re Transistor Model

The three amplifier network configurations are:

The amplifier is a common-emitter when the emitter terminal is connected directly to the reference point, the input signal is applied to the base, and the output signal is connected on the collector. The amplifier is a common-collector when the collector terminal is connected directly to the reference point, the input signal is applied to the base, and the output signal is taken at the emitter terminal. The amplifier is a common-base when the base is connected to ground point, the input signal is connected to the emitter, and the output is on the collector.

Steps in obtaining the ac equivalent network: Step 1. Set all dc sources to zero and replace them by equivalent short-circuit. Step 2. Replace all capacitors by a shortcircuit equivalent. Step 3. Remove all resistors bypassed by the shorted capacitors. Step 4. Redraw the network.

CE Fixed-bias Configuration

Input voltage ( Vi) is applied at the base of the transistor. Output voltage ( Vo) is taken at the collector terminal. Emitter is the common terminal. CB and CC are coupling capacitors for the input and output voltages. There is no emitter resistor. The negative sign in the equation for Av tells that a 180 180 phase shift occurs between the input and output signals. The input signal is capacitively coupled to the base through CB, causing IB to vary above and below its dc bias value. The purpose of biasing is to establish a Q-point about which Qvariations in voltage and current occur in response to an input signal.

CE Fixed Bias Configuration

PARAMETERS Ac emitter resistance, re Rin(base) Input Impedance Zi Output Impedance Zo Voltage Gain Av = Vo/Vi Current Gain Ai = Io / Ii

AC FORMULAS 26 mV / IE re RB // Rin(base)

AC FORMULAS (effect of ro)

no effect no effect no effect Rc//ro -(Rc//ro)/re

Rc

-Rc / re

Vi and Vo phase relationship

The negative sign in the equation for Av reveals that a 180 phase shift occurs between the input and output signals.

CE Emitter-bias Configuration

Input voltage ( Vi) is applied at the base of the transistor. Output voltage ( Vo) is taken at the collector terminal. CB and CC are coupling capacitors for the input and output voltages. There is no emitter-bypass capacitor. emitterEmitter is at ac ground. The negative sign in the equation for Av tells that a 180 phase shift occurs between the input 180 and output signals.

AC Equivalent Network

PARAMETERS Ac emitter resistance, re Rin(base) Input Impedance Zi Output Impedance Zo Voltage Gain Av = Vo/Vi Current Gain Ai = Io/Ii ZB

AC FORMULAS 26 mV / IE re RB // ZB Rc - Rc / (re + RE ) RB / ( RB + ZB) (re + RE)

CE Voltage Divider Configuration

Input voltage ( Vi) is applied at the base of the transistor. Output voltage ( Vo) is taken at the collector terminal. Emitter is the common terminal. The negative sign in the equation for Av tells that a 180 phase shift occurs between the input 180 and output signals. CB and CC are coupling capacitors for the input and output voltages. CE is the emitter-bypass capacitor. emitter-

Voltage Divider

PARAMETERS Ac emitter resistance, re Rin(base) Input Impedance Zi Output Impedance Zo Voltage Gain Av = Vo/Vi Current Gain Ai = Io/Ii R12

AC FORMULAS 26 mV / IE re R12 // Rin(base) Rc -Rc / re R12 / (R12+re ) R1 // R2

Common Base

Input is applied at the emitter. Output is taken at the collector terminal Base is the common terminal. Used mainly as RF amplifier. Current gain is slightly less than one. Vo and Vi are in phase. Input impedance is low. Output impedance is high.

AC Equivalent Circuit

PARAMETERS Ac emitter resistance, re Input Impedance Zi Output Impedance Zo Voltage Gain Av = Vo/Vi Current Gain Ai = Io/Ii

AC FORMULAS 26 mV / IE RE//re

Rc Rc/re - [ RE / ( RE + re)] - -1

CC Emitter-follower Configuration Emitter

Input is applied at the base. Output is taken at the emitter terminal Collector is the common terminal. Used for impedance-matching purposes. impedanceUsed as an isolation amplifier. Vo and Vi are in phase. Input impedance is high. Output impedance is low. The output voltage is always slightly less than the input signal. Capacitors CB and CE must have a negligible reactance at the frequency of operation.

AC Equivalent Circuit

PARAMETERS Ac emitter resistance, re Rin(base) Input Impedance Zi Output Impedance Zo Voltage Gain Av = Vo/Vi Current Gain Ai = Io/Ii ZB

AC FORMULAS 26 mV / IE re RB //ZB

re // RE RE / ( RE + re) - [ RB / ( RB + ZB)] (re + RE)

Collector DC Feedback

SUMMARY OF AC PARAMETERS FOR CE, CC, AND CB AMPLIFIER

CHARACTERISTI CS Power Gain, Ap Voltage Gain, Av Current Gain, Ai Input Impedance, Zi Output Impedance, Zo Phase Inversion Application COMMON BASE moderate highest lowest(less than 1) lowest highest none RF amplifier COMMON EMITTER highest moderate moderate moderate moderate 180o outofphase The most widely used type of BJT amplifier COMMON COLLECTOR moderate lowest (less than 1) highest highest lowest none Isolator

CASCADE

A cascade connection is a series configuration with the output of one stage then applied as input to the second stage. Two or more transistors can be connected together to increase the overall gain. Each transistor that amplifies the signal is considered a stage. The overall voltage gain ( AVT) is the product of the gain for each stage. The initial stage of the amplifier must have a very high input impedance to avoid loading the source. Coupling capacitors prevent the dc bias of one stage from affecting the dc bias of another stage ( capacitors block dc).

