HEAT AND THE EFECT Scientist define heat as something transferred from higher temperature object to the lower

temperature object. If heat is received by an object, its temperature will increase. Otherwise if heat is released from an object its temperature will decrease. Heating up the water is a process of het giving to the water so that the temperature increase.

HEAT CAPACITY (C) If an object absorbs heat Q the temperature will increase T. The relationship between heat and the increasing temperature can be written as follows : then Q = C.T where C is heat capacity (J/K)

Heat capacity shows how much heat has been absorbed in each temperature increase. Heat capacity is not a specific property of a substance. The unit to express the quantity of heat is joule (J). Another unit of heat is calorie (cal) 1 cal = 4.186 J SPECIFIC HEAT (c) Specific heat is the heat capacity of 1 kg of substance and a specific property of a substance. = where c is specific heat (J.kg-1.K-1) m is mass of substance (kg) C is heat capacity (J.K-1) The relationship between absorbed heat and transferred heat by matter the alteration of temperature can also be written as : = . .

The value of specific heat of solid and liquid Substance Aluminum Copper Glass Iron or steel Lead Marble Silver Wood Specific heat (J/kg oC) 900 390 840 450 130 860 230 1,700 Substance Alcohol Mercury Water - Ice (5oC) - Liquid (15oC) - Vapor (110oC) Human body Protein Specific heat (J/kg oC) 2,400 140 2,100 4,200 2,010 3,470 1,700 1

The value of specific heat of gases Gas Water vapor Oxygen Helium Carbon dioxide Nitrogen Specific heat at constant pressure (cal/g oC) 0.48 0.218 1.15 0.199 0.248 Specific heat at constant volume (cal/g o C) 0.350 0.155 0.75 0.153 0.177

Energy of the heat can be transferred into electric energy and vice versa. Heat energy can be obtained from electric energy e.g., electric iron and electric lamp. The relationship between heat energy and electric energy is : = Where P is electric power (watt) T is time (second) Example : An electric heater which has power 3 kW is used to boil 1.5 kg water from its initial temperature 18oC. How much energy is needed to increase the temperature up to its boiling point ? How long will it take in time ? Solution : The energy that is needed to increase the temperature of water is : = . . . . = .

= 1.5 4,200 100 18 = 515,600 The time taken to reach its boiling point : = = 516,600 = 172 3,000

THE BLACK PRINCIPLE The Black Principle is an expression of energy conservation in a heat exchange of an isolated system. If some substance that have different temperatures are mixed and the exchange of heat can occur among them, the released heat of some substance is equal to the received heat by another. The Black Principle is a principle of the energy eternity in an isolated system. The amount of the energy released is equal to the amount of energy absorbed. Example : A piece of iron which has a mass of 10 kg and temperature of 20oC is inserted into the water with mass 8 kg and temperature 50oC. After the temperature of the iron reaches 30oC, the iron is pulled out of the water. What is the final temperature of the water ? (Specific heat of water is 1 kcal/g oC, and specific heat of iron is 0.11 kcal/g oC) Solution : Given miron = 10 kg Tiron = (30-20)oC ciron = 110 cal/kg oC = 1,000 cal/kg oC

mwater = 8 kg Heat absorb by the iron is : = . .

Twater = (50-Twater)oC cwater

= 10.110.10 = 11,000

Heat released by the water is : = . . = 8 1,000 50

According to the Black Principle : = 11,000 = 8,000 50 = 50 = 14.625oC

THERMAL EXPANSION 1. Linear thermal expansion 2. Area thermal expansion 3. Volume thermal expansion

STATE OF MATTER In macroscopic Gas state Fill a container of any shape by spreading out as much as possible Easy to be divided into small volume

Liquid state Liquids take on the shape of their container Liquid matter has a flat surface. That means a liquid is in between the solid and gas states of matter They do not expand to completely fill the space

Solid state It has its own shape and does not take on the shape of its container It is difficult to be divided into small parts

The volume is easily changed by outside pressure

It cant be easily bent or molded into a new shape even at high pressure

In microscopic Gas state Consist of the molecules that constantly move around and fill the space. This means gases always fill the shape of their container. The molecules are very far apart.

