, amount of free chloride and
bound chloride, respectively),
fixed
= C
free
+ C
bound
; equilibrium ratio of fixed chloride component
to the total chloride ion component.
Considering the advective transport due to the bulk movement of pore solution phase as well
as the ionic diffusion due to concentration difference, the flux of free chlorides in pore water can
be expressed as,
S
P K
C S C D
S
Cl Cl Cl Cl

u u J (2)
where, J
Cl
T
= [J
x
J
y
J
z
] ; flux vector of the ions [mol/m
2
.s], ; porosity of the porous media, S; degree
of saturation of the porous medium, D
Cl
; diffusion coefficient of the chloride ions in pore solution
phase [m
2
/s], =(/2)
2
accounts for the average tortuosity of a single pore as a fictitious pipe for
mass transfer, and this parameter considers the tortuosity of hardened cement paste matrix, which is
uniformly and randomly connected in 3-D system [1][9],
T
= [/x /y /z] : the gradient operator,
C
Cl
: concentration of ions in the pore solution phase [mol/l], : density of water, and u
T
= [u
x
u
y
u
z
]
is the advective velocity of ions due to the bulk movement of pore solution phase [m/s]. The
advective velocity u is directly obtained from the pore pressure gradient P and moisture
conductivity K, which depends on water content, micro pore structures, and moisture history as
shown in Fig. 3. In the case of chloride ion transport in concrete, S represents the degree of saturation
in terms of the free water only, as adsorbed and interlayer components of water are also present. Here,
it has to be noted that diffusion coefficient D
Cl
would be a function of ion concentration, since ionic
interaction effects will be significant in the fine micro structures at increased concentrations, thereby
reducing the apparent diffusive movement driven by the gradient of ion concentration [12]. This
mechanism, however, is not clearly understood, therefore we neglect the dependency of the ionic
concentration on the diffusion process in the modeling. From the several numerical sensitivity
analysis, a constant value of 3.010
-11
[m
2
/s] is given for D
Cl
.
The first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (2) expresses the diffusion of ions, whereas the
second term describes the advective transport due to the bulk movement of condensed pore water.
The advective velocity of free chloride ions might be also dependent on the ion concentration,
similarly to the diffusion coefficient. In this paper, however, we assumed that the velocity vector
of ions would be equal to that of pore liquid water, since there is not enough experimental data to
establish a model for this aspect.
Material parameters shown in the Eq.(2), such as porosity, saturation and advective velocity,
are obtained directly by the thermo-hygro physics. Therefore, the flux of chloride ions can be
obtained without any empirical equations and/or intentional fittings, once mix proportions, powder
materials, curing and environmental conditions are given to the analytical system. Same story can
be applied for other modeling, say, formulation of CO
2
and O
2
transport, steel corrosion and ion
equilibrium.
The mass balance condition for free chloride can be expressed as,
( ) 0 +

Cl Cl cl
Q divJ SC
t
(3)
where, Q
Cl
; the rate of binding or the change of free chloride to bound chloride per unit volume of
concrete [mol/m
3
.s], which can be computed by assuming local equilibrium conditions shown in
the eq.(1) . From the above discussions and formulations, distribution of bounded and free
chloride ions can be obtained at arbitrary stage.

Modeling of Carbonation
For simulating carbonation phenomena in concrete, equilibrium of gas and dissolved carbon
dioxide, their transport, ionic equilibriums, and carbonation reaction process are formulated based
on thermodynamics and chemical equilibrium theory. Mass balance condition for dissolved and
gaseous carbon dioxide in porous medium can be expressed as,
( ) 0 ]} 1 [ {
2 2 2 2
+ +

CO CO dCO gCO
Q divJ S S
t
(4)
where,
gCO2
; density of CO
2
gas [kg/m
3
],
dCO2
; density of dissolved CO
2
in pore water [kg/m
3
],
J
CO2
; total flux of dissolved and gaseous CO
2
[kg/m
2
.s], Q
CO2
; sink term that represents the rate of
CO
2
consumption due to carbonation [kg/m
3
.s]. For representing local equilibrium between
gaseous and dissolved CO
2
, we use Henrys law, which states the relationship between the
solubility of gas in pore water and the partial pressure of the gas [13].
The transfer of the carbon dioxide is considered in both phases of dissolved and gaseous
carbon dioxide. The flux of carbon dioxide can be formulated based on Ficks first law of
diffusion. However, factors such as complicated pore network, Knudsen diffusion etc, reduce the
apparent diffusivity of carbon dioxide. Considering the effect of Knudsen diffusion, tortuosity, and
connectivity of pores on diffusivity, the flux of CO
2
J
CO2
can be expressed as,
( )

