ABSTRACT Soap is a salt of a compound known as a fatty acid.

The preparation of soap in this

experiment is using saponification method. The objective of this soap preparation is to compare the properties of this soap and a synthetic detergent. The pH reading of soap solution is 10.43 while the pH reading of synthetic detergent is 8.61. While the test result for other properties are; the distilled water system there is emulsification occurred when drops of mineral oil added into it, while for the soap solution and synthetic detergent solution there is no emulsification occurred. As for the cleaning capability for soap and synthetic detergent, the soap solution cleans completely the cloth strip. Above all the experiment shows that soap is killed by hard water and acidic water. The cleaning effect of soap cant be carried out it the water contain heavy metal like Mg, Ca or Fe, as it will cause the soap to precipitates.

INTRODUCTION Soap is a salt of a compound known as a fatty acid. A soap molecule consists of a long hydrocarbon chain (composed of carbons and hydrogens) with a carboxylic acid group on one end which is ionic bonded to a metal ion, usually a sodium or potassium. Soap is made from animal fats or vegetable fats mixed with a caustic chemical called sodium hydroxide. Vegetable oil soaps are chemically superior and can be of higher quality than soaps made with animal fats. Vegetable oils are more readily absorbed by the skin while animal oils have been found to clog pores and aggravate certain skin conditions, such as eczema. Soap is produced by a saponification process or basic hydrolysis reaction of a fat or oil. Currently, sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide is used to neutralize the fatty acid and convert it to the salt. A lone pair of electrons on the OH- is attracted to the partially positive charged C atom in the C=O bond in the ester. The C-OR bonds breaks generating a carboxylic acid (RCO2H) and an alcohol (ROH). In the presence of NaOH carboxylic acids are converted to their sodium salts (RCO2Na+).

Figure 1: Saponification of triglyceride.

When a triglyceride is saponified, three fatty acids salts (soaps) and glycerol are produced. The bond between the fatty acid and the glycerol backbone is referred to as an ester linkage. In the saponification process the ester linkage is broken to form glycerol and soap. Thus, different types of soaps may be produced from the saponification of a particular triglyceride. In the industrial manufacture of soap, tallow (fat from animals such as cattle and sheep) or vegetable fat is heated with sodium hydroxide. Once the saponification reaction is complete, sodium chloride is added to precipitate the soap. The water layer is drawn off the top of the mixture and the glycerol is recovered using vacuum distillation. The crude soap obtained from the saponification reaction contains sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, and glycerol. These impurities are removed by boiling the crude soap curds in water and re-precipitating the soap with salt. After the purification process is repeated several times, the soap may be used as an inexpensive industrial cleanser. Sand or pumice may be added to produce a scouring soap. Other treatments may result in laundry, cosmetic, liquid, and other soaps.

OBJECTIVES The objective of the experiment is to prepare soap and compare its properties with a synthetic detergent.

THEORY Soap is the salt of a weak acid. Most organic acid are weak acids. Consequently, hydrolysis occurs to some extent when soap dissolved in water. Soap solutions tend to be slightly alkaline due to partial hydrolysis of the acid. The soap molecule consist a long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylic acid group on one end which is ionic bond to a metal ion. The hydrocarbon end is nonpolar and is soluble in nonpolar substance such as fats and oil, and the ionic end is soluble in water. The structure of a soap molecule is represented below:

When soap is added to water, a polar solvent, the molecules form clusters, known as micelles, in which the polar ends of the molecules are on the outside of the cluster and the non-polar ends are in the middle. The cleaning action of soap results from their ability to emulsify or disperse water-insoluble materials (dirt, oil, grease, etc.) and hold them in suspension in water. This ability comes from the molecular structure of soaps. When soap is added to water that contains oil or other water-insoluble materials, the soap molecules surround the oil droplets. The oil or grease is dissolved in the alkyl groups of the soap molecules while the ionic end allows the micelle to dissolve in water. As a result, the oil droplets are dispersed throughout the water (this is referred to as emulsification) and can be rinsed away. If soap is used in "hard" water, the soap will be precipitated as "bath-tub ring" by calcium or magnesium ions present in "hard" water. The effects of "hard" water calcium or magnesium ions are minimized by the addition of "builders". The most common "builder" used to be sodium trimetaphosphate. The phosphates react with the calcium or magnesium ions and keep them in solution but away from the soap molecule. The soap molecule can then do its job without interference from calcium or magnesium ions.

Soap, will react with metal ions in the water and can form insoluble precipitates.

