Business E-mail: Guidelines for Users

Mary Munter
Dartmouth College, Hanover. New Hampshire

Priscilla S. Rogers
University of Miohigan. Ann Arbor

Jone Rymer
Wayne State University Detroit, Michigan

.LTHOUGH E-MAIL is an essential cotntiiunication medium in htisiness today, many husinesspet>ple and husiness sludents take it casually and tail to realize its tull potential. It's easy to assume that since e-mail can he proiiuced quickly and easily, readers can cotnprehend e-mail messages quickly and easily too. Yet overly speedy e-tnail vvritin^i can resitlt in much slower e-uiail readinji and e\en tniscomtnunication. Moreover, e-mail uierits considerahle attention hecause it comprises uuich of manat^'ement work todaye.t;., "I no loii^'er meet with my team, I e-mail them." Overall, e-inail is work, itiiportanr work, which requires time and know-how to tise effecti\-ely. The purpose i)f these ^^ui^lelines is to help you become mt."ire effective and efficient in the use of e-tnail. Since e-mail practices are chan^qinj:;, hovve\'er, these j^uidelines are rioi meant to he hard
lidilor'-^ noic. F o r c o i n n i e n l > on r h e s p e l l i n g kit L'-muil iti i h i s a r t i c l e , p l e a s e s e e thi.

i i t l i t o r i a l o n p p . 7 a i u l S ot tliis i.-.siie. \utht)rs' noli'. T h e s e i ; u i d e h n e s w e r e e o n i p o s e d t o h e sharevi w i t h o u r / \ ! K , ' a n d

k>rhei' e k d l e a y u e s a n d u ^ e d a- a e l a s s h a n d o u t . W e i h r e e aiirhkirs ekillahoratei.1 ek.|nally o n thi.s d o e t i n i e n t aL\d h a \ - e l i s t e d o u r n a m e s m a l j ' h a h e t i e a l kirder. l,">ur e o l l a h o r a i i o n proces.- wa.s .sk^niewhat tiiiusiial. I n s t e a t l of worklti.t; l o i j e l h e r at t h e s a m e l i m e , \ \ e u r o i e s e p a r a t e l y ai d i f f e r e n t t i m e s OLI <,!itterent v l o e i m i e n t s : J o n e R y m e r wrkile t h e first l i a n d o i i i , tollkivvekl hy I'riscilta R.os;ers',s h a n d o u l . tollkiwed hy t h e e k i i l a h o r a i i x ' e L;uKlelines h e r e , l o l l o u w l hy a i\\k>-pa;4t' > c e r i o n of a t e x t h o o k hy M a r y M u n t e r . T h e r e t o r e , pkirlion.s kit i h i s a r t i c l e h a v e h e e n p i i h l i s l i e d pre\'kHi.siy. .All <.|uotatikins ap]X'ar hy p e r u i i . s s i o n ,

26
Bur.inry,;: Cn:n!::'i:!:c.,::uri [j:i.i;!i'!!v. V o l u m e 66, N u m b e r I Match 2GC5, pages '26-AD

C ?O0i^i bv !he Assoeiation for Business kTcnii'iunicatinn O

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and-fast rules. Instead, they should facilitate ycuir choices when connniunicating in tbis rapidly growing; medium. Intended as a practical resource, these guidelines are based on the hest available research, theory, and practice of e-mail (sec the bibliography), including our experiences as instructors in diverse business schools and corporate settings. The guidelines cover; (1) roccignizing the nature of e-mail; (2) composing e-mail; and (3) processing and managing e-iTiail. Recognizing the Nature of E-mail To becotne a more savvy user and to avoid e-mail miscointiiunications, think first abtiut recognizing the intrinsic nature of e-mail as an evolving medium with variotis standards fot effective practice, as well as distinct advantages and disadvantages.
E-mail is a Hybrid Form of Speaking and writing

E-mail is still evolving as a new communication medium combining speaking and writing. Like a conversation, e-mail is frequently a virtual dialogue, though it is "asynchronous" (not in real time) and lacks face-to-face cues. Like writing, e-mail provides a record. However, e-mail is more interactive than traditional writing and more permanent than traditional .speaking, with many practices still not standardized (e.g., how much of tbe original message to incorporate in a reply).
E-maii Practices vary by the Type of Message

There is no one way to use e-mail. E-mail has multiple uses ranging from the equivalent of a casual chat to a formal traditional proposal; ftom scheduling a meeting to expressing condolence; frotn discussing a routine matter to debating a difficult, sensitive problem. Each of these types of e-mail differs in terms of content, structure, style, and format.
E-mail Practices Vary by Context