+
c
c
r
k
g
gCO
r
d
dCO gCO gCO dCO dCO CO
N
dV D
D dV
D
D D D J
1

0
0
0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(5)
where, D
gCO2
; diffusion coefficient of gaseous CO
2
in porous medium[m
2
/s], D
dCO2
; diffusion
coefficient of dissolved CO
2
in porous medium[m
2
/s], D
0
g
; diffusivity of CO
2
gas in a free
atmosphere[m
2
/s], D
0
d
; diffusivity of dissolved CO
2
in pore water [m
2
/s], V; pore volume, r
c
; pore
radius in which the equilibrated interface of liquid and vapor is created, which is determined by
thermodynamic conditions, N
k
; Knudsen number, which is the ratio of the mean free path length
of a molecule of CO
2
gas to the pore diameter. Knudsen effect on the gaseous CO
2
transport is not
negligible in low RH condition, since porous medium for gas transport becomes finer as relative
humidity decreases. As shown in eq.(5), diffusion coefficient D
dCO2
is obtained by integrating the
diffusivity of saturated pores over the entire porosity distribution, whereas D
dCO2
is obtained by
summing up the diffusivity of gaseous CO
2
through unsaturated pores.
The carbonation reaction in cementitious materials is simply described by the following
chemical reaction.
3
- 2
3
2
CaCO CO Ca +
+
(6)
The calcium ion decomposed from the dissolution of calcium hydroxide is assumed to react with
carbonate ion, whereas the reaction of silicic acid calcium hydrate (C-S-H) is not considered, since
its solubility is quite low compared with calcium hydroxide. The rate of the reaction can be
expressed by the following differential equation, assuming that the reaction is of the first order
with respect to Ca
2+
and CO
3
2-
concentrations as,
( )
] CO ][ Ca [
2
3
2
CaCO
3
2
+

k
t
C
Q
CO
(7)
where, C
CaCO3
; concentration of calcium carbonate, k is a reaction rate coefficient, which shows
the temperature dependence. In the current stage, we focus on the carbonation phenomenon under
constant temperature, and coefficient k is assumed to be constant (k=2.08 [l/mol.sec]) determined
from several sensitivity analyses. The authors understand that the formulation based on the
Arrhenius law of chemical reaction should be considered for more generic treatment.
In order to calculate the rate of reaction with eq.(7), it is necessary to obtain the concentration
of calcium ion and carbonic acid in the pore water at arbitrary stage. In this study, we consider the
following ion equilibriums; the dissociation of water and carbonic acid, and the dissolution and
the dissociation of calcium hydroxide and calcium carbonate. Here, the presence of chlorides is
not considered, although we understand that chloride ions are likely to affect the equilibrium
conditions. The formulation including chlorides remains for future study.
+ +
+
+ +
+
2
3 3 3 2
2
CO 2H HCO H CO H
OH H O H

( )
- 2
3
2
3
2
2
CO Ca CaCO
2OH Ca OH Ca
+
+
+
+
(8)
Although the hydronium ion H
3
O
+
is present in water and confers acidic properties upon aqueous
solutions, it is customary to use the symbol H
+
in place of H
3
O
+
. As shown in eq.(8), carbonation
is an acid-base reaction, where cation and anion act as Brnsted acid and base respectively.
Furthermore, the solubility of precipitations is dependent on pH in pore solutions. Therefore,
according to the basic principles on ion equilibrium, the authors aim to formulate the carbonate
reaction in concrete [14].
First of all, let us consider the equilibrium reaction of carbonic acid. From the law of mass
action, the corresponding equilibrium expression is,
] OH ][ H [
+

w
K
] HCO [
] CO ][ H [

] CO H [
] HCO ][ H [
3
2
3
3 2
3

+ +

b a
K K (9)
where, K
i
is the equilibrium constant of concentration for each dissociation, we give these values
as, K
w
=1.0010
-14
, K
a
=1.0010
-14
, K
b
=4.7910
-14
at 25 respectively [13]. Next, the mass
conservation law is applied for the ions from dissolution of carbon dioxide and re-dissolution of
calcium carbonate.
[ ] [ ] [ ]
- 2
3
-
3 3 2 1 0
CO HCO CO H + + + S C (10)
where, C
0
is the concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide [mol/l], which can be obtained from

dCO2
in eq.(4). S
1
is the solubility of calcium carbonate, which can be calculated by the
solubility-product constant. Using eq.(9) and (10), concentrations of H
2
CO
3
, HCO
3
-
and CO
3
2-
can
be obtained as,
( )
( )
( )
b a a
b a
b a a
a
b a a
K K K
K K
S C
K K K
K
S C
K K K
S C
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+
] H [ ] H [
] [CO
] H [ ] H [
] H [
] [HCO

