Index

acoustics-based sensors 95, 96 air-induced puffing 158 albumins 8, 21 amino acids 11213 amylopectin (AP) 78, 1415 amylose (AM) 7, 1415 angular deflection strain gauges 94 Annatto 26 anthocyanins 119 antinutrients 11920 antioxidants 114 ascorbic acid 117 axial mixing 149, 150 baby cereals 193, 195 baby foods 18299 extrusion system for 18492 conductive energy 1889 convective energy 189 conversion energy 18991 defining cooking of cereals 1858 twin-screw extrusion 192 very low shear extrusion 192 market for 1934 processing benefits of twin-screw extrusion 1967 products 1946 socio-economic future of production 1978 traditional batch processing 1834

barrel local thermal balance 534 pressure 5866 temperature 5866, 94 batch cookers 184 batch processing 1834 belt feeder 94 beta-carotene 26, 11617 beta-glucans 116 Biot number 148 biscuits 163, 17880 co-extrusion with secondary filling 179 co-extrusion with soft filling 1789 co-extrusion of two biscuits 17980 bran 8, 25 breadsticks 163 breakfast cereals 10, 11, 13360 consumption 108, 1335 future trends 159 key process issues 13946 delayed expansion extrusion-cooking 1426 direct expansion extrusion-cooking 1402, 143 main unit operations and technologies 14658 die texturization 1546 drying and toasting 1568 extrusion-cooking 1506 preconditioning 14750

Index
thermomechanical cooking 1504 product range 1369 types of 135 browning 158 see also Maillard reactions bulk density 89, 1013 calcium carbonate 10, 25 Canthaxthin 26 capillary viscometer 95 carbohydrates 11012 see also starch; sugars carotenoids 11617 Carri-Med rheometer 95 caseinate 77 cereal mixes 136, 137, 1389 cereals baby cereals 193, 195 breakfast cereals see breakfast cereals sources of starch 1520 cheesy pretzels 194 children 136 classification of ingredients 711 co-extruded snacks 17780 biscuit with soft filling 1789 with secondary filling 179 two biscuits 17980 colon cancer 116 colour 889 see also browning; Maillard reactions colouring sustances 10, 256 conductive energy 1889 consumer requirements 8890 consumption breakfast cereals 108, 1335 snack foods 108 control points 903 controlled process variables 92 convective energy 189 convective heat transfer coefficient between cooling fluid and barrel 756 between material and barrel 546, 76 conversion energy 18991 conveyor driers 158 cooling fluid 737 co-rotating twin-screw extruders 42 counter-rotating twin-screw extruders 42 cutting 172, 177 under oil 1956 delayed expansion extrusion-cooking 135, 140, 1426, 1502, 158

201

design die 91 process control 923 of rotating knife 91 desorption isotherm 1567 developing countries 109, 194, 1968 die design 91 pressure 95 temperature 94 texturization 1546 die swell effect 89, 177 digestibility of starch 11012 direct current tachometer 94 direct expansion extrusion-cooked (DEEC) breakfast cereals 135, 138, 1402, 143, 1502 die texturization 1546 drying 1568 directly expanded extruded snacks 163, 1737 basic principles of snack extrusion 1745 flavouring 176 shaping and cutting 177 texture modification 1767 disk feeder 94 dispersed-phase filling materials 89, 212 Dittus-Boelter equation 75 dough formation 164, 1667 shaping 167 see also formed dough products driers 158 drum drying 183 dry extruders 368, 39 advantages and disadvantages 38 applications 378 drying 183 breakfast cereals 1568 predicting drying time 1567 process and driers 158 snack foods 165 half-products 1723 education/training 1978 electronic noses 96 electronic tongues 96 energy 18891 see also heat transfer endosperm 16, 1819

202

Index
Fourier number 1478 frying 1678 functional foods 109, 121, 122 fuzzy logic controller 196 gelatinization 110, 1858, 191 glass transition 165, 175 gliadins 21 global thermal balance 523 globulins 21 glucosinolates 119 gluten 8 glutenins 21 glycemic index (GI) 111 gravimetric feeders 93, 94 grits 136, 1478 gun puffing 138, 163 Guy Classification System for ingredients 711 half-product snacks 1623, 1703 cutting and drying the half-products 1723 expansion of half-products 173 extrusion cooking for 1712 three-dimensional snacks 173 hard/vitreous endosperm 1920 heat of reaction 1901 heat transfer 5182 baby food production 18891 equivalent heat transfer coefficient 745, 76 experimental analysis 5866 methodology and strategy 5960 research literature 646 results 604 fundamental parameters 548 convective heat transfer coefficient 546, 756 difficulties in evaluating 58 physical, thermal and rheological properties of foodstuffs 54 transfer area 56 viscous dissipation 567 global thermal balance 523 local thermal balance 52, 534 sizing and optimisation of extruder 737 thermal modelling 6673 high moisture extrusion 77, 10910 hydration time 1478 hydrothermal cooking processes 137, 139 ingredients see raw materials

