In a statistics experiment, the dependent variable is the event studied and expected to change whenever the [1] independent

variable is altered. In the design of experiments, an independent variable's values are controlled or selected by the experimenter to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon (i.e., the dependent variable). In such an experiment, an attempt is made to find evidence that the values of the independent variable determine the values of the dependent variable. The independent variable can be changed as required, and its values do not represent a problem requiring explanation in an analysis, but are taken simply as given. The dependent variable, on the other [citation needed] hand, usually cannot be directly controlled. Controlled variables are also important to identify in experiments. They are the variables that are kept constant to prevent their influence on the effect of the independent variable on the dependent. Every experiment has a controlling variable, and it is necessary to not change it, or [citation needed] the results of the experiment won't be valid. "Extraneous variables" are those that might affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Extraneous variables are usually not theoretically interesting. They are measured in order for the experimenter to compensate for them. For example, an experimenter who wishes to measure the degree to which caffeine intake (the independent variable) influences explicit recall for a word list (the dependent variable) might also measure the participant's age (extraneous variable). She can then use these age data to control for the uninteresting effect of age, clarifying the relationship between caffeine and memory. In summary:

dependent variable. This is because when taking measurements, times are usually predetermined, and the resulting speed of the vehicle is recorded at those times. As far as the experiment is concerned, the speed is dependent on the time. Since the decision is made to measure the speed at certain times, time is [citation needed] the independent variable. In measuring the amount of color removed from beetroot samples at different temperatures, the dependent variable would be the amount of pigment removed, since it is depending on the temperature [citation needed] (which is the independent variable). In sociology, in measuring the effect of education on income or wealth, the dependent variable could be a level of income or wealth measured in monetary units (United States Dollars for example), and an independent variable could be the education level of the individual(s) who compose(s) the household (i.e. [citation needed] academic degrees).

The one-to-one relationship In a one-to-one relationship each item of entity A can be associated with 0 or 1 item of entity B. An employee, for example, is usually linked to only 1 office. Or a beer brand has 1 country of origin. B causes A (reverse causation) The more firemen fighting a fire, the bigger the fire is observed to be. Therefore firemen cause fire. In this example, the correlation between the number of firemen at a scene and the size of the fire does not imply that the firemen cause the fire. Firemen are sent according to the severity of the fire and if there is a large fire, a greater number of firemen are sent; therefore it is rather that fire causes firemen to arrive at the scene. So the above conclusion is false.

Independent variables answer the question "What do I change?" Dependent variables answer the question "What do I observe?" Controlled variables answer the question "What do I keep the same?" Extraneous variables answer the question "What uninteresting variables might mediate the effect of the IV on the DV?"

A causes B and B causes A (bidirectional causation) Increased pressure is associated with temperature. Therefore pressure causes temperature. increased

Examples

If one were to measure the influence of different quantities of fertilizer on plant growth, the independent variable would be the amount of fertilizer used (the changing factor of the experiment). The dependent variables would be the growth in height and/or mass of the plant (the factors that are influenced in the experiment) and the controlled variables would be the type of plant, the type of fertilizer, the amount of sunlight the plant gets, the size of the pots, etc. (the factors that would otherwise influence the dependent variable if they [citation needed] were not controlled). In a study of how different doses of a drug affect the severity of symptoms, a researcher could compare the frequency and intensity of symptoms (the dependent variables) when different doses (the independent variable) are administered, and attempt [citation needed] to draw a conclusion. In measuring the acceleration of a vehicle, time is usually the independent variable, while speed is the

The ideal gas law, , describes the direct relationship between pressure and temperature (along with other factors) to show that there is a direct correlation between the two properties. For a fixed volume and mass of gas, an increase in temperature will cause an increase in pressure; likewise, increased pressure will cause an increase in temperature. This demonstrates bidirectional causation. The conclusion that pressure causes temperature is true but is not logically guaranteed by the premise. [edit]Third factor C (the common-causal variable) causes both A and B All these examples deal with a lurking variable, which is simply a hidden third variable that affects both causes of the correlation; for example, the fact that it is summer in Example 3. A difficulty often also arises where the third factor, though fundamentally different from A and B, is so closely related to A and/or B as to be confused with them or very difficult to scientifically disentangle from them (see Example 4). Example 1 Sleeping with one's shoes on is strongly correlated with waking up with a headache.