] H [ ] H [
] H [
] CO [H
2
2 1 0 2
- 2
3
2
1 1 0 1
-
3
2
2
0 1 0 0 3 2
(11)
The solubility of calcium carbonate can be obtained by the following relationship as,
] CO ][ Ca [
2
3
2 1 +

sp
K (12)
where,
1
sp
K is the solubility-product constant of the calcium carbonate (=4.710
-9
, at 25).
Similarly, the solubility of calcium hydroxide can be calculated as,
2 - 2 2
] OH ][ Ca [
+

sp
K (13)
where,
2
sp
K is the solubility-product constant of the calcium hydroxide (=5.510
-6
, at 25) [13].
Considering the common ion effect on the each solubility, eq. (12) and eq. (13) can be replaced
with the solubility of calcium carbonate S
1
and that of calcium hydroxide S
2
as,
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
2
-
2 1
2
1 0 2 2 1
1
OH + + + S S K S C S S K
sp sp
(14)
From the mass conservation conditions, concentration of ions should satisfy the following
relationships.
d d d
C ] CO [ ] HCO [ ] CO H [
- 2
3
-
3 3 2 0
+ + (15)
s s s s
S ] Ca [ ] CO [ ] HCO [ ] CO H [
2 - 2
3
-
3 3 2 1
+
+ +
c
S ] Ca [
2
2
+
(16)
where, [i]
d
, [i]
s
, and [i]
c
are the concentration of ion from the dissolution of CO
2
gas, calcium
carbonate and calcium hydroxide, respectively. For example, the total concentration of carbonic
acid [H
2
CO
3
] shown in eq. (9) becomes the summation of [H
2
CO
3
]
d
from CO
2
gas and [H
2
CO
3
]
s

from CaCO
3
.
In addition, the above ions should satisfy the law of proton balance, in which the amount of
donor is equal to that of accepter in terms of proton in the Brnsted-Lowry theory. The equation
deduced by the law of proton balance is obtained as,
c c s s c
] CO [ 2 ] HCO [ ] OH [ ] HCO [ ] CO H [ 2 ] Ca [ 2 ] H [
- 2
3
-
3 3 3 2
2
+ + + + +
+ +
(17)
From the above equations describing the conditions of ion equilibrium, finally we obtain as,
[ ]
0 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 2
2 H 2 2 ] H [ C C K S S S
w
+ + + + +
+ +
(18)
Using eq.(18), the concentration of proton in pore solutions can be calculated at arbitrary
stage, once the concentration of calcium hydroxide and that of carbonic acid before dissociation
are given.
It has been reported that micro-pore structure in cementitious materials would be changed
due to carbonation. In this paper, the authors use an empirical set of equations that are proposed by
Saeki et al. as [15],
( )
6 . 0 0.5
0 . 1 0.6
2
2 2
Ca(OH)
Ca(OH) Ca(OH)

< <
R
R R
(19)
where, ; porosity after carbonation, R
Ca(OH)2
; the ratio of the amount of consumed Ca(OH)
2
for
the total amount of Ca(OH)
2
.

Micro-Cell Based Corrosion Model
In this section, we introduce the general scheme of micro-cell corrosion model based on
thermodynamics and electro-chemistry. In our modeling, it has been assumed that the steel
corrosion would occur uniformly over the surface areas of the reinforcing bars in a finite volume,
whereas the formation of pits due to localized attack of chlorides and the corrosion with macro
cell remains for future study. For making it possible to treat the formation of macro cell, we
understand that it is necessary to consider magneto-electrical field governed by Maxwells
principle as well as the mass, momentum and energy conservations. Fig.6 shows the flow of the
computation of corrosion rate. When we consider the micro-cell based corrosion, it can be
assumed that the area of anode is equal to that of cathode and they are not separated from each
other. Therefore, we do not treat the electrical conductivity of concrete, which governs the
macroscopic transfer of ions in pore water.
First of all, electric potential of corrosion cell is obtained from the ambient temperature, pH
in pore solution and partial pressure of oxide, which are calculated by other subroutine in the
system. The potential of half-cell can be expressed with the Nernst equation as [16],
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
+
+
+

+
2
Fe Fe Fe
Fe
2
ln
Pt aq Fe s Fe
h F z RT E E
e

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) pH P P F z RT E E
e
06 . 0 ln
aq OH 4 Pt 4 l O H 2 g O
2
O 2
2
O
2
O
O
-
2 2
+
+ +

(20)
where, E
Fe
; standard cell potential of Fe, anode (V, SHE), E
O2
; standard cell potential of O
2
,
cathode (V, SHE), E

Fe
; standard cell potential of Fe at 25 (=-0.44V,SHE), E

O2
; standard cell
potential of O
2
at 25 (=0.40V,SHE), z
Fe
; the number of charge of Fe ions (=2), z
O2
; the number
of charge of O
2
(=2), P