E-mail "rules" vary from company to company, with audiences expecting different formats and styles and holding different

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notions ahout what one can and can't say. Some companies have standardized procedures; most have unwritten orf^anizational traditions ahout "what people dti around here" when e-mailing (e.y., conventions for greeting the reader at the rop or starting right out with the message), Although trends indicate j^'rowing standardization (e.g., few messages appear in scilid caps any more), the practices of one firm will not necessarily be a reliable gtiide to those used elsewhere. E-mail has distinct advantages and disadvantages, as shown in Tahle 1. Composing E-mail After considering its advantages atid disadvantages, decide if e-mail is the hest way to communicate in a partictilar situatiort. Consider reader preferences atid tieeds, your structure and style, and then think twice hefore you hit "Send."
Reader Preferences and Needs

Consider your readers' e-mail habits and resources. Do the readers tise e-mail regularly? Is their e-mail techtiology comparable to yours? In their corporate culture is e-mail preferred for this kind of message? Visualize your readers. Writirig e-mail is a solitary activity. The reader is not there to nod approval or frown misunderstanding. Not surprisinf,4y, then, e-mail writers may state their messages hltmtly, treating readers insensitively, or fail to explain fully, ignoring readers' needs. To av()id these pitfalls, imagine your readers as if ytui were talking to them, hoth hefore and as you write. As you review your message, imagine your readers actually reading your e-mail, adjusting your, iriessage sci that you maintain a resp()nsive conversation. Save your readers' time. Overly speedy writing otten makes for slow e-mail reading and even tiiiscommunication. For example, writing m solid caps or in a single hlock of text are hoth quicker methods for writers to type their e-mail messages, hut horh sK)w readers down and catise them more confusion in getting the meaning.

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Table 1. Advantages and Disad\'antages of E-mail

Advaniages Enables jasi communicalion, providint^ efficient triinsniissicm ;ind inicr;icrinn, as well ^is moR- cfficictit pteparaiioii th;iii other incthoiis of vvritin;;. Reaches iiuiny people simukanenicily. in Disadvantages bails to assure immediate response or

even that audience rcails the

multiple liicatinns <in)und the jilobc and in different tiiiit.' zimc^; permits portability ot ciHnmunic;iti(in with access anywhere ihc Internet is avaiiahlc.
Distributes documents ejjiciendy,

Reijuire'- accomn\i)dation for technolo^' of some audiences hecaiise

different e-mail systems don't support ihc same devices.

e.specially compared with express mail or courier.

Lacks privacy liecause tnessat^es riii^y he printed, distrihuted, forwarded, or saved by the recipient for later dissemitiation. hi some countries (incluilinf; the U, S,), e-mail may he lc!,'ally monitored and e\"cn siihpoenaed in a Liwsuil,
Ornifs jace'lO'jace nonverbal cues

Allows efficient individual manuf^ement of routine eommunication, processing;

mcssiijjcs more tjuickly than intcractinji laco-uviacc and avoiding inteiriiptiims hy telephone or visitors.
Enables reflective respimses, since

that help speakers convey what they meat! atid help llstctiers interpret the message,
RL';I<.S miscommunicanon hccause

readers can reply when they are ready and after they have had the oppottiinily lo foniiLilate their messajje.
Records the canversauon ami leaver a

writers may prepare e-mail too quickly atul/or tespond without adequate reflection; or readers may only glance over the mes,sagc.
Records the conversation and leaves a

paper trail, which can he vety useful in comparison with oral interaction.

paper trail, which can come back to haunt the writer.

Adapt your writing procedures to the type and signiiicance of the e-mail.
When preparing complex, non'routine messa^e:i, take time and

employ your full range of writing skillsincludmg strategic

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planning and atlapting for tbe audience and careful crafting, revising, and editing of drafts. When writing routine messages, simply glance over the message before bitting "Send." Still, in most cases, err t)n the side of taking time to plan and edit (e.g., running a spell-check) so tbat your e-mails will he professional and easy to read.
E-mail Structure

