US INTEREST AND OBJECTIVES IN SOUTH AND SOUTH EAST ASIA AND ITS

IMPLICATION ON THE REGIONAL SECURITY ENVIRONMENT

1
US INTEREST AND OBJECTIVES IN SOUTH AND SOUTH EAST ASIA AND ITS
IMPLICATION ON THE REGIONAL SECURITY ENVIRONMENT

"Underpinning [our security] vision is the essential requirement that America remain
engaged in world affairs, to influence the actions of others - friends and foes - who
can affect our national well-being. Today, there are some who would have us pull
back from the world, forgetting the central lesson of this century: that when America
neglects the problems of the world, the world often brings its problems to America's
doorstep."

- Former Secretary of Defense William Cohen

INTRODUCTION

1. The US shares many interests with the countries of the South and South
East (SE) Asia. In general, the people of this region share the US devotion to
democracy, even if some of the governments fall short in that commitment. Though
there are pockets of Islamic fundamentalism, most of the people in these region
value human rights, oppose terrorism, and want to protect their increasingly
endangered environment. In post cold war era the countries and peoples of the
region have decided to join the global economy and act on the global stage. These
countries are attempting to reform their economies from socialism to free markets
and trying hard to change the status from the developing to the developed world. It
is in US best interest to act as a friend and partner to the countries of South and SE
Asia and participate with them in their transition1.

2. US interests in south and SE Asia parallel larger US interests in the Asia-

Pacific region. Broadly, these interests are to ensure regional stability, encourage
continued economic success and advance regional prosperity, and promote
democracy within SE Asia. Stability and security is a major U S interest in this
region. Regional stability serves two essential purposes first, continued stability
creates an environment in which economic growth is possible, this in turn enables
regional advancement and prosperity, and ultimately contribute to US economic

1
Dillon Dana R., U.S. Strategic Objectives in South Asia, Heritage Lecture #889 , p.1. and
http://www.heritage.org/Research/AsiaandthePacific/hl889.cfm dated 10 October 2008.

2
growth. Second, continued stability makes it possible for smaller US military force
deployments in this region thus, limited forces can be deployed to other regions
where those tools may be used more effectively to promote US interests2.

AIM

3. The aim of this paper is to analyse the US interest and objectives in South
and South East Asia and its implication on the regional security environment.

US STRATEGIC INTERESTS IN SOUTH ASIA

Global Significance of South Asia

4. South Asia is an important and fast emerging region containing one-fifth of

the world's population and the world's largest democracy. This region has the
potential to become a prolific economic market in the next 25 years. On the
contrary, it also homes two rival nuclear states, numerous fundamentalist
organisations and terrorist groups. Consequently, this prospect is subject to
management of the regional disputes and transnational problems. Political violence
against US interests in this region is the least compared to all other regions3. As
such, USA envisions to assert her influence in this region to home own strategic
interests through appropriating its foreign policy. Indeed, what happens in South
Asia is vital to the strategic interests of USA itself4.

US Foreign Policy in South Asia

5. Until the collapse of Soviet Union, US policy toward the region was framed by
a Cold War strategy of communist containment. It was focused more on thwarting
Soviet communist expansion than on a grand strategy of pursuing long-term US

2
Monger Paul Cmdr USN and Snyder Gray W, Lt Col USAF, South East Asia , Pillars for Prosperity
and Peace, Research Paper of national war College, Washington DC, 1998.
3
www.state.gov/m/ds/rls/rpt/23133.htm, dated 09 November 2008.
4
'Strategic Interests: The United States and South Asia’, by Ambassador R. Nicholas Burns,
speaking to the Asia Society, http://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/2006/webArticles/112806_SA.htm,
dated 05 November 2008.
3
interests in the region5. The present foreign policy of USA evolved on the
aggressive posture of the so called ‘Bush Doctrine’ to secure USA and her allies
against threats6. It argues that ‘while the US will constantly strive to enlist the
support of the international community, we will not hesitate to act alone, if
necessary, to exercise our right of self defence by acting pre-emptively….’7. USA
perceives that ‘America will encourage the advancement of democracy and
economic openness, because these are the best foundations for domestic stability
and international order8. US Senate testimony on US Interests and Strategic Goals
in South Asia envisages on the strategic objectives to promote sustained economic
growth and development, bolster US relationships with key partners in this region,
foster democracy and human rights9. US focus on South Asia is evaluated by
Christina Rocca, who stated that ‘US foreign policy in South Asia is firmly founded ...
on promoting economic prosperity and an ongoing search for peace. It is also the
front line of our Global War on Terror, which remains our principal foreign policy
priority’10.

US Objectives in India

6. India is the greatest under-exploited opportunity for American strategic

interests in South Asia. Since the end of the Cold War and the Indian government's

5
US National War College research paper on ‘A Strategic Assessment of South Asia: Prescription
for US Foreign Policy’, http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb= getrecord&metadataprefix=html&identifier=
ada 442599, dated 06 November 2008.
6
The White House Publication on ‘The National Security Strategy of the USA’, updated on 16 March
2006, first published on 17 September 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2006/nss2006.pdf,
dated 04 November 2008.
7
Neil Fenton, Understanding the UN Security Council: Coercion or Consent? 2004. Ashgate
Publishing ltd; England, pp. 185.
8
Stated by George Bush, The White House, 17 September 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc
/nssintro.html, dated 03 November 2008.
9
US Senate Foreign Relations Committee Testimony on ‘US Interests and Strategic Goals in East
Asia and the Pacific’, By Assistant Secretary for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Washington, DC, 02
March 2005. http://www.shaps.hawaii.edu/security/us/2005/20050302_revere.html, dated 08
November 2008.
10
‘United States Foreign Policy in South Asia’ Christina B. Rocca, Assistant Secretary for South Asia
Affairs, remarks to the American Chamber of Commerce at Dhaka, Bangladesh, on 18 May 2004.
http://www.state.gov/p/sca/rls/rm/32599.htm dated 01 November 2008.

4
1991 enactment of economic reforms, the US-India relationship has developed from
mutual suspicion to a grand alliance11. The power architecture of the region and the
control of the Indian Ocean dominate US interests in India. India is its strategic
partner to counter - balance a rising Sino – Russian and Iranian influence. The
recent October 2008 nuclear deal is a testimony to that.