; atmospheric pressure. Strictly speaking, the solution of other ions in pore

water might affect the electric potential of cell. However, it is difficult to consider the effect of ion
solutions on the half-cell potentials, therefore we adopt the above equations, assuming the ideal
conditions.
Next, based on the thermo-dynamical conditions, the condition of passive layers is evaluated
by the Pourbaix diagram, which shows that there are conditions where steel corrodes, areas where
protective oxides form, and an area of immunity to corrosion depending upon the pH and the
potential of the steel. From the electric potential and the formation of passive layers, electric
current that involves chemical reaction can be calculated so that conservation law of electric
Computation of
electric potential of
corrosion cell
Temperature
pH in pore solution
Partial pressure of O
2
Evaluation of the condition
of the passivity
Computation of the
corrosion rate
EpH in pore solution
EConcentration of Cl
-
ions
EAmount of dissolved O
2
in pore water
ETemperature
EAmount of steel
corrosion
EAmount of
consumed O
2
Output
Fig.6 Overall scheme of corrosion
computation
logi
a
log|i
c
|
E
O2
E
Fe
Logi
0
of Fe
logi
corr
zF RT 303 . 2
[V]
E
corr
Tafel gradient
Logi
0
of O
2
Fig.7 The relationship between electric current
and voltage for anode and cathode
charge should be satisfied in a local area (Fig.7). The relationship between electric current and
voltage for anode and cathode can be expressed by the following Nernst equation as,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 O
c
0 Fe
a
log 5 . 0 303 . 2 log 5 . 0 303 . 2
2
i i F z RT i i F z RT
c a
(21)
where,
a
; overvoltage at anode [V],
c
; overvoltage at cathode [V], F; Faradays constant, i
a
;
electric current density at anode [A/m
2
], i
c
; electric current density at cathode [A/m
2
]. Corrosion
current I
corr
can be obtained as the point of intersection of two lines. The existence of passive layer
reduces the corrosion progress. In this model, this phenomena is described by changing the Tafel
gradient.
When the amount of oxygen supplied to the reaction is not enough, the rate of corrosion
would be controlled by the diffusion process of oxygen. In this paper, coupling with oxygen
transport model, this phenomenon can be simulated. The detailed discussion on the formulations
of the oxygen is omitted for lack of space, since they are almost same as those of carbon dioxide
[17]. Finally, using the Faradays law, electric current of corrosion is converted to the rate of steel
corrosion.
It has to be noted that these models are only derived from the thermodynamics and
electrochemistry, and the authors understand that further development and improvement are still
needed thorough various verification of corrosion phenomena in real concrete structures.

CONTINUUM MECHANICS OF MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES -- COM3 --
For simulating structural behaviors
expressed by displacement, deformation,
stresses and macro-defects of materials in
view of continuum plasticity, fracturing and
cracking, well established continuum
mechanics can be used as illustrated in Fig.8.
The compatibility condition, equilibrium and
constitutive modeling of material mechanics
are the basis and the spatial averaging of
overall defects in control volume of finite
element is incorporated into the constitutive
model of quasi-continuum. The authors
adopted a 3D finite element computer code
named COM3 for structural dynamics,
which has been also developed at the
University of Tokyo for static as well as
dynamic ultimate limit states [2][3].
This frame of structural mechanics has
an inter-link with thermo-hygro physics in
terms of mechanical performances of
materials through the constitutive modeling
in both space and time. In this study, the
instantaneous stiffness, short-term strengths
Ti me
( days)
10 10 10 10 10 10
- 1 0 1 2 3 4
Service Starts
External
Loads
Environment (weather)
effects
Reinforcements
Macro
Cracks
10
10 -1,-2
10-6
Shear stress transfer
across crack
Yield
Stress of steel
Strain
of steel
St ress
Strai n
Crack
Comp.
Tension
Fig.8 Macro-scale defects and micro-scale pore
structures
of concrete in tension and compression, free volumetric contraction rooted in coupled water loss
and self-desiccation caused by varying pore sizes are considered in the creep constitutive
modeling of liner convolution integral (Fig.8). The volumetric change provoked by the hydration
in progress and water loss is physically tied with surface tension force developing inside the
micro-capillary pores. Of course, the micro-pore size distribution and moisture balance of
thermo-dynamic equilibrium are given from the code DuCOM at each time step.
The cracking is the most important damage index associated with mass transport inside the
targeted structures. Cracks are assumed to be induced normal to the maximum principal stress
direction in 3D extent when the tensile principal stress exceeds the tensile strength of concrete. As
stated before, the strength is numerically evaluated from the degree of micro structural formation.
In reality, the explicit relation of the specific strength and formed porosity with intrinsic sizes is
adopted in this study. After crack initiation, the tension softening on progressive crack planes is
taken into account in the form of fracture mechanics. In the reinforced concrete zone, in which
bond stress transfer is expected being effective, the tension stiffness model is brought together.
Since the external load level, with which the environmental action be coupled in design, is rather
lower than the ultimate limit states, compression induced damage accompanying dispersed
micro-cracking is disregarded in this study.