enthalpy of fusion 54 equivalent heat transfer coefficient 745, 76 expanders see interrupted flight extruders expansion dispersed-phase fillers and 89 of half-products 173 expansion chart 1546 extruders 2950 advantages of extruder technology 30 dry extruders 368, 39 functions 2930 general design features 312 global thermal balance 523 interrupted flight extruders 32, 3842 process parameters 47 production capacities and costs 47 segmented screw/barrel single-screw wet extruders 312, 326 selection 301 single-screw vs twin-screw 467 sizing and thermal optimisation 737 future trends 767 improvement of temperature control 746 twin-screw extruders 312, 426, 192, 1967 fats 9, 234, 46, 11314 feed rate liquid 94 powder 934 fibre 8, 11416, 180 Ficks second law 147 fillers, dispersed-phase 89, 212 filling ratio 14950 fillings, co-extrusion with 1789 film resistance 1478 finite element model 6970, 712 flaked cereals 1368 flaking grits 136, 1478 flavour 889, 176, 180 flavouring substances 11, 267, 176, 180 flours 1520 hydration time 1478 masa 20, 16970 physical nature 1720 pregelatinised 20, 16970 fluidized bed driers 158 folate 11718 folic acid 118 formed dough products maize 162, 16970 potato 162, 1669

Index
instrumentation 937 intermeshing twin-screw extruders 42, 43 internal resistance 1478 interrupted flight extruders 32, 3842 advantages and disadvantages 412 applications 401 iron 118 isoflavones 120 knowledge models 679 knowledge transfer 1978 length to diameter ratio 91, 150 less-developed countries 109, 194, 1968 lipids 9, 234, 11314 oxidation 11314 liquid feed rate 94 local thermal balance 534 longitudinal expansion index (LEI) 1546 loss in weight feeders 94 lubricants 9, 224 lysine 112 macronutrients 11016 carbohydrates 11012 fibre 11416 lipids 11314 proteins and amino acids 11213 magnetic flow meter 94 Maillard reactions 26, 158, 176 maize 16, 18, 20 formed dough products 162, 16970 Maltesian cross 185 manipulated process variables 912 market for baby foods 1934 trends for breakfast cereals 1335 masa flours/snacks 20, 16970 melt rheology 95 temperature 94 melting point 54 metering pumps 94 Micro Fourier Rheometer 95 microbiological quality 90, 194 milk substitute, cereals with 195 minerals 11819 model predictive control (MPC) 1013 model reduction 69, 702 moisture content 46, 54, 1013 see also water mueslis 1389

203

natural colours 256 near infra red (NIR) spectroscopy 956 nixamalisation 20 no shear extrusion 192 non-intermeshing twin-screw extruders 42, 43 nucleating substances 910, 25, 1767 nucleation 173 Nusselt number 556, 75 nutritional quality 10829 breakfast cereals 135, 136 extrusion parameters affecting 109 future trends 1201, 122 macronutrients 11016 carbohydrates 11012 fibre 11416 lipids 11314 proteins and amino acids 11213 minerals 11819 non-nutrient healthful components of foods 11920 vitamins 11618 oat flours 16 oils 9, 234, 11314 operator-controlled process variables 912 orifice meter 94 oxidation, lipid 11314 paddle configuration 150 pea flour 180 pellet-to-flakes extrusion-cooked (PFEC) breakfast cereals 135, 140, 1426, 1502, 158 pellet processing 77 pellet snacks see half-product snacks pH 1868 phenolic compounds 119 phytate 11819 plasticisers 9, 224 plug flow 149 popcorn 163 positive displacement meter 94 potato formed dough products 162, 1669 pregelatinised flours 20 raw cut vegetable snacks 162 potato flakes 1667 potato granules 20, 1667 potato starch 1667 powder feed rate 934 power exchange 74