The

precipitates can be seen in the soapy water and are referred to as soap scum. This soap scum can form deposits on clothes causing them to be gray or yellow in colour. To eliminate the metal ions in water, washing aids such as washing soda (sodium carbonate) and borax (sodium tetraborate) were added to the wash water. These compounds would precipitate the metal ions, eliminating most of the soap scum. With the discovery of synthetic

detergents, much of the need for washing aids was reduced. A detergent works similar to soap, but does not form precipitates with metal ions, reducing the discoloration of clothes due to the precipitated soap.

The development of syndets or synthetic detergent is to overcome the soap hard water problem. Syndets differ from soap in that the nonpolar fatty acids are replaced with alkyl or aryl sulfonic acid (ROSO3H). The alkyl or aryl sulfonic acids have long hydrophobic carbon chains and a hydrophilic sulfonate end. The different in polar groups is one of the key distinctions between soap and a synthetic detergent. Syndets forms micelles and cleanse in the same manner as soap.

APPARATUS Vegetable oil Ethanol Sodium hydroxide solution Sodium chloride Synthetic detergent 1% CaCl2 solution 1% MgCl2 solution 1% FeCl2 solution Mineral oil 1M HCl Cloth strip Tomato sauce

PROCEDURE Soap preparation 1. 25mL of vegetable oil is placed in a 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask. 20mL of ethanol and 25mL of 6M sodium hydroxide is then been added. The mixture are been stirred using a stirring bar the flask content. 2. The 250-mL flask is heated using water bath. 3. The mixture is stirred continuously during the heating process to prevent the mixture from foaming. The mixture is heated till there are no alcohol odours. 4. The paste like mixture is removed from the water bath and cooled in an ice bath for 10 minutes. 5. While the flask is cooling, the vacuum filtration apparatus is assembled.

6. A piece of filter paper is weigh to the nearest 0.001g and the mass is recorded. Filter paper is placed inside the Buchner funnel. The paper is moistened with water so it fits flush in the bottom of the funnel. 7. 150mL of saturated sodium chloride solution is added into the flask to salt out the soap. 8. The water at the aspirator is slowly turned on. The mixture from the Buchner funnel is poured into the flask. The soap was washed using 10mL of iced cold water and the suction filtration is continued till all the water is removed. 9. The soap is removed from the funnel and placed between two paper towels to dry it. The filter paper and the dried soap is weigh and the mass is recorded. Comparison if soap and detergent properties, precipitation and emulsification. 1. 2g of the prepared soap is dissolved in 100mL of boiling distilled water. The mixture is stirred till the soap is completely dissolved and allowed to cool. 2. The 1st and 2nd step is repeated using synthetic detergent. The pH of both solutions is determined using pH meter. 3. 3 test tubes are labelled 1, 2, and 3. 4 drop of mineral oil is added into each of the test tube. 5ml of distilled water is added to test tube 1. 5ml of stock soap solution is added to test tube 2. 5ml of stock synthetic detergent is added to test tube 3. 4. Each solution is mixed by shaking for 3-5 minutes. The solution emulsifies if there are a form of single layer. 5. 3 test tubes are labelled 1, 2, and 3. 2ml of stock soap solution is added into each of the test tubes. 2ml of 1% CaCl2 solution is added to test tube 1. 2ml of 1% MgCl2 solution to test tube 2. 2ml of 1% FeCl2 solution to test tube 3. Each solution is shaken to mix. The observation is recorded. 6. 4 drop of mineral oil is added to each test tube is step 5. Each test tube is shake to mix the solution and left for 3-5 minutes.

7. Step 5-6 is repeated using 2mL of stock detergent solution. Record which precipitate. 8. 5mL of stock soap solution in a test tube and 5mL of stock detergent solution in a second test tube. One drop 1M HCl is added each time into both of solution until pH in each solution is equal 3. 9. 1 drop of mineral oil is added to test tube step 11. The test tube is shaken to mix. Comparison of the cleaning abilities of soap and detergent 1. 3 beakers were prepared. 20mL of stock soap solution is added into beaker 1. 20mL of stock detergent solution is added to beaker 2. 2. 3 cloth test strip that been soak in tomato sauce been added into each of the beaker. The solution is repeatedly stirred using a glass rod for 5 minutes. 3. The cloth strip is removed and the excess water is squeeze out. 4. The strip cleanliness is compared and recorded.