UNIFICATION OF THERMO-PHYSICS OF MATERIALS AND MECHANICS OF
STRUCTURES
For numerical evaluation of the total
structural and material performances, we
propose the dual parallel processing of coupling
two sub-systems shown in Fig. 9 [17]. This
system can be embodied on the multitask
operation system. In this framework, constituent
sub-systems, which have different schemes to
solve the different governing equations, dont
need to be combined into a single process. The
operation system manages the job of each system,
and two sub-systems are connected by
high-speed signal bus or networks so as to
mutually share the common data information.
First, material properties are calculated by
DuCOM. After one step of execution, calculated
results, such as temperature, water content, pore
pressure, pore structure, stiffness, and strength,
are stored in the common data area. After that, a
signal is sent to the sleeping process (COM3) to
start execution. COM3 that becomes active reads the information from the common data area and
performs the stress computation. In this analysis, the damage level of RC member is obtained, and
calculated results are written in the common area after its execution. These steps are continued till
DuCOM
Standby
Write
Read
Calculation
COM3
Calculation
considering
crack damage
Standby
Standby
Write
Read
Repeat until final step
Calculation
considering
different
properties
Common
storage area
Strength,stiffness,
temperature,water
content,and pore
pressure,etc..
Degree of
damage
Shape, size
restraint
condition
Initial and
boundary
conditions
Fig. 9 Parallel processing of DuCOM and
COM3
one of the processes completes its computation. Following these procedures, each FE program can
share the computational results between two systems at each gauss point in each finite element.
The chief advantage of unifying material and structural analysis in this manner is numerical
stability of explicit scheme. Furthermore, this coupling method under multi-task operation enables
engineers to easily link independently developed computer codes even if being written by
different computer languages and algorithms. As a matter of fact, slight modification for data
exchange with the common memory space through high-speed bus is needed with a short system
manager program alone.

NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
Chloride Transport into Concrete Under Cyclic Drying-Wetting Condition
Using the proposed method, transport of chloride ion under alternate drying wetting
conditions were simulated. It has been confirmed in the past research that the concentration of
chloride near the surface layer is higher than that of the solution when a concrete specimen is
submerged in it. This phenomenon cannot be explained by the diffusion theory alone. In order to
consider this behavior, we use the ion adsorption model in the surface layer proposed by Maruya
et al. This model expresses the flux of chloride ions driven by the gradient of electrical force; the
positive charge at the pore surface draws chloride ions that have negative electric charges.
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
After 28days
Distance from the surface [m]
Chloride content [wt% of cement]
Total chloride
Free chloride
Diffusion only
Markers : Test data (Maruya et al.)
Drying 7days
Cl ion:0.51[mol/l]
Wetting 7days
Lines : Computation
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
After 28days
Distance from the surface [m]
Chloride content [wt% of cement]
Total chloride
Free chloride
Diffusion +
Advective transport
Markers : Test data (Maruya et al.)
Drying 7days
Cl ion:0.51[mol/l]
Wetting 7days
Lines : Computation
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
After 182days
Distance from the surface [m]
Chloride content [wt% of cement]
Diffusion only
Total chloride
Free chloride
Markers : Test data (Maruya et al.)
Drying 7days
Cl ion:0.51[mol/l]
Wetting 7days
Lines : Computation
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
After 182days
Distance from the surface [m]
Chloride content [wt% of cement]
Total chloride
Free chloride
Diffusion +
Advective transport
Markers : Test data (Maruya et al.)
Drying 7days
Cl ion:0.51[mol/l]
Wetting 7days
Lines : Computation
Fig.10 Chloride content profile in concrete exposed to cyclic wetting and drying
For verification, the experimental data by Maruya et al. were used [11]. The size of mortar
specimens were 5510 [cm] and the water to powder ratio was 50%. After 28 days of sealed
curing, the specimens were exposed to cyclic alternate drying (7 days) and wetting (7 days) cycles.
The drying condition was 60%RH, whereas the wetting was exposed to a chloride solution of 0.51
[mol/l] at 20. In the FEM analysis, mix proportions and the chemical composition of the
cements (C
3
A, C
4
AF, C
3
S, C
2
S, and gypsum) were given. The curing conditions and exposure
conditions were also given as boundary conditions for the target structures. All of these input
values corresponded to the experimental conditions. Fig.10 shows the distribution of free and
bound chlorides from the boundary surface. For comparison, we analyzed two cases; one
considering only diffusive movement and the other including the advective transport due to the
bulk movement of pore water as well as the diffusion process. As shown in the analytical results,
the distribution of bound and free chlorides can be reasonably simulated with advective transport
due to the rapid suction of pore water under wetting phase.