Once your strategy is set, ct)mpose yt)tir e-mail, keeping in mmd the following structural techniques that will make it more likely to be read and understood. Select the complete distribution list before you write. E-mail makes it very easy to add readers to the CC list after you write, but tbe message then may not fit all these added perspectives. If you select the distrihtition list before you start, yott can craft the e-mail t(i fit all the readers' needs. You might even decide that you should send two tir more messages, perhaps one to everyone Lind individual messages to a couple readers. C^r you might decide that you bavc two distinct issues to cover in two messageseach focused on a single topicwith partly overlapping distribution lists. Compose a fully functional subject Hne. Subject lines are extremely important in e-mail. Readers use them to decide if and when to read your message. Use a "talking" subject Une. Tell the readers what the message is about and how it concerns them. Say as much as possible about the message (e.g., rather than "Scope statement," say "Revised scope statement" or "Scope stmt/2nd draft"). Use a verb if reader action is needed (e.g., "Comment on attached" or "Need input re. slides"). Put most important words first because tbat is what readers see in their in-box display. Revise "reply" subjeet lines when they no longer fit the message. Don't just leave the sul-iject Une unchanged in a series of messages, unless it's the most appropriate identificatltm of the

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Apply the "top of the screen" test. Assume your readers will look at the first screen of your messaf^e only. Will they see your request? Will they get the information they need most? If there is important information later in the message, will they realize that at the outset? Tell your reader in the opening what the message is ahout, referring explicitly to the people, products, or issues involved. State up front any requests for action and information the readers must see. If you want a reply, ask for it up front. If rhe reader needs to do something, state what it is at the heginning. If some informatitin is more relevant for the reader than other information, begin with what is m<ist relevant. Forecast and number multiple points, requests, or steps to he taken. Without such an overview, readers might not scroll down. State, for example, "This e-mail explains the six-point process you need to follow to install the virus protection program in your computer," or "Here are three reasons in support of this recommendation." Write in short chunks. Because users tend to glance over email quickly, help them to grasp your messages hy using short lines, relatively short sentences, and short paragraphs. Divide material into normal paragraphs. Avoid running all your ideas into huge hlocks of text. Such "unmarked" text just makes the reader's joh harder. Use parai^aph breaks for emphasis. Every new paragraph is likely to catch the reader's attention. Put the main point of each paragraph first, so the reader won't miss it (which can happen if it's buried in the middle or at the end). Douhlespace hetween paragraphs to add white space and make it easier for readers to see breaks. Conclude in a straightforward way. Routine e-mails need no conclusion; non-routine e-mails may need a hrief statement, perhaps something interpersonal. Avtnd dragging out the ending, repeating cliches (e.g., "Let me know if 1 can he of

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any more assistance."), or implyitig that the reader should confirm receipt oi your message (e.g., "I hope this answered ytuir question."). Design for "high skim value." Because readers may only glance at their e-mail, use document design techniiiucs lo ensure they will notice yotir important points, AlthoLigh some docttment design devices (e.g., indentation, boldface, atid italics) may not cross e-mail platforms to yotir readers' systems, you still have sonic options. Add headings. After yoti ha\-c written a long c-nuiil, g(,> back and insert headings anil subheadings at the lu-ginning of each main idea. Divide material mto lists with numbers or with liuUet points to make your e-mail easier to follow and refefcncc later (e,g,, print out for a mcctitig"As you sec in point three. . . .") Limit your lists, preferably ilividing into three to seven points maxinuim. Apply tylw^j^-aphy ai'ailable in all systetus (e,g., all caps iov beadings or a dashed line between maiti pciints), l-or regular texr, use standard caps and lower case letters. Avoid solid caps which arc far more difficLilt to read and can be ititerpreted as "sbsniting." Some c-uiail writers use _Book Title_ to sbow utiderlining and 'ctnphasized word'*' to sbow italics, Avoid g)-aphics, font changes, cind color unless your reader's systcru has the capability to sbow them. E-mail writing Styie C^hcck that your c-tnail writing style sttits your readers, the situatioii, and the type oi message. Vary your style. There is rio one, uiagical, c-t\iail style. CA)nsidcr what level of formality is appropriate and write accordingly. Semi-formal or c(mversational: Ftir rtiost readers, c-tiiail is cnwversarionaltbat is, it inckidcs personal pronouns (e.g., I, you, wcj, cotitracrions (eg,, we're, cati't), parcntbetical asides ("as you probahly expected"), and active rather tban