RESULT Soap preparation Mass of container (g) Mass of soap + container (g) Mass of soap recovered (g) 13.10 25.88 12.78

Comparison of soap and detergent properties Brand of the synthetic detergent pH of soap solution pH of detergent solution Dynamo 10.43 8.61

System Distilled water Soap Detergent

Emulsification occurred Yes Yes (colloidal type) No

Hard water and acidic System Precipitate Soap CaCl2 MgCl2 FeCl2 Yes Yes Yes Detergent No No No Oil emulsified Soap No No No Detergent Yes Yes Yes

HCl required to change pH to 3 Solution Soap Synthetic detergent HCl required (drops) 10 3

Cleaning comparison Stock soap solution: completely clean Stock detergent solution: less clean

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DISCUSSION The preparation of the soap is made by saponification process. Then the soap property is compared with Dynamo detergent properties such as the emulsification, precipitation and cleaning ability. For the first comparison that is pH value, the pH reading of soap solution is 10.43 while the pH reading of synthetic detergent is 8.61. Both of the solution is alkali but the soap solutions are more alkali then the synthetic detergent solution. Alkalinity is an important property of most detergent and soap formulations. The ability of a cleaning chemical to neutralize fatty soils and, in some cases, saponify them (convert them to soap) for better removal depends on the presence and concentration of alkaline ingredients. These ingredients are called alkalinity builders. Whereas some alkali is necessary to stabilize builders and optimize the performance of surfactants, most synthetic detergents contain a relatively small amount of alkali. Many formulators feel that some alkali is necessary to neutralize acidic soils, and this is true with detergent systems where the pH in solution must be kept above a certain minimum point, as with phosphate. Alkalinity does play a role in detergency, and the form in which the alkali is supplied to the cleaning solution plays a significant role in determining its effectiveness. The second properties that been analyzed is either there is emulsification occurred with the stock solution or not. On the distilled water system there is emulsification occurred when drops of mineral oil added into it, while for the soap solution and synthetic detergent solution there is no emulsification occurred. The third properties that been analyzed is the effect of hard water and acidic water towards the soap solution and the synthetic detergent solution. The first set test is done by adding 1% CaCl2 solution into the soap solution and the synthetic detergent solution. The result is there is precipitate in the soap solution while there is no precipitate in the synthetic detergent solution. The same result goes, when 1% of MgCl2 and 1% of FeCl2 solution is added into both of the solution. As for the acidic solution the analysis is done by adding drops of 1M HCl solution into both of the soap solution and synthetic detergent solution until the pH is 3. Then the observation is both of the solutions do not have any precipitates. 6 drops of 1M HCl solution needed to change the pH of soap solution and 4 drops of 1M HCl solution to change the pH of synthetic detergent solution to 3. Hard water contains a greater quantity of Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ ions. The reaction of the earth alkali ions with soap produces predicates which create an insoluble residue on fabrics and can also discolour the fabric. White fabrics may become gray or yellowish and dingy.

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Hard water can also leave a film on hair and glass wares. Soap is less effective in hard water. The amount of soap needed for the complete precipitation of Ca 2+ cannot be used in the washing process. Moreover extra soap is required to disperse the precipitates in the suds. The harder the water, the more soap it takes to disperse the precipitates in the washing liquor. From the experiment it is shown that the soap will produce soap scum in hard water in hard water. The formulation of detergent is created to overcome the weakness of soap in hard water thus; there are no precipitates in the synthetic detergent solution. As for the last analysis it is for the cleaning ability of the soap and the synthetic detergent. Pieces of cloth strip that been soaked into ketchup, is then put into the soap solution and detergent solution. The strip cloth in soap solution and synthetic detergent is completely clean.

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CONCLUSION

Above all the experiment shows that soap is killed by hard water and acidic water. The cleaning effect of soap cant be carried out it the water contain heavy metal like Mg, Ca or Fe, as it will cause the soap to precipitates. Synthetic detergents were developed to overcome these limitations of soaps. Detergents are similar to soaps in having an ionic end and a non-polar end. They have different structures, however, which make them less susceptible to forming insoluble Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts. Many detergents and a few soaps contain phosphates, which serve as bases to neutralize acidic water and also to form insoluble salts with the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions. This prevents the reaction with soap that forms bathtub ring. Although a higher pH soap is better but still it is not user friendly because it will do harm to human skin and the ecosystem.

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RECOMMENDATIONS 1. There were several recommendations that can be made to improve the procedure or obtain a better result. Smelling the odour of alcohol is some step that must be carried out in specific and more practical method. By smelling the odour, sometimes doesnt ensure the alcohol is totally dissolved into the sodium hydroxide. 2. Other than that, it is essential to avoid the foaming to occur. As the foaming start to form, the alcohol will dissolved inside the foam making it hard to dissolve inside the sodium hydroxide. Using a large surface container can prevent this thing from happening.

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REFERENCES Bartolo, Soap in Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed, J.I.Kroschwitz, 1993, Wiley Interscience. p. 297-326. How do detergents clean. Retrieved April 10, 2011, form Editor.

http://chemistry.about.com/od/howthingswork/f/detergentfaq.htm Hard water soap. Retrieved April 10, 2011, from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/hard-watersoap.html

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