Fig.11 Carbonation phenomena for different CO
2
concentrations and W/C













Fig.12 Carbonation phenomena for different CO
2
concentrations and W/C
0 100 200 300 400
0
10
20
30
40
Time[Days]
Depth of carbonation[mm]
CO2=1%
RH=55%
W/C50% W/C60% W/C70%
Markers Lines
Experiment [9] Computation
0 100 200 300 400
0
20
40
60
80
100
Time[days]
Depth of carbonation[mm]
CO2=10%
RH=55%
W/C50% W/C60% W/C70%
Markers Lines
Experiment [9] Computation
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
5
10
15
20
W/C65%
W/C55%
RH :80%
CO2:10%
Depth of carbonation[mm]
Time[days]
Markers Lines
Experiment Computation
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
5
10
15
20
W/C65%
W/C55%
RH :50%
CO2:10%
Depth of carbonation[mm]
Time[days]
Markers Lines
Experiment Computation
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
W/C50%
CO2:3%
Structural age until cracking due to corrosion [year]
Cover depth [mm]
W/C60%
W/C40%
60%RH 10days
99%RH 10days
Cl ion:0.51[mol/l]
Carbonation Phenomena in concrete
In this section, computations were performed to predict the progress of carbonation for
different CO
2
concentrations, relative humidity, and water to cement ratio. The amount of
Ca(OH)
2
existing in cementitious materials can be obtained by multi-component hydration model
as [6][7],
( ) ( )
( )
6 3 2 4
2 3 2 3 2 2 3 2 3 3
AH C 10H OH 2Ca AF C
OH Ca H S C 4H S 2C OH 3Ca H S C 6H S 2C
+ +
+ + + +
(22)
When blast furnace slag and fly ash are used, Ca(OH)
2
will be consumed during hydration. The
consumption ratios of slag and fly ash reactions are assumed to be 22% and 100% of reacted mass,
respectively, in this analysis [6][7].
First, the accelerated carbonation tests were studied. For verification, the experimental data
done by Uomoto et al were used [18]. Fig.11 shows the comparison of analytical results and
empirical formula that was regressed with
the square root t equation. Similar to the
previous case, all of the input values in the
analysis corresponded to the experimental
conditions. Analytical results show the
relationship between the depth of concrete in
which pH in pore water becomes less than
10.0 and exposed time. The simulations can
roughly predict the progress of carbonation
for different CO
2
concentration and water to
powder ratio.
Next, we studied the influence of the
ambient relative humidity on the progress of
carbonation. In the acceleration test,
specimens were exposed to 50%RH and













Fig.14 Time till first signs of cracking due to
corrosion for concrete












Fig.13 Distribution of pH, calcium hydroxide and calcium carbonate under the action of carbonic acid.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
Distance from the surface [cm]
pH CO2 [mol/l]
After 1800days
W/C=25%
W/C=55%
pH
CO2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
Distance from the surface [cm]
Ca(OH)2 [kg/m3] CaCO3 [mol/l]
Ca(OH)2
CaCO3
After 1800days
W/C=25%
W/C=55%
80%RH with CO
2
concentrations of 10%. As shown in Fig.12, analysis can reasonably follow the
experimental data for different W/C and environmental conditions.
Fig.13 shows the distribution of pH in pore water, CO
2
, calcium hydroxide, and calcium
carbonate inside concrete, exposed to the CO
2
concentration of 3%. Two different water to powder
ratio, W/C=25% and 50%, were analyzed. It can be shown that higher resistance for the carbonic
acid action is achieved in the case of low W/C.

Numerical Simulation of Coupled Carbonation and Chloride Induced Corrosion
Corrosion of steel in concrete due to simultaneous attack of chloride ions and carbon dioxide
were simulated. One-dimensional concrete members that have three different water to powder
ratio, W/C=40, 50, 60%, with only one face exposed to the environment were considered. In this
analysis, the stage where concrete cracking occurs was defined as a limit state with respect to the
steel corrosion. The progressive period until the initiation of longitudinal cracking were estimated
by the equation proposed by Yokozeki et al [19] . which is a function of cover depth. Fig.14 shows
the relationships between cover depth and structural age until cracking due to corrosion obtained
by the proposed thermo-hygro system. It can be seen that the concrete nearer to the exposure
surface would show early sign of corrosion induced cracking, and low W/C concrete has a higher
























Fig.15 Moisture and internal stress distribution in concrete exposed to drying condition
Restrained x and
y displacements
Restrained in
all directions
Mass/energy
transfer from
surface element
2.0
4.0
6.0
10.0
Unit
[cm]
8.0
1.0
1.0
x
y
z
60cm
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
Distance from the surface[cm]
Water content[kg/m3]
Single calculation
Parallel calculation
1.0
0
t t
f
30 [cm]
Cracked element(Softening zone)
2.3 days dried
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
Distance from the surface[cm]
Water content[kg/m3]
Single calculation
Parallel calculation
12.9 days dried
1.0
0 30 [cm]
Cracked element(Softening zone)
t t
f
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
Distance from the surface[cm]
Water content[kg/m3]
Single calculation
Parallel calculation
Cracked element(Softening zone)
35.0 days dried
1.0
0
t t
f
30 [cm]
resistance against corrosion.