7. The China Factor.

a. Both the countries seek peaceful engagement with China, although

both also view China as a potential long-term security concern and neither
wants to see Asia dominated by a single country. Nevertheless, China is a
major trading partner for both USA and India, and neither country wants to
exacerbate Chinese concerns about ‘encirclement’ or treat China as an
enemy12.

b. India does not want to be regarded as an element in a US strategy

toward China. Beijing fears an American containment strategy with India as
its South Asian cornerstone. American strategy attempts to use India to
balance China. US policy focuses on building India's economic
competitiveness, its military capability, and its international standing to
counter growing Chinese hegemony.

c. However, India's role in the USA is problematic for the United States.
In 2004, India voted with the USA in the United Nations only 20 percent of the
times vote conducted. But in comparison, China and Russia voted with the
USA less than India. Consequently India is a better option as an ally.

11
US Strategic Objectives in South Asia 07 July 2005, http://www.heritage.org/Research/Asiaandthe
Pacific/hl889.cfm dated 01 November 2008.
12
US-India Defense Relations: Strategic Perspectives,
http://www.csis.org/media/csis/pubs/sam105.pdf, Number 105 04 April 2007, dated 04 November
2008.

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8. Control of the Indian Ocean.

a. The prospect of a future Chinese dominance in the Indian Ocean is

something USA and India are watching uneasily. China's growing interests in
securing chokepoints and constructing ports along strategic waterways also
has implications for the international community, particularly USA and its
allies in the east. China has expressed ambitions to expand its blue water
naval capabilities to protect its growing oil imports through the Indian Ocean
and Strait of Malacca, through which 80 percent of its oil imports transit.
China's attempt to secure Sea Lines of Communication along the Indian
Ocean and its strategy to develop port facilities in Pakistan, Bangladesh and
Myanmar has led to concerns for India and USA over Chinese policy to
encircle India13.

b. The security of energy lanes in the Indian Ocean is perhaps the issue
on which US and Indian analysts agree most strongly. Like their Indian
counterparts, US security officials consider the safety of sea lanes crucial to
national security. US interest in the Indian Ocean is primarily motivated by a
desire to protect global energy markets. Over half of the world’s oil supplies
travel through sea lanes in the Indian Ocean, and disruption of energy
supplies would have a major impact on the US regardless of whether US
supplies specifically travel through these waters.
9. Maritime Partnership. USA talks of a ‘global maritime partnership’, or a
‘thousand-ship navy’, a framework for maritime security cooperation including both
naval and civilian maritime assets of countries throughout Asia and the Indian
Ocean. USA considers India as a uniquely valuable participant in this type of flexible
structure for working together. In recent years, its relations with the US Navy have
become closer and friendlier. India is the only country, other than the US, that is
capable of projecting power in the Indian Ocean Region and capable of securing the
commercial sea-lanes from the Persian Gulf to the Malacca Straits. This becomes a

13
‘Strategic Interests Pull Japan and India Together', The Rise of China, 16 February 2007,
http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_report&report_id=618, dated 03 November 2008.

6
critical factor in the US’ calculations on the number of ships and refuelling ports
required to enforce the Proliferation Security14.

10. Economic Partnership. USA also fosters strategic relationship with India for
interdependence on economic integration and trade. US exports to India had
doubled from 2002 to 2006. Currently, of the top 9 US companies investing in India,
6 are in the power sector and one each in the passenger cars, soft-drinks market
and cellular phones sectors – all serving the needs of a rising middle class. India is
not war ravaged and has already made significant. India has progressed in these
fields and is in a position to provide economies of scale to the US market15. The US
is India’s largest trading partner accounting for approximately 30 percent of its gross
domestic product16. Also that the Indian population in USA numbers at 2.5 millions,
which matters US – India relationship.

11. US - India Anti Terrorism and Security Cooperation. US - India security

cooperation is the most dramatically evolving aspect of the bilateral relationship.
When India tested its first nuclear weapon in 1998, the US stopped all defense
cooperation with India. Now USA has restored all conventional military-to-military
cooperation. Under the auspices of the ‘Next Steps in Strategic Partnership’, the US
began cooperation with India on the civilian use of nuclear power and civilian space
programs17. Both these countries are also fighting against regional terrorism.

14
Prospects for Indo-US Partnership, Written by Anirudh Nair and Rudra Dev http://www.bharat-
rakshak.com/SRR/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=34&Itemid=, dated 01 November
2008. The ‘Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI)’ is a global initiative aimed at stopping shipments of
weapons of mass destruction (WMD), their delivery systems, and related materials worldwide,
announced by President Bush May 31, 2003. It stems from the National Strategy to Combat
Weapons of Mass Destruction issued in December 2002, as published in the website
http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/proliferation.
15
Prospects for Indo-US Partnership, Written by Anirudh Nair and Rudra Dev http://www.bharat-
rakshak.com/SRR/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=34&Itemid=1, dated 04 November
2008.
16
‘A Strategic Assessment of South Asia Prescription for US Foreign Policy’, http://www.dtic.mil /cgi-
bin/GetTRDoc?AD =ADA442599&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf, dated 05 November 2008.
17
US President's Statement on ‘Strategic Partnership with India’, 12 January 2004,
http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/01/20040112-1.html, dated 02 November 2008.

7
12. India – Israel – USA Axis. Israel has military trade with India to sell Phalcon
early warning radar system and Arrow ballistic missile defence system. This military
tie, with the consent of USA, has been perceived as a formidable axis of power
developing in the foot steps of the Middle East and Pakistan18.

US Objectives in Pakistan

13. Pakistan’s bargaining leverage rests on its geo-strategic significance with

special reference to war on terror, entry to energy-hub Central Asia and entry of
China into the Indian Ocean through the Gulf19.

14. Global War On Terrorism. Pakistan has been a tactical ally in fighting
terrorism. She has been an important bulwark against terrorism. USA views
Pakistan as at ‘the absolute core in the fight against global terrorism’. A subservient
govt is essential for USA to support US war on terrorism. US military officials now
believe that Pakistan has been unable to control the Taliban militants in tribal belt
who have increased their cross-border attacks on NATO forces inside Afghanistan.
It led to intense frustration within the Pentagon and reignited a debate over whether
the US should act on its own against extremists operating in Pakistan's north-
western tribal regions. According to US President George Bush, the biggest
challenge for the next president of the US would be Pakistan and not Iraq or even
Afghanistan20.