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passive voice ("We changed the meeting time," rather than "The nieetinf^' time was chani^ed"). OepcndinK on the ccintext, however, it has a wide range t)t conventions. For example, some e-mail opens with a casual salutaritm ("Hi, Jim," or "Troops:"), some with a formal one ("Dear Ms. Bcason:"), and some simply fiocs rij^'ht into the message. Informal: Certain readers expect you ro treat c-inail more like a telephone conversation or a facc-to-face chat or a casual ncUe. Language may be very informal, even elliptical, with omitted wortls and abrupt changes of topic. Formal: For other readers, however, c-inail should he more iormal. In such cases, c-niail is simply the transmission mode for many paper memos, letters, reports, and other business formats. Any message that will be printed out antl used as a regular written document should conform to standard conventions for the type of writing'. Compensate for tbe lack of nonverbal cues. When you arc talking face-to-face, your i^esturcs, facial expressions, and tone help y<.)ur audience interpret your ineaninj,'. Consider using "politeness markers" such as "please" and "thank you" to express collegiality, t)r soft verbs such as "this might wt>rk" m show deference to a superior. Although "emoticons" such as : - ) and : - ( can add nonverbal cues in very informal e-mails, they may harm your credibility with some readers. In nuist business e-mails it is wiser to explain your views explicitly and make your tone clear with carefully crafted words. Use jokes and informal idioms with great caution, if at all. C'asual, e\-en off-color, languaj^'e that may be accepted in a small group, might come across as inappropriate or offensive in e-mail, especially with international readers. Some employees have been d(m'ngraded on performance assessments for using the firm's eLiiail system tor non-business purposes. Others have been fired for usin;^ offensive lant;uage in e-mailsfor example, lanjjuage considered to be sexually barassinj,- e\'en if it didn'l. strike the writer as offensive.

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Think TWice Before You Send After you finish yoLir e-mail, pause hefore you hit "Send." Wait to revise later or trash the message in the following situations: // you feel angry or highly emotumal. For coininvmicaring in highly charged situations where conflict might resLilt, take time to reflect on a strategy. Save a draft to consider later, determining whether ycui should revise or trash it. If the message doesni meet the "comfort lest." D o n ' t e-mail anything unless you would be comfortable with ytnir ccilleagues, yc^ur boss, or a reporter reading It. Assume tbat anything you e-mail can be printed, forwarded or faxed, or downloaded and shown anywhere. Nothing on e-mail is confidential or private, e\'en y{Hir deleted messages. Edit before you send hy reviewing the following: Review the heciding information in the "to-from htix." Is the e-mail addressed accurately to tbe right persc)n(s).' is the recipient list at a minimum, excluding names who ha\'e no real need-ro-kncnv.'' Are the correct files attached? Check the "lop of the screen." Make sure the first screen states your main message and a forecast of the main pciints you are making. Scroll down the entire message. Make sure ynur main points stand out (e.g., with headings, bLiUets, or numbers). Edit your wording and run a ,s/je// check. Edit appropriately for the particular readers and situation, On tbe one hand, since most readers do not expect e-mail to he as well edited or as fcirmally written as paper communication, edit only as [uuch as necessary. C^n the other hand, since e-mails can be forwarded and printed by others, don't send e-mails with errors or word choices that might emharrass you.

Processing E-mail
Effective use of e-mail, of course, includes nmre than creating well written m.essages. Dealing effectively wuh ytuir inhox and avoiil-

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ing e-mail overload are equally significant. Here arc some suggestions to use for reading and responding by e-mail.
Reading E-mail

Check e-tnail regularly, scanning the entire list, prioritizing, and processing the most recent first. Adapt to changing situations, rememhering that with most e-rrwil .systems you must assume the initiative for opening yotir messages. Forward e-mail only after deliberation. Forwarding e-mail is an efficietit way to disseminate information. However, hecause it is so easy to send messages to riew readers, forwarding indiscriminately can distribute material inappropriately, even betraying the confidence of the writer. If in doubt, get permission. When forwarding, provide a brief explanation to explain the message to a new reader, even a simple "FYl." Read and answer most e-mail online without saving or printing it. Archive as necessary to develop a file on special topics.
Print messages in significant situations, especially if the itiformation is cotnplcx, lengthy, c<introversial, or requires an important decision. In these cases, the hardcopy will he useful in formulating a reply. Word-process your response off-line if careful review hefore

posting is necessary. This may also prevent premature sending, either hy accident or in the rush of the moment.
Timing Your Replies

Check your e-mail and answer your messages promptly, following the culture of your organization or group. Acknowledge receipt if you can't respond immediately (e.g., "Will reply Monday.")- If a response is not required or explicitly requested, some kind of acktiowledgement rnay be wise in special situations (e.g., "Got your request and will consider it."), but not in routine cases. Avoid overloading e-mail with unnecessary responses ("Yoti're welcome"). Recognize that "no response" is a kind of response. Except in some routine situations where your acceptance of the tnessage is assumed, readers may construe lack of a response negatively (e.g..