Liquid state Consist of the molecules that easily move. Consequently liquid matter takes on the shape of the container.

Inter atomic force can be avoided. Consequently gas is easy to be divided into small volume

The molecules are very close. Consequently the density of the liquid matter is large The inter atomic force is weak so the liquid can be divided into small parts.

Solid state Consist of molecules or atoms that are not free to go anywhere they want. Their movement are restricted only to vibrations around their position The molecules of the matter are very close together. This causes the density of solid to be constant. Inter atomic force is very strong. This makes the solid difficult to be divided into small parts. The stronger the inter atomic force the higher the toughness

PHASE TRANSITION Ice, water and vapor are indifferent phases. Ice is a solid state, water is liquid and vapor is a gas. The phase of matter will change if heat is given to it. We define the transition of the phases as : 1. Melting down Is the transition of a solid state to a liquid state. The temperature in this process is called the melting point. 2. Solidification Is the transition of a liquid state to a solid state. The temperature of this process is called the freezing point 3. Evaporation Is the transition of a liquid state to a gas solid. The temperature of this process is called the boiling point 4. Condensation

Is the transition of a gas state to a liquid state. This process is used to produce pure water by the distillation process. Fuel purification is also done through a distillation process. 5. Sublimation Is the transition of a solid state to a gas state. We can smell the camphor because of its phase transition. LATEN HEAT Is the heat that needs to change the state of each substance is different. 1. Latent heat of fusion (Lf) To fuse a solid matter at constant temperature and pressure we need an amount of heat. This is called the latent heat of fusion (Lf) which can be expressed as follows : = .

Where Q is energy required to change the phase (J) Lf is latent heat of fusion (J/kg) M is mass of solid matter (kg) Latent heat of fusion for various substance :

Substance Aluminum Copper Ice Iron Lead Silver Mercury Gold

Lf (kJ/kg) 397 134 334 289 23.2 88.2 11.5 64.4

The value of latent heat of fusion is equal to latent heat of solidification. 2. Latent heat of vaporization When a liquid substance is boiled, the temperature is unchanged even if heat is given to it. Energy that is required to evaporate a given mass m at constant temperature is : = . Where Lv is the latent heat of vaporization (J/kg). Latent heat of vaporization Substance Aluminum Copper Lv (kJ/kg) 11,400 5,060 6

Ice Iron Lead Silver Mercury Gold

2,260 6,340 870 2,330 2,970 1,580

Example : 1. The specific heat of ice, water and the latent heat of fusion of ice respectively are 2,100 J/kg oC, 4,200 J/kg oC, and 334 kJ/kg. How much energy is required to change 5 kg ice at -10oC to water with temperature 20oC ? Solusion : We consider 3 process : 1. Increasing the temperature of ice from -10oC to 0oC Energy required for this process is : = . . = 5 2,100 10 = 105 2. Melting the ice until it becomes water Energy required for this process is : = . = 5 334 = 1,670 3. Increasing water temperature from 0oC to 20oC Energy required for this process is : = . . = 5 4,200 20 = 420 The total energy required for all processes is : = 105 + 1,670 + 420 = 2,195 2. All of 5 kg of water with temperature 100oC is vaporizing. What is the mass of liquid aluminum that vaporizes, if aluminum is heated with the same energy as water ? Solution : Energy required to vaporize 5 kg of water is : = . = 5 2,260 = 11,300 If this energy is given to liquid aluminum, we obtain its mass as : 11,300 = = = 0.99 11,400 That means by using energy of 11,300 J only 0.99 kg of liquid aluminum will aporize. The effect of external factor to the phase transition : 1. Dissolved substances effect The freezing point of a soluble is lower than a pure solvent. The boiling point of sugar soluble is higher than pure water. Adding salt or sugar into water will decrease its freezing point. 2. External pressure on melting point The given external pressure will decrease its melting point. Otherwise the given external pressure will increase melting point. 7