Moisture Distribution in Cracked Concrete
In the following sections, in order to show the possibility of the unification of structure and
durability design, several primitive simulations were conducted by using the proposed parallel
computational system. First case study is moisture loss behavior in cracked concrete. It has been
reported that there would be close relationship between the moisture conductivity and the damage
level of cracked concrete, that is, moisture conductivity would be dependent on the crack width, or
the continuity of each cracking. The proposed system, in which the information can be shared
between thermo-hygro and structural mechanics system, can describe this aspect quantitatively by
considering the inter-relationship between the moisture conductivity and properties of cracking.
For representing the acceleration of drying out of concrete due to cracking, the following model
proposed by Shimomura were used in this analysis [20].

'

+ + +
+

king after crac J J J J

cking before cra J J
J
cr
L
cr
V L V
L V
w


(23)
where, J
w
is the total mass flux of water in concrete, J
V
and J
L
are mass flux of vapor and liquid in
non-damaged concrete respectively, and J
V
cr
and J
L
cr
are mass flux of the vapor and liquid water
through cracks. In this simulation, only J
V
cr
is taken into account for the first approximation, since
diffusion of vapor would be predominant when concrete are exposed to drying conditions. From
the experimental study done by Shimomura et al., it has been confirmed that the flux J
V
cr
can be
expressed as [21],
h D J
a V
cr
V
(24)
where, ; average strain of cracked concrete, which can be computed by COM3,
V
; density of
vapor, D
a
; vapor diffusivity in free atmosphere, h; relative humidity. This formulation assumes
elastic deformation of uncracked region in tension to be small compared with crack opening.
The target structure in this analysis is a concrete slab, which has 30% water to powder ratio
using medium heat cement. The volume of aggregate was 70%. After 3 days of sealed curing, the
specimen was exposed to 50%RH. Fig. 15 shows the mesh layout and the restraint condition used
in this analysis.
Fig.15 shows the cracked elements, the distribution of moisture, and normalized tensile stress
at each point from the boundary surface exposed to drying condition. Moisture distribution
calculated without stress analysis is also shown in Fig.15. As shown in the results, the crack
occurs from the element near the surface, and the crack progresses internally with the progress of
drying. It is also shown that the amount of moisture loss becomes large due to cracking.

Ingress of Chloride Ion in RC Beam Damaged by External Load
The second case is the numerical simulation about the ingress of chloride ion in RC beam
damaged by external load. Fig 16 shows the size of the beam, layout of FE mesh and load
condition used in this analysis. The reinforcement ratio is 0.96%. For FE analysis of RC structures,
AN proposed the model which combines the nonlinearity of cracked concrete in RC zone and
plain concrete zone (PL zone) [22]. In this analysis also, we considered two different zones in RC
beams to take into account the difference of concrete mechanics near or far from reinforcing bars
(Fig.16). As for the mix proportion given to DuCOM, water to cement ratio is 45%, and the
volume of aggregate is 65%. After 7 days of sealed curing, load is applied with displacement
control. Fig.17 shows the load-deflection relationship and cracked elements due to bending.
After loading, behaviors of chloride transport into damaged RC beam were simulated. The
bottom surface of the beam is exposed to the concentration of chloride ion 1.4 [mol/l] under







Fig.16 Mesh layout and load condition used in FE analysis



























Fig.17 Distribution of chloride ion in damaged RC beam due to external load
90
20
15
10
13
p=0.96%
Unit [cm]
RC Zone
PL Zone
Load
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Deflection at the center section [mm]
Load [tf]
a b c
Crack occurs
at the bottom
Cracked elements
due to bending
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Distance from the bottom [cm]
Chloride content [Wt% of cement]
Ingress of chloride ion
Load
Without consideration
of cracks and mass
transport coupling
Cracked elements
due to bending
a
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Distance from the bottom [cm]
Chloride content [Wt% of cement]
Ingress of chloride ion
Load
Without consideration
of cracks and mass
transport coupling
Cracked elements
due to bending
b
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Distance from the bottom [cm]
Chloride content [Wt% of cement]
Ingress of chloride ion
Load
Without consideration
of cracks and mass
transport coupling
Cracked elements
due to bending
c
alternate drying (7days) and wetting (7days) cycles. Wetting is simulated by an environmental
relative humidity of 99.9%, whereas drying condition is given as 50%RH. During wetting stage,
the moisture flux through cracked area cannot be negligible, since cracks would cause the rapid
suction of pore water. However, there has not been enough knowledge to quantify this aspect yet.
Therefore, liquid conductivity after cracking was roughly assumed becoming to 10 times before
cracking. Fig.17 shows each distribution of chloride ion at point a, b and c. The parallel simulation
clearly shows deeper ingress of chloride ion within 100 days, compared to the results without
considering cracks and mass transport coupling. It can be also seen that the amount of ingress of
chloride ion increases near the center section, since in cracked element the bulk movement of
chloride ion in pore water can easily take place.