15. Exploiting Pakistan against India. Pakistan has been a tool of exploitation
for USA to pin down Indian military influence. USA tries to convince New Delhi that
its interests are best served by letting the US look after the overall strategic stability
of the subcontinent. To do so the US has to enhance and consolidate its strategic
presence in the South Asian region. Simultaneously, ensure that the Indian military

18
India’s Defense Ties With Israel http://usindiafriendship.net/archives/viewpoints/carbaugh-
102003.htm, dated 04 November 2008.
19
‘What is Real in Pak-US Relations? Safdar Sial, dated: 04-09-2008http://san-pips.com/PIPS-SAN-
Files/SAN-SouthAsia/SAN-SouthAsia-Article45/San-SA-A45-D.asp, dated 05 November 2008.
20
‘Pakistan: Next US President’s Big Challenge’ 08 July 2008,http://www.dawn.com/2008/07/08
/top6.htm, dated 01 November 2008.

8
remains stretched to the maximum so that Delhi cannot project military power in the
neighbourhood. Boosting Pakistan’s military status is the key to this approach21.

16. Nuclear Proliferation Network. US policy also focuses on Pakistan's

nuclear proliferation network. The primary concern is that this technology might
have fallen or may fall into the rogue hands or organizations. Groups like Al Qaeda
are substantially capable to exploit nuclear arsenal in a span of some years against
the west. In order to prevent such events, USA shall always assert its tight control
over the govt in the foreseeable future. In return, USA will drain dollars to assist Pak
govt to cope up with the indebtedness and military expenses.

US Objectives in Afghanistan

17. US interests in Afghanistan irrupt from two purposes: firstly, dismantle

terrorist organization to ensure own security; and secondly, use it as the buffer zone
to influence situation in Iran and Pakistan.

18. Fight against Al Qaeda and Taliban. USA is trying to transform

Afghanistan, which has been one of the world’s principal sources of instability, into a
secure and prosperous country. USA is in the process of rebuilding Afghanistan as
a model for the Muslim World of a moderate and democratic Islamic State22.

19. Containment of Iran. The rise of Iran is a formidable threat for the
global US interests. Iran, with its crude oil power, maintains strategic relations with
Russia, France and India. Iran is a single ethnic nation with wide ranging popular
support in the Muslim world. Iran matters a lot to what happens in Iraq. Iran is
developing nuclear technology and has caused fear to USA that it will challenge US
interests in Middle East, Central Asia, Indian Ocean and Israel. Afghanistan is
therefore, a buffer zone and a launching pad for USA to conduct proxy war and
even military strike in future.

21
‘US Strategic Interests in Sri Lanka’ - Taraki, http://www.tamilnet .com/art.html?catid =79&artid=
15518, dated 02 November 2008.
22
‘South Asia: The United States Foreign Policy Predicaments’ by Dr. Subhash Kapila 27.09. 2006
http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/%5Cpapers20%5Cpaper1968.html, dated 05 November 2008.

9
US Objectives in Bangladesh

20. US interests in Bangladesh revolve round combating terrorism. US State

Department reports that al-Qaeda-linked terrorists are operating in the country.
Again, as stated by Christina B. Rocca, USA views that Bangladesh, being the 7th
largest populous country, and with 4th largest Muslim population in the world, is a
valued partner in the war on terror, a moderate voice in regional and international
fora, and a leading contributor to UN peacekeeping missions. American policy
toward Bangladesh focuses on strengthening the rule of law and judicial system. It
also insists action on anti-corruption, and efforts that create an attractive
environment to promote foreign investment. USA is the biggest foreign investor in
Bangladesh with around $1.3 billion investment. USA seeks to increase the
accountability and transparency of democratic institutions to strengthen
democracy23.

US Objectives in Sri Lanka

21. Apparently, USA plays an intermediary role in Sri Lanka’s internal conflicts.
USA presses the government and LTTE to return to the talks, supports economic
prosperity24.

22. US desire for Basing Facility in Sri Lanka. The vital US interests lies else
where; not the mediation role. USA estimates that the strategic and central location
of this country may serve US interests in terms of monitoring the dynamics of
nuclear power in South Asia, war between India and Pakistan, and Indian military
‘aggression’ into neighbouring countries. As such, US Department of Defense
identified basing requirements in this region. The nearest sea base is in Diego
Garcia, which is some thousand mile away. USA intends to increase

23
‘United States Interests and Foreign Policy Priorities in South Asia’, Christina B. Rocca, Assistant
Secretary for South Asian Affairs, Statement before the House Committee on International Relations,
Washington DC, 22 June 2004, http://www.state.gov/p/sca/rls/rm/33774.htm, dated 04 November
2008.
24
http://www.state.gov/p/sca/rls/rm/33774.htm, dated 08 November 2008.

10
reconnaissance activities in this area. The objectives include enhancing the
presence of the National Security Agency (NSA) and ensure intelligence
preparedness for US expeditionary forces in South Asia.

23. Monitoring the LTTE and Nuclear Development. The basing facilities are
also with a view to monitoring the nuclear and missile development in peninsular
India. Currently the eastern littoral of the subcontinent and most of peninsular India
is monitored from Thailand and Singapore where the US defence intelligence
agency and the NSA have considerable electronic intelligence assets. The NSA
base in Thailand monitors LTTE communications in Sri Lanka; for example: the
Voice of Tigers is made available in English to Washington in less than an hour of
broadcast by NSA translators at the agency’s station in Thailand25.

US Objectives in Nepal and Bhutan

24. US objective in Nepal is to see a restoration of multi-party democracy and

bring an end to the violence. The purpose is to help Nepali’s deal with the
underlying economic, social, and political problems that hold it back from achieving
its potential. USA plays an intermediary role in Nepal’s democratic process. USA
support Nepali democracy in its confrontation with the Maoists26. US assistance
includes military equipment badly needed by the army, economic and development
assistance to address root causes of insurgency and anti-terrorism training for the
army and police.

25. USA has expressed interest in Bhutan's finance and energy sector27. It has
offered to consider for resettlement of 60,000 or more Bhutanese refugees in the

25
http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=79&artid=15518, US's Strategic Interests in Sri Lanka -
Taraki, dated 08 November 2008.
26
http://www.state.gov/p/sca/rls/rm/33774.htm, dated 09 November 2008.
27
http://www.financialexpress.com/news/Bhutan-likely-to-join-WTO-by-2009/321491, dated 03
November 2008.

