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For the Republic of Ireland to meet the European Parliament directive 2002/91/EC which places a duty on building developers to design, build and operate structures that meet the sustainability criteria set in the directive - the architecture, engineering, construction and facilities management (AEC/FM) industry must take up and practice green building systems that promote total integration of the construction process. Green building is the process of producing a constructed facility that encompasses ultimate energy efficiency, forward-thinking resources management, and general sustainable construction. Achieving green building, however, requires an integrated team; combining a wide range of different specialists through in-depth collaboration so that the complexity of trade-offs between architectural features, building services and other factors can be reached. The aim of the research has been: (i) to highlight the availability and use of software systems in the Irish construction cost consultancy; and (ii) to gather views from practicing professionals on how the available systems could ease the implementation of total cost management of green buildings. The research concludes that the industry is well poised to move into the next generation of surveyors that would fully participate in the envisaged green construction industry; and that development in the ICT complement the traditional competencies of Quantity Surveying. KEYWORDS: cost management, information Technology, sustainable construction, traditional quantity surveying
INTRODUCTION
The Irish construction industry operates in a similar pattern to most international industries in the developed world. From design to construction, various professionals use complex tools and techniques to optimise client requirements. The most recent key requirement for most clients has been to meet the European Parliament directive 2002/91/EC [which places a duty on building developers to design, build and operate structures that meet the sustainability criteria set in the directive (Morrissey, ODonnell, Keane, and Bazjanac, 2004)]. Meaning, construction professionals must take up and practice green building systems that promote total integration of the construction process. By definition, green building or sustainable building is the process of producing a constructed facility that encompass ultimate energy efficiency, forwardthinking resources management, and general sustainable construction (Rajgor, 2004). Achieving green building, however, requires an integrated team; combining a wide range of different specialists through in-depth collaboration so that the complexity of trade-offs between architectural features, value and cost, building services and other factors can be reached (Sorrell, 2003). This research is part of a strategic approach to implementing green building practices, by promoting an early convergence of professional work in the building product delivery process. It demonstrates that while there is a thesis that new developments in ICT systems are virtually damping the traditional competencies of quantity surveying, the picture in Quantity Surveying Practice is opposite: in that more traditional competencies of quantity surveying are sought so as to increase the speed, accuracy and reliability of the manipulation and analysis of data created using ICT systems.
efficiencies of later phases; that is why its crucial to include a Quantity Surveyor at design stage (Ibid). Life-cycle cost analysis an increasingly accepted analytical method that calculates costs over the useful or anticipated life of an asset reveals that low up-front expenditures, though easier to finance at building inception, can result in much higher costs over the life of a building or system (Ashworth and Hogg, 2002). There are generally two complementary ways to achieving integration in the project team, so as to implement green building practices: (i) by business relationships between firms; and (ii) by identifying, and using the right technological tools and techniques that can facilitate the smooth running of the integrated team. The latter is the focus of this research.
Operational Islands created when professional specialisation is superimposed on product development systems of the built environment
Quantity Surveyor
Project Manager
Construction Manager
Contractor, Sub-Contractors,
Facilities Mgmt
Design Stage
Construction Stage
Operation Stage
Figure 1: Operational Islands Created by Superimposing Operational Specialisation on Industrial Segmentation [Adapted: Kerzner, 2003]
Figure 1 abstracts the type of traditional cost models mapped against the generic design stages, and examples of how cost models are used at various stages. Using Figure 1 it can be observed that the cost modeller requires not only design data but also historical cost information about the product. However, practical implementation of the examination of the economic benefits and environmental ramifications of green buildings, with life-cycle assessments is extremely harder when using traditional project appraisal systems that are endemic in most construction industries (Erlandsson and Borg, 2003; Osso et al, 1996). Quantity surveyors realise that actual calculations of the buildings total economic and environmental impact and performance from material
extraction and product manufacture to product transportation building design and construction, and operations and maintenance, and building reuse or disposal (Sorrell 2003) can be taxing. For instance, the general cost management of projects that are highly mechanical and electrical [M & E] in nature is assigned to M & E firms; mainly by way of provisional and or prime cost sums because of the specialised nature of the mechanical and electrical profession, making it extremely difficult and risky for the Quantity Surveyors to manage such costs. The more complex project become, the higher the demand for better cost modelling tools for the quantity surveyor (Sorrell, 2003). This development, among other factors, has led to the changing role of the cost consultant the world over. There are complex LCA systems used as powerful decision making support tools (Erlandsson and Borg, 2003), such as the BREs Envest; which is a system based on the top down approach, because it has been developed for use in the design phase of a building project. Most programs, however, are still user unfriendly due to the shear amount of data required to appraise a design. However, it is envisaged that emerging software would boost project appraisal and analysis, from the aspects of time, cost, performance and market value; and enhance the work of a quantity surveyor.