3. Effect of altitude to the boiling point The boiling point depends on the outside air pressure. At the peak of a high mountain the outside air pressure decreases so the boiling point decreases. For example at the peak of Mount Everest with a height of 8,850 meters the boiling point of water about 70oC A presto pan can shorten cooking time because the pressure in it reaches 2 atm so that the water boils at a higher temperature than usual. Did you know : One liter of water becomes 1.09 liter of ice after freezing. This is because the density of ice is less than the water. This makes ice float in the water. ENERGY TRANSFER MECHANISM We can classify into 3 categories : 1. Conduction Thermal conduction occurs as the effect of inter molecular collision in matter. The rate of thermal conduction of a substance that has temperature at each end of T1 and T2 can be expressed as the equation below : = Where is the rate of thermal conduction (J/s) T is temperature (oC) d is the length or thickness of substance (m) A is the cross-section area (m2) k is the heat conductivity (J/s m oC) Substances that are good thermal conductors have large thermal conductivity values, whereas good thermal isolators have low thermal conductivity values. Thermal conductivities for various substance : Substance k(J/s m oC) Silver 420 Cooper 380 Aluminum 200 Steel 40 Ice 2 Glass 0.84 Concrete 0.84 Water 0.56 Our body 0.2 Fiberglass 0.048 Wool 0.040 Air 0.023

Example : 1. The main factor of thermal losses in a room is a window. Consider there are windows that are made from glass with size 2 m x 1.5 m and the thickness 3.2 mm. Temperature

inside the room is 15oC while the outside it is 14oC. Find the rate of thermal losses through the window ! Solution : The rate of losing thermal heat that is : 15 14 = = 0.84 3 = 787.5 0.0032 2. An aluminum bar with length 15 cm is connected to a 10 cm steel bar. Both substances have a similar cross-section area. The free end of a 10 cm steel bar is being heated up with temperature 100oC, while the free end of aluminum is being heated with 24oC. Find the temperature at the connection area ! Solution : In this case the energy transfer occurs from the higher temperature to the lower. Since the rate of thermal conduction of both metals is equal, the temperature at the connection can be determined by equation follows : = = 200 100 24 = 40 0.15 0.1 1000 10 = 3 72 = 82.46

2. Convection Energy transfer by convection occurs when the molecular mass move from one place to another. Convection is from one place to another. Caused by the movement of molecules over a long distance. Convection occurs in the air and liquid phase. Convection in air : The air directly above the flame is heated. The warm air is rises to the top and the air around a fire will fill its place. This process occurs continuously until generating the air flow. Convection in liquid phase : The water that is directly above the flame is heated and then rises to the top. Its empty place will be substituted by water around the flame. The rate of energy in a substance depends on the area that is in contact with the fluid (A) and the different of temperature between the substance and its surroundings (T). Mathematically, it can be express as : = . . Where is the rate of energy (J/s) h is convection coefficient (J/s m2 oC) Convection in the human body : How is the body heat released from our body ? The mechanism of energy transfer in our body is convection. Blood circulation has an important role in transferring thermal energy from inside the body to the surface. Example : 9

The temperature of the skin of a man without using clothes is about 32oC. He is in the room which has a temperature of 20oC. If the area of his body is 1.5 m2. Find the energy that is released by his body over 10 minutes (h = 7.1 J/s m2 K-1). Solution : The amount of energy that is released by the convection process is : = . . . = 1.7 1.5 12 600 = 76,680 3. Radiation The mechanism of energy transfer that does not need a medium is called radiation. An example the transferring energy from the sun to the earth. The rate at which an object radiates energy is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. That can be expressed in equation below: = . . . Where is Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.67 10 e is emissivity The emissivity factor has a value between 0 and 1. It is the characteristic of the surfaces body. /

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