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USA, now in camps in Nepal28. Bhutanese refugees are politically and religiously
ideal one for the US to be re-settled in its soil29.

US Objectives in Maldives

26. Maldives has a territorial dispute with the USA as USA does not recognise
Maldives’s claim of maritime zones30. USA intends to promote the rule of law, a
balance of the Islamic Shariah and the western law concepts31. US maritime forces
interact with the Maldivian security forces, who can be important actors in the
current reform process, earning the public’s trust by protecting the people, while
respecting each citizen's rights32.

US INTEREST AND OBJECTIVES IN SE ASIA

General

27. SE Asia is a region of much dissimilarity. The dispersal of religious groupings

reflects thousands of years of conflict. SE Asia’s multiple cultures, ethnicities and
languages overlap national borders and create cross-hatching that binds this region
into a loose subculture of its own. SE Asians view their security in a much broader
manner and are proud of their advancements in all aspects of society since the end
of their respective colonial periods. Securing the strategic imperative of this region
relies on two mutually reinforcing approaches to the region: bilateral and U.S.–
ASEAN.

28
Ambassador James F. Moriarty’s Remarks to Bhutanese Refugees on the US Resettlement
Program, Embassy News http://nepal.usembassy.gov/sp_05-25-2007.html, dated 04 November
2008.
29
http://www.kantipuronline.com/kolnews.php?&nid=97259, dated 05 November 2008.
30
‘United States - Maldives Territorial Dispute’, http://www.maldivesroyalfamily.com/maldives_us
_territorial_dispute.shtml, dated 02 November 2008.
31
The Question of Democracy, Political Development – And Its Critics,
http://www.internationalreports. net/asiapacific/maldives/2002/thequestion.html, dated 03 November
2008.
32
U.S. Embassy, Colombo, Press Releases, http://srilanka.usembassy.gov/usmedical.html, dated 03
November 2008.
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28. The end of the Cold War, the rise of China, globalization, free trade
agreements, the war on terror and an institutional approach to keep the peace are
using dramatic shifts in relationships among countries in SE Asia. A new regional
architecture in the form of trade, financial and political arrangements among
countries of Southeast Asia is developing that has significant implications for USA
interests and policy. The war against terror has brought renewed USA attention to
SE Asia, especially to countries afflicted by Islamic radicalism. Some fear that rising
Chinese influence in Southeast Asia has come at the expense of USA ties with the
region, while others view China’s increasing regional influence as largely a natural
consequence of China’s economic dynamism. China’s developing relationship with
SE Asia will likely to have implications for USA’s interests in the region. In
November 2004, China and the Association of SE Asian Nations (ASEAN includes
Brunei, Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore,
Thailand, and Vietnam) agreed to gradually removal of tariffs and create the world’s
largest free trade area by 2010. China is also beginning to develop bilateral and
multilateral security relationships with SE Asian states. The role of Malaysia, as
economically developed country, has also significant influence to shape US
interests and objective in this region.

US Regional Interests

29. The following are traditionally considered to be USA’s key regional interests
in SE Asia:33
a. Promotion of stability and balance of power.
b. Prevent being excluded from the region by another power or group of
powers.
c. Trade and investment interests.
d. Support of treaty allies and friends.
e. Promotion of democracy, rule of law, human rights and religious
freedom.

33
Michael McDevitt,“USA Strategy in the Asia Pacific Region: Southeast Asia,” in W. Lee, R.
Hathaway and W.Wise, USA Strategy in the Asia-Pacific Region, (Washington: Woodrow Wilson
International Center for Scholars, 2003), p.44.
13
US Regional Objectives

30. USA’s objectives are not always very obvious due to many reasons.
However, following may be considered as o bjectives:
a. keeping SE Asia from being dominated by any hegemony.
b. Preventing the region from becoming a base of support for terrorists.
c. Maintaining freedom of navigation and protection of sea lanes with a
view to dominate Pacific Ocean.

ASEAN

31. ASEAN faces the challenge of safeguarding its interests and prospering in
this hypercompetitive neighborhood. The US has an overarching interest in seeing
that it succeeds while also remaining independent and outward-looking. US initiated
an ASEAN Cooperation Plan (ACP) in 2002. This plan is focused mainly on trans-
national issues such as narcotics, piracy, terrorism, disaster management,
environment and HIV/AIDS, including support to ASEAN integration initiatives.

32. USA has major economic, political, and security interests in ASEAN which
are discussed below:

a. Economic Interest. The dynamic economic interest makes the

US different from ASEAN's other economic partners. It is not content with the
status quo, working around difficult environments to make or sell more
widgets. In 2002, USA formed the Enterprise for ASEAN Initiatives (EAI), for
negotiating bilateral free trade agreements with ASEAN countries, who are
WTO members.

b. Political Development. Democratic reform strengthens ASEAN

and facilitates its relationship with the USA. USA has an abiding stake in how
it develops. The current state of democratic development in ASEAN is
diverse, complex and fluid. USA wants to be creative in finding ways around
Myanmar to engage ASEAN fully.

14
 c. Islamic Politics Islam in ASEAN is overwhelmingly main stream.
Significantly, Indonesia, the world's largest Muslim-majority nation, is not an
Islamic state. In Malaysia, Prime Minister Abdullah Badawi has coined the
term Islam Hadhari (civilizational Islam) to encompass his views. The USA
does not like to commend this version of Islamic politics to others in the
global Islamic community. USA is constantly trying to demonstrate to the
world that the current global conflict is with militant Islamism, not with Islam
itself. However, there are difference of opinion on US interest and objectives
in this field of Islamic Politics and subsequent US role.

d. Security. According to Admiral William J. Fallon, "SE Asia is the

34
Front Line of the War on Terror". USA security relations with Southeast
Asia are centered on two treaty allies: the Philippines and Thailand. The
USA–Thai Cobra Gold exercise is the largest USA exercise in Asia. "The
exercise in May 2006 engaged over 7,800 troops from the USA and 4,200
from Thailand."35 Japan, Singapore, and Indonesia also participated. The
2006 Balikatan exercises with the Philippines involved approximately 5,500
USA personnel and 2,800 Filipino personnel. With these exercises and
others in the region, the USA improves the interoperability of its forces and
those of its partners, improves joint response to emergencies and enhances
their military capacity. USA also has a very close security relationship with
Singapore. Combined with Singapore's first-class full accommodation of the
USA Navy, the framework provides a perfect example of the "places, not
bases" approach to aligning security cooperation.