Therefore, sleeping with one's shoes on causes headache. The above example commits the correlation-impliescausation fallacy, as it prematurely concludes that sleeping with one's shoes on causes headache. A more plausible explanation is that both are caused by a third factor, in this case going to bed drunk, which thereby gives rise to a correlation. So the conclusion is false. Example 2 Young children who sleep with the light on are much more likely to develop myopia in later life. Therefore, sleeping with the light on causes myopia. This is a scientific example that resulted from a study at the University of Pennsylvania Medical Center. Published [5] in the May 13, 1999 issue of Nature, the study received much coverage at the time in the popular [6] press. However, a later study at Ohio State University did not find that infants sleeping with the light on caused the development of myopia. It did find a strong link between parental myopia and the development of child myopia, also noting that myopic parents were more likely to leave [7][8][9][10] a light on in their children's bedroom. In this case, the cause of both conditions is parental myopia, and the above-stated conclusion is false. Example 3 As ice cream sales increase, the rate of drowning deaths increases sharply. Therefore, ice cream consumption causes drowning. The aforementioned example fails to recognize the importance of time and temperature in relationship to ice cream sales. Ice cream is sold during the hot summer months at a much greater rate than during colder times, and it is during these hot summer months that people are more likely to engage in activities involving water, such as swimming. The increased drowning deaths are simply caused by more exposure to water-based activities, not ice cream. The stated conclusion is false. Example 4 A hypothetical study shows a relationship between test anxiety scores and shyness scores, with a statistical r value [11] (strength of correlation) of +.59. Therefore, it may be simply concluded that shyness, in some part, causally influences test anxiety. However, as encountered in many psychological studies, another variable, a "self-consciousness score," is discovered which has a sharper correlation (+.73) with shyness. This suggests a possible "third variable" problem, however, when three such closely related measures are found, it further suggests that each may have bidirectional tendencies (see "bidirectional variable," above), being a cluster of correlated values each influencing one another to some extent. Therefore, the simple conclusion above may be false. Example 5 Since the 1950s, both the atmospheric CO2 level and obesity levels have increased sharply. Hence, atmospheric CO2 causes obesity. As car sales increase, carbon dioxide levels increase as well as obesity as people do less walking and biking. Example 6 HDL ("good") cholesterol is negatively correlated with incidence of heart attack. Therefore, taking medication to raise HDL will decrease the chance of having a heart attack. Further research has called this conclusion into question. Instead, it may be that other underlying factors,
[12]

like genes, diet and exercise, affect both HDL levels and the likelihood of having a heart attack; it is possible that medicines may affect the directly measurable factor, HDL levels, without affecting the chance of heart attack. Causation may refer to:

Causation (law), a key component to establish liability in both criminal and civil law Causation in English law defines the requirement for liability in negligence Causation (sociology), the belief that events occur in predictable ways and that one event leads to another Proximate causation "Correlation does not imply causation", phrase used in the sciences and statistics Proximate cause, the basis of liability in negligence in the United States Causality, in philosophy, a relationship that describes and analyses cause and effect Causality (physics)

Causation is the "causal relationship between conduct and result". That is to say that causation provides a means of connecting conduct with a resulting effect, typically an injury. In criminal law, it is defined as the actus reus (an action) from which the specific injury or other effect arose and is combined withmens rea (a state of mind) to comprise the elements of guilt. Causation is only applicable where a result has been achieved and therefore is immaterial with regard to inchoate offenses. Rigorous describes something that is harsh or very strict Rigorous means very active or severe. Rigorous describes something that is painfully exact or precise