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as a deliberate snub, a lack ol enj^a.i^cnicnt, or as unprofessional behavior). Failing to check e-mail rej^ularly and respond expeditiously is no longer an option. Delay responding if you react strongly to a message. Do not reply immediately to messaj^es thai anj^er or upset you. B-inail is conJvieive to rapid response in the heat ot the tnotiient, so never send a message it you still teel upset. You can avoid "tlaming"(in which tninor misunderstanding's turn into on-line confronlations) hy waiting' utitil you caltn down. Responding to Messages Modify your distribution list to suit the situation. Do NOT automatically "Reply to Aff." C^ne oi' e-mail's great advantages is that you can re^ich many people in a moment. Don't abuse that privilej:;e and clutter up others' e-tnail so they pay scant attention when you send scMiiethiti;^ important. Check the orij^inal distrihution list and consider which indiviiluals really want, need, or even should recei\'e your message. Do NOT automatically reply only to the ivrtter, if,'noring others on the distrihution list. In an effort to minimize e-mail overload, do not heedlessly shift to reply otiiy to the writer. When several people interact via e-mail, sotne may he silent tor a tttne, hut this does not warrant excluding thetu from the discLissiiMi. Insert a new subject Hne it you change the topic IM' aJjtist the tocus significantly. Readers can he tnisled as they glance over incoming e-tnail it a message has an out-ot-date stihject line. Compose an effective first sentence. Designate explieitly the topic at hand atui your i-)erspecti\'e, that is, what your reply hrings to the tahle. Do not begin ivtth a fragmentary reference (e.g., "Yes, that's tine," or "I agree."). The reader tnay have done many things hetween sending you the tnessage and receiving your reply, and may liave no idea whai you are reterriiig to.

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Be^in with a fragmentary line ("No, 1 can't make it.") only if your message is short and you send the original message with your reply. In this case, put your reply at the top, followed hy the original messagerather thaii making your reader scroll down to j,'et to your reply. Add your own comments to the top of a reply. If the message and reply arc rotitine and not too lengthy, place your reply at the top of the original message; usually readers expect to see your comments first, not their own message sent hack to them. Also, consider whether readers need the original at all since they already have it. Copy portions of the original message into your reply. Ifthe contents are complex or lengthy, consider inserting just relevant portions of the original in your reply. Rather than sending the ctitirc original e-mail with yotir message, cut and paste your response, clearly identifying your words from those in the original. If you decide to insert several short messages into the original e-mail "thread," delete all of the excess heading information. Check for incoming messages just before sending anything significant. Avoid "passing"that is, sending otit a message that you wrote hefore reading an earlier reply from another participant. Checking for new e-mail just before setiding a message i.s especially important if there arc several participants involved in a string of fast-moving replies. Wait for a reply. If yoti do not get an immediate reply, wait a while. Avoid hastily hombarditig the recipient with duplicate messages on e-mail, voice mail, fax, and telephone. If it's an cmergcticy, shift to another medium.
iUianaging Your E-maii

Establish pr()cedure.s to manage your e-mail. Don't let it manage yoti or diminish yotir credibility. Manage e-mail absences professionally. If yoti arc absent, arrange for atitomatic receipt of incoming c-mall so that (.)thers will not he left awaiting your reply. When yoti rcttirn after an absence, you should approach a huge in-box by "Last In, First Otit"answering

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the most recent e-mail iimnediately and leaving earlier messages until later. Old e-mail will likely be irrelevant and speed won't matter much, whereas being timely will still matter with recent e-rnail. Save only important messages. Save or print significant messages immediately so you can d(Kument the "conversation," one of the advantages of e-mail. Trash most routine messages after replying. Plan periodic e-inai! clean up to catch any messages tbat inight have "fallen between the cracks." By handling e-mail methodically as you read and reply to messages, you will reduce time hunting for important messages among e-mail clutter and overloading your mailbcix. Add new entries into your e-mail address book. Record e-mail addresses electronically to save time and to avoid errors caused by entering addresses manually later. Use your e-mail professionally. Send persoyial e-mail only as appropriate in your organization. Unlike oral communication, electronic technology has quite clear-cur distinctions hetween husiness and personal communication. Many firms allow "reasonable personal use," with some companies leaving what is "reasonable" up to the employees' discretion. Other firtns have adopted strict e-mail policies that prohihit all perstinal use, though their etnployees may pay scant atlentit>n to these rules. In organizations where policies and cointnon practice diverge greatly, you should be aware of the risks in ignoring the fortnal rules. Remove your business e-mail address horn irrelevant lists, including all junk lists, especially at\y with ethnic, racist, or pornographic tnessages. Schedule your e-mail use. Discipline the retnptation to k)ok at your e-mail continually or to get lured into surfing the wch or reading/forwarding jokes.