33. Southeast Asia is vital to USA political, economic, and security interests.
Ensuring that the region remains strong, independent and outward-looking is
therefore in the best interests of both the US and the nations of SE Asia. ASEAN

34
Admiral William J. Fallon, testimony before the Committee on Armed Services, USA Senate,
March 7, 2006, at www.pacom.mil/speeches/sst2006/DAR-FY07-Fallon%2003-07-06.pdf (February
8, 2007).
35
Emma Chanlett-Avery, "Thailand: Background and USA Relations," Congressional Research
Service Report for Congress, updated October 2, 2006, p. 10, at
www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32593.pdf (March 7, 2007).
15
being a common forum for the countries of this region, it will probably remain as a
focal point for USA in policy implementation.

Indonesia

34. Indonesia's importance to USA interests is enhanced by the nation's ongoing

transformation into a vibrant democracy following decades of authoritarian rule. USA
also have substantial commercial and environmental interests in Indonesia. This is
because of significant natural, energy and mineral resources and a storehouse of
biodiversity, home to some of the world's largest tracts of tropical rainforest and
expanses of coral reef. US interest and objectives on combating terrorism and
military are very obvious which are appended below:

a. Combating Terrorism/Police Assistance USA is assisting the

Indonesian National Police (INP) in the formation of a counterterrorism unit
through the Non-Proliferation, Anti-Terrorism, Demining, and Related
Programs (NADR) account.

b. Military-to-Military Relations International Military Education and

Training (IMET) courses provide the professional military education critical to
expectations that the Indonesian armed forces will become a professional
military, oriented toward external defense. This education provides the
opportunity for Indonesian armed forces personnel to be exposed to concepts
of civilian control of the military and accountability that are not available in
Indonesia. For many Indonesian armed forces officers, IMET would represent
the first time in their lives that they have been challenged to think for
themselves as opposed to receiving conventional wisdom. USA does this for
greater national interest.

Myanmar

35. The US has consistently co-sponsored Myanmar’s resolutions at the UN

General Assembly and the UN Commission on Human Rights containing strong
language condemning the ongoing systematic abuse of human rights. US withdrew
its ambassador from Yangon in 1990. US have imposed unilateral economic
16
sanctions on Myanmar since 1997 and have made these sanctions more stringent
over the years. The US has frozen Myanmar Government assets in the US and has
also denied visas to Myanmar officials. Yet, dealing with Myanmar will certainly
affect the relation with China and India as well. However, USA wants to keep
Myanmar in pressure in the name of Human Rights violations.

Philippines

36. The Philippines is confronting a serious threat at home from Communist and
Muslim insurgencies and international terrorists. There has been a recent increase
in violence by the Communist People's Party and its armed wing, the New People's
Army. USA has utilized this situation in her favour. USA and the Philippine
Government are concerned at the growing evidence of links between Philippine and
international terrorist groups, including al Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah. USA have
formed a strong coalition with the Philippine government to combat terrorism in the
Philippines. USA’s main interest is to dominate the Pacific Ocean with the help of
Philippine and Japan

Cambodia

37. The US cut off direct aid to Cambodia after Hun Sen seized power in a 1997
coup. Lucrative US markets, direct US aid, military aid and cooperation on
counterterrorism symbolize the warm relation. The US has provided military aid to
Cambodia. US is the most important partner in fighting against terrorism, and the
US helped Cambodian soldiers participate in a military exercises within the UN
framework, in Mongolia. Improving relations between Washington and Phnom Penh
is a concern of power balance to China's superpower influence in Asia. China is
widely seen to have expanding interest in Cambodia. Cambodia needs the US
market, despite having a market like China for its goods, opposition. The relations
between Cambodia and the US are becoming better.

17
Laos

38. USA-Laos relations deteriorated during in the post-Indochina War period after
1975. Full diplomatic relations were restored in 1992 with a return to ambassadorial-
level representation. In December 2004, normal trade relations started wtih Laos.
There has been a consequent rise in Lao exports to the US Bilateral trade reached
$15.7 million in 2006, compared with $8.9 million in 2003. The USA Government
provided more than $13.7 million in foreign assistance to Laos in FY 2006, in areas
including unexploded ordnance clearance and removal, health and avian influenza,
education, economic development, and governance. US interests are more of
political and economic than that of military.

Vietnam

39. Bilateral relations between the US and Vietnam have expanded dramatically
in recent years. One of US objectives in Vietnam is to stimulate growth and
development through economic and legal reform through promotion of greater
transparency in the implementation of law. US is trying to full normalization of
diplomatic, political and economic relations with Vietnam. Obtaining the fullest
possible accounting of American Prisoners of War (POW)/ Missing in Action (MIAs)
from the Vietnam War continues to be America's highest priority with regard to
Vietnam. Other issues are resettlement opportunities abroad for Vietnamese
refugees, economic and commercial cooperation and protection of intellectual
property rights, security dialogue, and law enforcement cooperation. On December
10, 2001, the USA-Vietnam Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) took effect. Under this
agreement Vietnam attained the status of Most Favoured Nation. US understand the
Vietnam psyche but for economic and military interest, keeping Vietnam at bay by
USA is essential which is vice versa as well.

Malaysia

40. Bilateral relations with Malaysia have historically been very good, particularly
at the working level. Despite sometimes blunt and intemperate public remarks by
the then Prime Minister Mahathir, USA-Malaysian cooperation has a solid record in

18
areas as diverse as education, trade, military relations, and counterterrorism.
Malaysia is USA’s eleventh largest trading partner, and USA is Malaysia's largest
trading partner and investor. Malaysia hosts 15-20 USA Navy ship visits per year,
and Malaysian military officers train at USA facilities under the IMET program. USA
signed a bilateral Declaration of Cooperation against International Terrorism.
Malaysia has established Malaysia-based regional CT training center.