204

Index
raw cut vegetable snacks 162 raw materials 528 classification by functional role 711 colouring substances 10, 256 dispersed-phase filling materials 89, 212 flavouring substances 10, 267 general nature 56 nucleating substances 910, 25 plasticisers and lubricants 9, 224 soluble solids 9, 245 structure-forming materials 78, 1121 based on protein 78, 11, 201 based on starch 78, 1120 transformations in extrusion cooking 56 real-time predictive model 69, 702 reduced model 69, 702 relaxation thermograms 71 representational models 67 residence time distribution (RTD) 1489 resistant starch (RS) 111 rheological properties 54, 95 see also viscosity rice 16, 19 rotameter 94 SCADA (Supervisory, Control and Data Acquisition) systems 97100 architecture 978 design and implementation 99100 features 99 screw presses 39 screws 312 configuration 91 speed 94 wear and minerals 118 see also single-screw extruders; twinscrew extruders secondary filling, co-extrusion with 179 sectional expansion index (SEI) 1546 segmented single-screw wet extruders 312, 326 advantages and disadvantages 356 applications 35 sensible heat 190 sensors 937 existing 935 novel 957 soft 967, 1013 shape, product 8990 shaping directly expanded snacks 177 dough 167

prawn crackers 161 preconditioners 38, 39, 14950 preconditioning 77 breakfast cereals 14750 preconditioning conditions 14950 predicting hydration time 1478 residence time distribution 1489 pregelatinised flours 20, 16970 pre-gelling process 1834 pressure die 95 drops 76 profile along barrel 5866 pressurization 190 pretzels 194 process control 83107 in action 1003 implementation procedure 1001 MPC 1013 review 101, 102 baby foods 1967 benefits of 856 challenges 868 control loop 84 instrumentation 937 product requirements 8690 key control points in meeting 903 requirements to be met 85 process monitoring 97100 product requirements and process control 8890 key control points 903 size and shape 8990 temperature measurement 95 product development 121, 122 programmable logic controller (PLC) 98 proteins 180, 186 dispersed-phase filling materials 8, 22 nutritional quality 11213 structure-forming materials based on 78, 11, 201 puffed breakfast cereals 136, 137, 138 predicting drying time 1567 puffed wheat 163 pulse generator 94 quadratic criterion 701 quality 180 nutritional see nutritional quality radial mixing 149, 150 Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA) 95, 1524, 192

Index
shear rate 567, 1858, 190 shear stress 1858, 190 single-screw extruders 3142 dry extruders 368, 39 interrupted flight extruders 32, 3842 vs twin-screw extruders 467 wet extruders 312, 326 single-screw feeder 93 single-stage extrusion 1712 size, product 8990 snack foods 10, 108, 16181 co-extruded snacks 17780 directly expanded snacks 1737 formed dough products 16670 maize and other materials 162, 16970 potato 162, 1669 future snack processes 180 half-product (pellet) snacks 1703 innovations 180 major types of 1623 physical phenomena related to 1645 quality aspects 180 soft fillings, co-extrusion with 1789 soft/floury endosperm 18, 1920 soft sensors 967, 1013 soluble fibre 11516 soluble solids 9, 245 soy isoflavones 120 soya proteins 78 specific capacity 14950 specific gravity 54 specific heat 54 specific mechanical energy (SME) 53, 92, 97 breakfast cereals 1512 stacking chips 166, 1689 starch 151 digestibility 11012 dispersed-phase filling materials 8, 22 gelatinization 110, 1858, 191 hydration of starch polymers 164 structure-forming materials based on 78, 1120 cereal sources of starch 1520 factors affecting performance of starch 1213 physical form and composition of natural starches 13 pregelatinised flours 20 starch-based products 12 starch granules 1315 composition 1415 cooking and gelatinization 1858

205

physical nature 1314 stress, shear 1858, 190 structure-forming materials 78, 1121 based on protein 78, 11, 201 based on starch 78, 1120 sugars 245, 110, 112, 186 supercritical carbon dioxide puffing 110 syrup infused cereals 195 talc (magnesium silicate) 10, 25 temperature 6, 29 control 746 field 5866, 69 measurement 945 barrel, die and melt 94 product 95 profile 5866 texture 89, 180 die texturization 1546 modification 1767 texturised vegetable protein (TVP) 6 thermal conductivity 54 thermal modelling 6773 new approach 6972 comparison of detailed and reduced models 712 detailed model 6970 objectives and methods 69 reduced model 701 review 679 thermal performance see heat transfer thermal resistance 745 thermomechanical cooking 137, 139 breakfast cereals 1504 thiamine 117 three-dimensional half-product snacks 173 three-inch sticks 194 toasting 158 tocopherols 117 torque 94 tortilla chips 1612, 16970 training/education 1978 transfer area 56 twin-screw extruders 312, 426 advantages and disadvantages 456 applications 435 baby foods 192, 1967 vs single-screw extruders 467 two-stage extrusion 171, 172 under-oil cutting technique 1956 user specification 99100

206

Index
superheating and release as vapour 1645, 173 see also moisture content water absorption index (WAI) 1512 water-based flavouring 180 water solubility index (WSI) 1512 weight belt feeders 94 wet single-screw extruders 313, 326 wheat 16, 17

venturi meter 94 very low shear extrusion 192 viscosity 54, 567, 1858 viscous dissipation 567 vitamins 11618 volume 567 volumetric feeders 934 water plasticiser and lubricant 9, 223