Bibliography
This hihlLof;raphy comprises a selection ni" articles on thcor\' and research on husiness e-iuail puhlished over ihe last decade, as well as some detailed practical ^uideli,ne>. Business e-mail users who wish to keep ;ihrcast of chan^jcs in e-mail pracrices should check such puhlications as The Wail Svreet Jounud, The New York Times, and

Business E-mail / Munter, Rogers, Rymer

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The Economisi. They should aho periodicnlly check sdnu- tif the numerous Websites dcv>:)ted tc^ e-mail iind search the internet for c>:>veraf;c oftapidly chan^in^,' lopici such as e-mail privacy and f-niail policit-s (including! monitotitij; and Ic^al matters), as well as business issues such as productivity and power in the orjjanization. Insiructois and trainers should also chock publications such as Hiisim^ss Commumiailion Quarterly tor numerous articles on teaching e-mail practices. !, W, &Heslop, B. (1994). The elcmcms of e-mail siyic. Reading, MA: Add ison-Wesley. Rooher, 1"). (2001). E-u'ritmg: 2hl'Century taols for effective commuyiicaiion. New York: Pocket Books, Rotdia, P. (1997). Face-lo-face versus computer-medicated communication: A synthesis ot the experimental literature. The journal of Bu^sincss Ciimmunicalion, M, 99-120. Ciirlson, J. R,, iSt Zmud, R. W (1999). Channel expansion theory and the experiential nature of media richness pcrct-ptions. Academy af Managemeni \oim\ai, 42, 153-170. Ferrara, K., Bninner, II.. & Whirrcmore, (5. (i991). Interactive written discourse as an einer^'eni ief;ister. Written Communicalion, H, 8- H. Fulk, J. (1993). Social construction of communication Lechnoloj^y. Aaulemy of Manaj^emeni Journal, 36, 921-950. Cjeisler, C, &. Irext Working tjroup. (2001)- Itext: Future diiecrions for research on rhe relaiionship bt-tween information technolot;y and writint^. journal of Business and lechmcal Coynmunicaiion, 15, 269-308. Hacker, K. L, (}oss, B., Tovvnley, C:,, & Hoiton, V- J. (1998). Employee altitudes refjardinj; elecin)nic mail policies: A case study, Mana^icrnent Communication
Quarterly. Il, Ml-^V^.
of Business Communicadon, 3^, 297-325.

Ku, L. (1996). Social and nonsocial uses of electronic mcssat;in^ systems in

orjjanizations. The jourf\al

Lint;, L. C. (2001), li-manners. Sin^japore: National University of Sin),'apore. Markus, M. L, (1994). Klt-ctronic mail as die medium of manai,'erlal choice. (Jrf^anizaiicm Science, 5, 502-527. Minsky, B, n., & Maru-i, D. B, (1999). Why taculty members use e-iiiLul: The role ot individual differences in channel choice. The journal of Business
Comnmnicaiion. Communication, 36, 194-217. 8, 55-55.

Murray, [). H. (1991). The composing; process tor computer coiU'ersatKin. Written MulhoUand. J. (1999). F-uiail: Uses, issues, and problems in an institLilional setun<^. In F. Biirtiiela-ChiappiTii & C. Nicker.son (Eds.). Writaif^ husiness: Genres, media and discourses (pp. 57-84)- New York: Pearson. Nickcrson. C. (1999). The use ot Eniilish in electronic mail In a multinarional corporarion. In F Barfjiela-Chiappini & C. Nicker.son (Eds.). Writing husiness. ( v , media and discourses (pp. 35-56)- New Y'urk: Pearson.

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Business Communication Quarterlv

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Address correspondence to Mary Munter, Amos Tuck School, na

t^ollcye, hlanover N i l 03755-901 5 (e-mail: mary,munrer@dartii!outh.edu).