41. Malaysia's highly developed infrastructure and educated work force have
attracted considerable investment from around the world. The USA has the lead
with an estimated $29 billion in investment, USA firms employ some 100,000
Malaysians and US trade with Malaysia supports nearly 200,000 jobs in the USA.
Malaysia-US defence cooperation has been steadily growing in the last few
decades. Highlights of the growing relations between these two nations are:

a. US chose Malaysia in 2003 to host the SE Asia Regional Center for

Counter Terrorism (SEARCCT), bypassing Indonesia- the most populous
Muslim nation in the world.

b. During the tsunami (Dec 2004) relief operations, US forces used

Malaysian air force bases for ferrying supplies to Aceh (Indonesia). The US
conducts training exercises with the Royal Malaysian Air Force, flying with
and against them in mock battles. There have been more than 75 USA
military ship visits in the past two and a half years.

c. In 2005 Malaysia and US renewed a military logistics cooperation pact

called the Acquisition and Cross Servicing Agreement for 10 years. The
agreement enables armed forces from the two countries to share logistics &
supplies.

d. Both countries have signed a Trade and Investment Framework

Agreement (TIFA) in 2004. This has paved the way for a Free Trade
Agreement (FTA) and completed by July 2007. The bilateral trade may
almost be doubled on implementation of the FTA.

19
 e. Over the past three decades the US has been a popular destination
for Malaysian students. From 1981 to 1999 it was one of the top 10 sources
for international students in America.

f. Malaysian forces regularly conduct joint training with US counterparts,

and the US routinely enjoys access to Malaysian airfields and ports.

42. Among countries of the region, Malaysia is an especially good place from
which to view USA goals in SE Asia. Its stability also provides an especially good
lens through which to view the USA goals from a SE Asian perspective. Beyond SE
Asia, Malaysia enjoys a highly visible international role as Chair of both the Non-
Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organization of Islamic Conferences (OIC).USA
underscores this reality and hence engaged with Malaysia accordingly.

Singapore

43. Singapore welcomes USA engagement in SE Asia as vital to regional

stability. US cooperate closely with Singapore in regional and international forum,
including APEC, ASEAN and the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) and the UN, where
Singapore was a non-permanent member of the Security Council. Singapore ranks
12th among US trading partners, and the USA-Singapore Free Trade Agreement
(FTA). Singapore has been also been among US strongest counterterrorism
partners and in the forefront of SE Asian counter terrorism efforts. Singapore was
the first Asian port to sign on to USA Customs Service "Container Security Initiative"
(CSI). CSI allows for pre-inspection in Singapore of goods destined for USA ports
and is an important security and efficiency measure. US military relationship is also
very strong. Although Singapore is not a treaty ally, it supports a strong USA military
presence in the Asia-Pacific region and has offered the USA increased access to its
facilities since the closure of US bases in the Philippines.

44. Under the MOU of 1990, a USA Navy logistics unit was established in
Singapore in 1992; USA fighter aircraft deploy periodically for exercises, and
roughly 100 USA Navy vessels per year visit Singapore. The MOU permits USA
Navy ships to berth at a special deep-draft pier at the Changi Naval Base.
20
Singapore is a major customer for USA defense sales in the Asia-Pacific region. A
new RSAF Apache AH-64D helicopter training detachment has recently been set up
in Arizona. USA and Singapore are pursuing their common goals of a terror free,
stable and strong economy. The USA–Singapore Strategic Framework Agreement
covers cooperation in "areas such as counter terrorism, counter-proliferation, joint
military exercises and training, policy dialogues, and defense technology."36

Thailand

45. In 2003, the US designated Thailand as a major non-NATO ally, which grants
Thailand many financial and military benefits derived from the United States.
Thailand is one of five USA Treaty Allies in Asia. Thai troops fought alongside
Americans in Korea and Vietnam. More recently, Thailand has provided critical
support, including a military engineering unit currently at work in Afghanistan, for
Operation Enduring Freedom. Thailand has actively cooperated USA on all aspects
of the war on terror. Thailand is USA’s seventeenth-largest trading partner with two-
way trade of about $20 billion. USA is the second largest foreign investor in
Thailand. USA and Thailand marked another milestone in the commercial
relationship with the signing of a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement.
Thailand and the USA have been fighting drugs together for several decades, and
joint USA-Thai efforts have led to the elimination of thousands of acres of opium
previously grown in Thailand. Thailand is now no longer a significant producer of
opium or heroin, though it remains a major transit point.

36
The White House, "Joint Statement Between President Bush and Prime Minister Lee of
Singapore," July 12, 2005, at www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/07/20050712.html (February
5, 2007).
21
 IMPLICATION OF US PRESENCE IN REGIONAL SECURITY
ENVIRONMENT

Promotion of Democracy and Regional Security

46. The three most important means of influence and power that US can project
into this region are military force, diplomatic support and economic influence37.
Continued US engagement in the South and SE Asian region also facilitates the
promotion of democracy, one of the three central US security goals of the National
Security Strategy. US involvement – economically, politically and militarily – on both
sides of the pacific has been crucial to establishing the regional stability, security
and prosperity38. US military engagement in Asia promotes the spread of democratic
norms primarily by helping establish the kind of secure environment under which
democracy can develop and flourish. A secure regional environment enables
nations to focus on internal development, both economic and political, and provides
the breathing space for invention, experimentation and development that a transition
to democracy requires39. Impact of US on regional sy is given as Anx A.

Guarantor of Stability

47. SE Asia is undergoing a remarkable transformation led by rapidly growing

economies. Long-standing organizations, such as ASEAN, are taking expanded
roles40. ASEAN is clearly interested in a continued US commitment to the region. Its
members want strong trade and commercial ties, more technology, more
educational opportunities, more dialogue. The ASEAN region is also of growing
political importance. It includes allies, valuable security partners, the world’s third

37
Tennant J W, captain, USN and Mullinex Klaus, Colonel USA, Southeast Asia US Interest and
Policy,NWC Course , Geostrategic Context, Research Paper of National War College, Washington
DC, 1996. P,8.
38
Leong Stephen, ASEAN towards 2020, Strategic Goals and Future Directions, ASEAN Academic
Press, London, 1998.p,193.
39
http://www.shaps.hawaii.edu/security/easr98.html dated 27 October 2008.
40
http://www.state.gov/p/eap/rls/rm/2008/09/110494.htm, dated 12 October 2008. Scot A. Marciel,
Ambassador for ASEAN Affairs and Deputy Assistant Secretary for East Asian and Pacific
Affairs, Remarks to Center for Strategic International Studies Meeting on "U.S. and Southeast Asia:
Toward a Strategy for Enhanced Engagement",Washington, DC,September 25, 2008.