CONCLUSIONS
The numerical simulation system that can evaluate structural behaviors under coupled forces
and environmental actions was proposed in this paper. This system consists of two computational
system, that is, one is a thermo-hygro system that covers microscopic phenomena in C-S-H gel
and capillary pores, and the other is structural analysis system, which deal with macroscopic stress
and deformational field.
In thermo-hygro system, generation and transfer of heat, moisture, gas and ions in micro-pore
structures were formulated based on thermodynamics and electrochemistry. Coupling these
materials modeling, an early age development process and deterioration phenomenon during the
service period can be evaluated for arbitrary materials, curing and environmental conditions in a
unified manner. Numerical verifications show that this method can roughly predict ingress of ion,
carbonation and corrosion phenomena for different materials, curing and environmental
conditions.
The macroscopic structural behaviors were linked with both the microphysical phenomenon
and external load and restraint conditions. In this paper, the unification of mechanics and
thermo-dynamics of materials and structures has been made. Though each component in this
system are crudely simplified and further progress and development is still needed for
accomplishing entire system, the system dynamics of micro-scale pore structure formation and
macro-scale defects and deformation of structures can be shown as a possible approach in this
study.

REFERENCES

1
K. Maekawa, R. P. Chaube, and T. Kishi, Modeling of Concrete Performance, E&FN
SPON, 1999.
2
K. Maekawa, P. Irawan and H. Okamura, Path-dependent Three Dimensional Constitutive
Laws of Reinforced Concrete Formation and Experimental Verifications, Structural
Engineering and Mechanics, Vol.15, No.6, pp.743-754, 1997.
3
H. Okamura and K. Maekawa, Nonlinear Analysis and Constitutive Models of Reinforced
Concrete, Gihodo, Tokyo 1991.
4
R. Mabrouk, T. Ishida, and K. Maekawa, Solidification model of hardening concrete
composite for predicting creep and shrinkage of concrete, Proceedings of the JCI, Vol.20, No.2,
pp.691-696 1998.
5
http://concrete.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/demos/ducom/index.html, Concrete Laboratory, University
of Tokyo, 1996-1999.
6
Kishi, T. and Maekawa, K. Multi-component model for hydration heating of portland
cement, Concrete Library of JSCE, No.28, pp. 97-115, 1996.
7
Kishi, T. and Maekawa, K., Multi-component model for hydration heating of blended cement
with blast furnace slag and fly ash, Concrete Library of JSCE, No.30, pp. 125-139, 1997.
8
Chaube, R.P. and Maekawa, K. A study of the moisture transport process in concrete as a
composite material, Proc. of the JCI, Vol. 16, No.1, pp.895-900, 1994.
9
Chaube, R.P. and Maekawa, K. A permeability model of concrete considering its
microstructual characteristics, Proc. of the JCI, Vol. 18, No.1, pp. 927-932, 1996.
10
Ishida, T., Chaube, R.P., Kishi, T. and Maekawa, K., Modeling of pore water content in
concrete under generic drying wetting conditions, Concrete Library of JSCE, No.31, pp. 275-287,
1998.
11
T. Maruya, S. Tangtermsirikul, and Y. Matsuoka, Modeling of Chloride Ion Movement in
the Surface Layer of Hardened Concrete, Concrete Library of JSCE, No.32, pp.69-84, 1998.
12
O. E. Gjrv and K. Sakai, Testing of Chloride Diffusivity for Concrete, Proceedings of
the International Conference on Concrete under Severe Conditions, CONSEC95, pp.645-654,
1995.
13
J. R. Welty, C. E. Wicks and R.E. Wilson, Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat, and Mass
transfer, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1969.
14
H. Freiser and Q. Fernando, Ionic Equilibria in Analytical Chemistry, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., (1963).
15
T. Saeki, H. Ohga and S. Nagataki, Mechanism of Carbonation and Prediction of
Carbonation Process of Concrete, Concrete Library of JSCE, No.17, pp.23-36, 1991.
16
West, J.M., Corrosion and oxidation, Sangyo-tosyo, 1983.
17
Ishida, T., An integrated computational system of mass/energy generation, transport and
mechanics of materials and structures, PhD thesis submitted to University of Tokyo, 1999 (In
Japanese).
18
T. Uomoto and Y. Takada, Factors Affecting Concrete Carbonation Ratio, Concrete
Library of JSCE, No.21, pp.31-44, 1993.
19
K. Yokozeki, K. Motohashi, K. Okada and T. Tsutsumi, A Rational Model to Predict the
Service Life of RC Structures in Marine Environment, Forth CANMET/ACI International
Conference on Durability of Concrete, SP170-40, pp.777-798, 1997.
20
T. Shimomura, Modelling of Initial Defect of Concrete due to Drying Shrinkage,
Concrete Under Severe Conditions 2, CONSEC 98, Vol.3, pp.2074-2083, 1998.
21
T. Nishi, T. Shimomura and H. Sato, Modeling of Diffusion of Vapor Within Cracked
Concrete, Proceedings of the JCI, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp.859-864, 1999 (In Japanese).
22
X. An, K. Maekawa and H. Okamura, Numerical Simulation of Size Effect in Shear
Strength of RC Beams, Proceedings of JSCE, No.564, V-35, pp.297-316, 1997.