If integrated, cost modelling systems can be important to the business of Quantity Surveying because they help professionals achieve total cost management of a constructed facility a concept which supports green building (Figure 2). As a result computing power [information and communication technology (ICT)] is inevitable in the cost consultancy sector of any construction industry because it increases the speed to capture, analyse and share data to facilitate decision making.
Data User
Example
Cost/Bed; Cost/Student
Brief Stage
Sketch Design
Unit
Space
Element
Detailed Design
Quantity Surveyor
Cost/m2 of Gross Floor Area Cost/m2 of Functional Space Cost/m3 of Building Volume
80-100%
60-80%
Features
Standard Methods of Measurements Items (CESMM or SMM7, or Standard WBS)
40-60%
Bill of Quantities
20-40%
Working Drawings
Operations
Contractor
Resources
Figure 2: Type of Cost Models Mapped against Generic Design Stages [Adapted: Ferry et al, 2003]
Figure 3: Abstraction of nD Model used for What if Cost analysis (Source: Tanyer and Aouad, 2005)
Unlike 3D and 4D models that represent building information contained within several document formats (Figure 3), nD models tend to be databases constructed with intelligent objects which represent building elements (Lee and Sexton, 2007). From this central database, different views of the information can be generated automatically (ibid). nD modelling builds upon the concept of 4D modelling, and aims to integrate an nth number of design dimensions to a holistic model, which would enable users to construct and visualise the building over its complete lifecycle (ibid). Using a survey, Lee and Sexton (2007) found out that the nD modelling technology was considered as potentially useful, but not sufficiently proven to risk disrupting current ways of working, and existing technology infrastructure (ibid). Potential pitfalls associated with the deployment of an inappropriate or ineffective ICT system is one of the key factors contributing to the low levels of investment
in ICT within the construction industry (White, 2007); as is the case with Lee and Sextons (2007) survey. However, it is envisaged that ICT systems will take the form of fully integrated and intelligent enterprise systems that could profoundly change the shape of the industry (Figure 4); more so with the intelligence being imposed upon many of the industrys unintelligent processes in the form of the building product models and other interoperable, digitally formatted building standards (White, 2007). Therefore, it was important to collect primary data pertaining to the Quantity Surveying business in Ireland.
% O F T O T A L
100 100% of the costs are committed 80
80% of the costs are committed by design decisions, when only a limited % of engineering is complete Spending Curve
C O S T
0 Process Design Detailed Engineering
Equipment Manufacturing
Construction
Figure 4: Project Expenditure Commitment Curve v Project Spending Curve [Source: Kinney and Soubiran, 2004]
Sampling Design
By definition, simple random sampling is a form of sampling design in which n distinct units selected from N units in the population in such a way that every possible combination of n units is equally likely to be the sample selected (Everitt, 1998). Stratified random sampling therefore is the random sampling from each strata of a population after stratification (Ibid). The population for this research was naturally stratified, by the Society for the Chartered Surveyors of Ireland (2004) according to the county where a firm operated from. (i) Cork; (ii) Dublin; (iii) Waterford; (iv) Limerick; and (v) Galway. However, companies that had outlets in more than a single country were only represented by their headquarters. Stratified sampling was used because it ensures that different groups of a population are adequately represented in the sample so that the level of accuracy in estimating parameters is increased (Nachimias and Nachimias, 1992). The aim was to achieve a total population (N) of fifty (50) respondents so as to increase the chances of a high response rate. Twenty three (23) responded, or a 46% response rate. Even though a higher response rate could have been desired, data collection proved extremely sluggish despite all four methods of questionnaire distribution namely: (i) Postal mail; (ii) Electronic mail; (iii) Web-link hosted by a private consultant; and (iv) personal delivery. The presentation and eventual analysis of the results from the survey follow the sequence of questions set in the questionnaire so that the clarity of the research is enhanced.