22
largest democracy and the world’s most populous Muslim majority nation. It sits
astride the strategically important Malacca straits. It is the next door neighbor of the
rapidly growing powers and economies of China and India. Traditional friends and
allies of the US in Asia have always acknowledged that a key determinant of
security in the region has been the US presence and its role as the “ultimate
guarantor” of stability41. The small and medium-sized states in SE Asia have
undergone significant geo-strategic changes with the end of the Cold War and the
rise of China. Key SE Asian states have actively tried to influence the shaping of the
new regional order42.

US –China Relation and Regional Security

48. China generally opposes the current US military presence in Asia and has
characterized the US system of bilateral military alliances as ‘out-dated Cold War
thinking’. China views the recent expansion of the US-Japanese defence guidelines
and the growing US defence relationships with SE Asian countries as threatening.
China has put forward an alternative ‘new security concept’ that calls for regional
relations based not on bilateral alliances but on principals of mutual trust, mutual
benefit, equality and co-operation. This new security concept:

a. Rejects the US military alliance systems.

b. Suggests that regional security requires co-operation and not

competition between the major powers.

c. Insists that economic security is a central component of regional

security.

d. Insists that dialogue, consultation and peaceful resolution of disputes

are the means of ensuring co-operative security.

49. This security concept and China’s appeal to principles of co-operative

security stand in contrast to the USA’s system of bilateral military relations and
alliances. Asian nations recognize that the US will continue to exercise major

41
http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/7/3/9/1/p73919_ index.html
dated 04 Nov 2008.
42
http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/7/8/7/9/p178793_index.html
dated 04 nov 2008.
23
influence in the region, but China, in particular, sees the formation of an exclusive
Asian organization as an opportunity to help reclaim what it considers to be its
historical position as the regional leader in Asia43. The Chinese want to regain
regional prominence and freedom in dealing with what they regard either as
domestic or purely bilateral issues. During Korean War US used all her influence on
the world community to isolate China as far as possible44. China’s recent change of
attitude towards multilateral security structures and its emphasis on security co-
operation partnerships runs counter to the USA’s reliance on bilateral security
alliances and forward military deployments. These contrasting visions of the role of
alliances and the requirements for regional stability pose a challenge to the USA’s
military presence in Asia.

US – India Relation and Regional Security

50. The US - India relationship has recently undergone a dramatic

transformation, with both countries committing themselves to a global strategic
partnership symbolized most prominently by the agreement on civilian nuclear
cooperation. The rise of China, against the backdrop of larger Asian economic and
political dynamism, provides strong strategic motivations for renewed US - Indian
collaboration. US and Indian objectives and strategies vis-a-vis China, for example,
are remarkably similar. Both countries are trying to protect their interests, primacy
and security obligations in those critical regions where China's rising power could
pose a significant threat, in Asia for the Us, and South Asia for India.

51. In SE Asia, Indian and US objectives are again perfectly complementary. A

core national security objective for both countries is to prevent the key SE Asian
states from becoming strategically dependent on China. The SE Asian states, in
turn, realize that their goals of securing freedom and political space are best
achieved through a calculated policy of inviting India, along with China, Japan, and
the US, to operate freely within the region. The US and India seek to prevent the

43
Nanto Dick K, East Asian Regional Architecture: New Economic and security
Arrangements and U.S. Policy, CRS Report for Congress January 2008.p,10.
44
David M.D. and Ghoble T.R, INDIA, CHINA AND SOUTH- EAST ASIA, Dynamics of Development,
Deep and Deep Publications Pvt .Ltd. new Delhi 2000.p,74.
24
use of the ocean's transit routes for the movement of weapons of mass destruction
and associated materials, in addition to protecting the littoral island states from
internal and external threats and from exporting instability45.

Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)

52. Proliferation remains a serious security challenge, and one of increasing

concern to the US and its Asia-Pacific allies. Security relations between India and
Pakistan are not institutionalized by a security treaty46. Indian and Pakistani nuclear
tests, followed by each nation's claim to nuclear power status, threaten to
complicate global nonproliferation efforts, as well as security perceptions and the
security environment in the Asia-Pacific region. The US has strongly condemned the
actions of India and Pakistan as counterproductive to regional and international
stability, as well as to the South Asian nations' economic and security interests. The
domestic environment within Pakistan is shaky. Extremist groups within Pakistan
continue to operate with seeming impunity. The Subcontinent remains a very
unstable, shock-prone region. One possible shock could be an act of nuclear
terrorism. To control that, India and Pakistan should demonstrate responsible
nuclear stewardship by negotiating and implementing in good faith confidence
building and nuclear risk-reduction measures47.

US Trade and Investment

53. The USA continues to regard its military presence in South and SE Asia as a
critical source of stability until a functional co-operative security arrangement can be
established. The security and stability of the region demands a firm US commitment;
and the US sees itself a key promoter of democracy in Asia. ASEAN was the fifth
largest trading partner for the US, with trade between the two worth about 136 billion
US dollars. Asia has become an increasingly important region for the USA in terms

45
Tellis Ashley, American and Indian Interests in India’s Extended Neighborhood, Centre for the
Advanced Study of India , University of Pennsylvania, june 2007.
46
Sridharan E, The Evolution of the Post Cold war Regional Security Institutions in South Asia,
University of Pennsylvania Institute for the Advanced Study of India, Pennsylvania, February 2006.
47
http://www.stimson.org/southasia/?SN=SA2001112042 dated 4 November 2008.

25
of trade. US disengagement would threaten US access to Asian markets, limit the
USA’s ability to influence economic and political trends in the region, and engender
heated competition for influence among regional powers48. The US States is intent
on deepening economic and political ties with South and SE Asia but not by trying to
contain China's rising influence in the region49. American primacy on the
Subcontinent is in danger of being compromised by the balanced expansion of
Chinese influence in the region. For example, US trade with India grew from US$14
billion in 2000 to US$41 billion in 2007. In the same period, China’s trade with India
grew from US$3 billion to nearly US$38 billion50.

54. USA has moved to reinforce economic advantages through a series of

bilateral trade agreements in SE Asia51. In Fiscal Year 2008 the US has an
assistance budget for SE Asia of more than one-half billion dollars. Some projects
that US are supporting:

a. Health. The region has been endangered by avian influenza and faces big
challenges in addressing HIV/AIDS, malaria and other infectious diseases. US is
extraordinarily active. In 2008, the US government will spend more than $212
million to support health-related activities in SE Asia.

b. Education. This is biggest element of US aid to Indonesia – and very

successful. President Bush launched a six year $146 million program to improve
education at the secondary level. US have just signed an agreement with
Vietnam to initiate a high-level education dialogue to help Vietnam improve its
tertiary education system.

48
JANE’S INTELLIGENCE REVIEW , JANUARY 2001, p 31.
49
http://www.aseansec.org/afp/116.htm dated 28 October 2008.
50
Americas role in Asia 2008, Asian and American Views, Published by The Asia Foundation,
California, USA 2008.p,58.
51
Beeson Mark, Contemporary Southeast Asia, PALGRAVE MACMILLAN, New York, 2004.p,202.

26
Terrorism

55. South and SE Asia is not immune to the threat of terrorism or penetration by
international terrorist groups. A new and particularly dangerous phenomenon is
represented by ad-hoc, loosely knit groups of extremists who have gained deadly
operational experience in the Afghan conflict, and now travel the region in an effort
to expand their networks and operational capabilities. Difficult political, economic
and social changes occurring throughout the region in coming years may
exacerbate popular discontent and frustration that can fuel resort to terrorism as a
means of redress. The US had its own concerns about terrorism in this region and
response of governments there. Cooperation in the war against terrorism has given
a impetus to regional multilateral cooperation and increased US engagement with
these efforts52.

Environmental Degradation

56. Economic development in the South and SE Asian region has come at
substantial environmental cost. Although environmental problems largely stem from
internal, domestic activities of individual nations, the impact of these activities often
has transnational effects, such as on air and water quality. Concern about
environmental degradation has also facilitated military-to-military contacts between
the US and Asian nations. US military engagement with other nations on
environmental matters has proved to be a productive area for cooperation between
militaries. In addition to the direct environmental benefits, through this mechanism
trust is established that may lead to easing of tensions and better understanding of
different military cultures.

Drug Trafficking

57. Drug trafficking throughout the region continues to threaten US interests both
at home and abroad. SE Asia is the world's leading region for poppy cultivation and
heroin production, particularly within the Golden Triangle, comprised of parts of
Burma, Laos and Thailand. Drug trafficking routes traverse the entire region, posing

52
Contemporary Southeast Asia, A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs, Institute of
Southeast Asian Studies, Volume 26, Number 1, April 2004.p,82.

27
significant challenges to US international efforts to reduce availability of illicit drugs
in the US. Various concealment methods, along with widely dispersed international
organized crime organizations, also make interdiction difficult without adequate
resources and intelligence.

Energy

58. Asia is entering a period in which its demand for energy will grow. Rapid
population growth and economic development are fueling this trend. The regional
energy market is characterized by a number of developing economies, all of which
will be seeking to meet growing energy demands. In the new century, a greater
percentage of Asia's energy requirements for oil will have to be satisfied by
producers in the Arabian Gulf. As a result, promoting stability in the Arabian Gulf,
maintaining freedom of the seas, protecting sea lines of communication, particularly
in the Strait of Malacca, and other efforts to safeguard energy supplies will become
a challenge of increasing mutual interest. If new sources of supply do not live up to
expectations or tensions threaten supply routes, such as pipelines and sea lines of
communication, resource competition will become an increasingly relevant security
concern.

Humanitarian Relief

59. Humanitarian operations to promote peace and address humanitarian crises

in nations suffering a natural disaster, civil strife or other forms of conflict may
likewise serve important U.S. security interests and values, including preservation of
regional stability, and promotion of democracy and human rights. US
comprehensive engagement in Asia includes readiness to deploy U.S. forces to
alleviate humanitarian crises in the region when appropriate. In Asia, US forces
have engaged in a variety of humanitarian relief efforts in recent years, most notably
disaster relief. The U.S. remains prepared to respond constructively throughout the
region should emergencies occur in the future.

28
 CONCLUSION

60. The nations of South and SE Asia remain strong and independent, that they
enjoy peace, stability, growing prosperity and greater freedom, and that they
succeed in their efforts to integrate. If the countries of this region are doing well and
making progress along these lines then US is in great shape. The SE Asian region
works with US to address bilateral, regional and global issues, ranging from
promoting commerce to addressing climate change to combating the proliferation of
weapons of mass destruction. In the strategic sense, SE Asia alone is not, as yet, in
a position to take care of itself without US involvement. US wants ASEAN region to
be good partner in peace and security.

61. South Asia is gradually increasing its influence in international affairs. On the
economic front high growth rates are also visible in the Subcontinent, making it as a
fastest growing region in the world — after China. On the political front, most major
issues that confront U.S. policy — international terrorism, Islamic radicalism,
weapons of mass destruction, proliferation, state failure, nation building, and
promotion of democracy — are embedded in the South Asian Subcontinent. South
Asia will become increasingly relevant to a number of new challenges confronting
U.S. foreign policy, such as Asia’s regional balance of power, maritime security, and
global warming. A strong Subcontinent, in harmony with itself and engaged with the
US, can emerge as a force for peace and stability across the Indian Ocean and its
littoral.

29
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28. http://www.financialexpress.com/news/Bhutan-likely-to-join-WTO-by-
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29. http://nepal.usembassy.gov/sp_05-25-2007.html, dated 04 November 2008.

Ambassador James F. Moriarty’s Remarks to Bhutanese Refugees on the US
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30. http://www.kantipuronline.com/kolnews.php?&nid=97259, dated 05

November 2008.

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dated 02 November 2008. United States - Maldives Territorial Dispute.

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– and its critics.

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34. http://www.pacom.mil/speeches/sst2006/DAR-FY07-Fallon%2003-07-06.pdf,
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35. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32593.pdf, Emma Chanlett-Avery,

"Thailand: Background and USA Relations," Congressional Research Service
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36. http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/07/20050712.html. The

White House, "Joint Statement Between President Bush and Prime Minister Lee of
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@ Written and edited by, Hasan Md Shamsuddin, Md Nazrul Islam, and T M

Nasrullah 2008.

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