Breakdown of Respondents
60% 57%
50%
40%
Responce
30%
17% 13%
0% Quantity Surveyor SNR Quantity Surveyor Managing Director Others Official Position in the Firm
Project Specialisation
Within the industry, certain firms specialise in building related works, while others specialise in refurbishments and/or repair works. Because of the complexity, and in most cases, the specialised nature of Mechanical and Electrical [M&E] projects, some Quantity Surveying companies tend to apportion the overall cost management of such projects to the M&E specialists; using lump-sums or prime cost sums. Other Quantity Surveying firms have dedicated professionals specialised in M&E works. A fair amount companies that offer M&E cost management. Some of the M&E installations include HVAC systems for buildings. Because such installations have a huge impact on the initial as well as overall financial investment, it becomes essential that prudent economic simulations are carried out so as to assess the likely return on investment prior to committing finances. It is therefore important for any Quantity Surveying firm, with or without M&E specialists, to carefully analyse and appraise the financial and economic prudence of design decisions on M&E systems. Most Quantity Surveying firms can handle assorted projects type ranging from civil to refurbishment. This could be attributed to the generic nature of the profession, which most cases, allows consultants to manage the costs of projects irrespective of their size, type and complexity, using the same principles of total cost management. It is could therefore be argued that the industry is well poised to manage any sort of project, as is evidenced from the respondents view.
from drawings: also referred to as costing a design. However, respondents were of the view that Quantity Surveying is highly essential at all stages of the project life cycle. The preliminary stage as well as the design and construction stage had the highest scores. Kinney and Soubiran (2004) argued that 80% of the cost of the project is committed at about 20% stage of the project life cycle. This phenomenon shows that it is crucial to analyse design options, not only from the aesthetic point of view, but also from the financial, economic, and build-ability points of view; and the overall anticipated impact [positive or otherwise] of the proposed development, at an early stage.
10
All Stages
Operarion
Construction
Figure 6: Rating the Project Stage at which Available Software is Crucially Important
Thirty nine (39%) percent felt the systems totally encouraged information sharing, while twenty two (22%) felt the systems encouraged information sharing to a large extent. However, 26% felt that information sharing, though encouraged, was to a less extent; and 13% felt the software did not encourage information sharing. In terms of the extent they used the software for information sharing in the project team: 39% used the software at a high rate; 39% on an average rate; 17% on a low rate, and 4% never used the software. To test respondents consistency, they were asked to rate the extent to which available software discouraged information sharing. Fifty seven percent (57%) were of the view that the software did not discourage information sharing, while 43% felt the software discouraged information sharing; to a less extent. Because information sharing is pertinent to this research, it was important to establish correlations between selected sets of observations. According to Witte and Witte (1997) a positive relationship among pairs of observations tend to occupy similar relative positions in their respective distributions, while negative relationships tend to occupy dissimilar and opposite positions in their respective distributions. If however there is no regularity among the pairs of observations, it could be interpreted that there could be no significant relationships (Ibid). Even though a correlation coefficient, regardless of size, never provides information about whether an observed relationship reflects simple cause-effect relationship or some complex state of affairs, it is a prudent way to engage predictive measures of the trends using current body of knowledge. To describe correlation between quantitative data and qualitative data with two categories, assign arbitrary numerical codes, such as 0, 1, 2, 3, to the two qualitative categories then use the Pearson r formula, also known as a point bi-serial correlation coefficient. Alternatively, to describe the relationship between two qualitative variables, again assign arbitrary numerical codes to the categories of both qualitative variables and solve the formula in Equation 1, also designated as Crammers phi coefficient (Witte and Witte, 1997).
11
x y 2
Equation 1: Pearsons Correlation Coefficient Computation Formulae [Source: Witte and Witte, 1997; Microsoft Excel Functions, 2003]
The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to determine the consistency of respondents on information sharing resulted in: (a) Compare rating for the extent to which the software systems encourage information sharing with the usage of the software for actual information sharing at 0.70; Though positive, the correlation coefficient shows that even though respondents felt the software encouraged information sharing, they did not fully implement information sharing using the software. Because the observation data sets are relatively small, a higher positive correlation would have dispelled the inconsistency. (b) Compare the rating for the extent to which the software systems discourage information sharing with the usage of the software for actual information sharing at -0.99; The negative correlation coefficient reflects a more realistic picture of the perceptions because respondents felt the software did not discourage the use, hence perceptions and actual implementation of information sharing create a negative correlation, as is the case. The second research question assessed available software promotes information sharing; hence facilitate integrated and collaborative approach to business. There was a slight positive correlation between the usage of MS Excel and Buildsoft, calculated at 0.51 using the Pearsons coefficient. From the results, it could be deduced that the integration of software packages a key to cost management has not taken off on a big scale within the cost consultancy sector. As a result, encouraging software interoperability would even be more challenging. There were leading questions embedded in the survey where respondents were asked to comment: they include:
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REFERENCES
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