Multistage Voltage Gain, AVT

The overall voltage gain of cascaded amplifiers is the product of the individual voltage gains.

Voltage gain expressed in decibels (dB) Av(dB) = 20logAv Overall voltage gain in dB of multistage system AVT(dB) = AV1(dB) + AV2(dB) + ..AVn(dB)

FORMULAS:
AVT = AV1 AV2 AV3 .. AVn AVT(dB) = 20 log [AV1 AV2 AV3 .. AVn]

Three-Stage Amplifier

CASCODE

A cascode connection has one transistor in series with another transistor. This connection is design to provide a high input impedance with low voltage gain to ensure that the input Miller capacitance is minimum. The overall voltage gain ( AVT) is the product of the gain for each stage. The voltage gain for the common-emitter stage is approximately equal to one.

Example:

FORMULAS:
Stage 1 ( common-emitter) Av1 = - re2 / re1 = -1 Stage 2 ( common-base) Av2 = Rc / re

DARLINGTON CONNECTION

The purpose of this configuration is to increase the overall current gain which is the product of the current gains of the individual transistor.

D = 1 2

Current gain is very large.

DARLINGTON CONNECTION
C C B B1 B2 E E
D = 1 + 2 + 12 12

B BD

Darlington emitter-follower network.

AC Equivalent Circuit

FORMULAS
Input Impedance, Zi Zi = RB // (ri + DRE ) Output Impedance, Zo Zo = RE // ri // ( ri / D ) Voltage Gain, Av Av = ( RE + DRE ) / [ ri + ( RE + DRE)] Current Gain, Ai Ai = DRB / ( RB + DRE)

Output Section

Power amplifiers are large-signal amplifiers. The larger part of the load line is used during signal operation. Power amplifiers are commonly used as the final stage of the communication receiver or transmitter to provide sufficient power to an output load to drive the speakers or to a transmitting antenna, typically a few watts to tens of watts.

CLASS A AMPLIFIERS

This amplifier operates entirely in the linear region of the transistors characteristic curves. The transistor operate and conduct during the full cycle (360) of the input signal. In this mode of operation, the network does not go into cutoff or saturation. The output voltage signal has the same shape as the input signal. Class A can be either be inverting or noninverting amplifier. For maximum output signal swing, the Q-point must be centered on the load line. Maximum efficiency of a class A amplifier is 25%.

Formulas
Ic(sat) = IcQ + VCEQ / Rc Maximum current re = VBE / Ic AC emitter resistor VCE(CO) = VCEQ + IcQRc Cutoff voltage Av = Rc / re Voltage gain, Av Ap = DCAv Power gain. Ap VCEQ = IcQRc Q-point PQ = IcQVCEQ Power (Q-point) PL = V2CEQ / 2RL Output load power

CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

This amplifiers operates in the linear region for half of the input cycle. The transistor is cutoff for the other half cycle of the input. For class B amplifiers, the Q-point is at cutoff Operated in a push-pull network in order to produce an output that is a replica of the input. Push-pull configuration is a type of class B amplifier with two transistors in which one transistor conducts for one half-cycle and the other operates for the other half-cycle. Crossover distortion is the deformation in the output at the point where each transistor changes from the cutoff state to the on state.4 Maximum efficiency is 79%

CLASS AB AMPLIFIERS

This amplifier is biased slightly above cutoff and operates in the linear region for slightly more than the half cycle of the input. It eliminates crossover distortion in class B amplifiers.

CLASS C

Amplifiers that operate in the linear region for only small part of the input cycle. This amplifier is biased below cutoff. Highest efficiency. Commonly used as tuned amplifier to produce a sinusoidal output. The maximum efficiency is higher than that of either class A or class B amplifiers.

Comparison
Class of Operation Class A Class B Class AB Class C Class D Efficiency Bias Operating cycle Distortion

25 % to 50% 79 % (max) Between A and B 100% Over 90%

Linear region Cutoff Above cutoff Below cutoff

360 180

Low High

Between A Moderate and B Less than 180

Pulse operation

Extreme

AMPLIFIER FREQUENCY RESPONSE

In the past lessons about amplifiers, the capacitive reactance, Xc, of the capacitors ( CB, CC, and CE) were assumed to be approximately equal to 0 . Also, the internal transistor capacitances were assume to be small enough. We will now consider the frequency effects introduced by the coupling and bypass capacitors at the low-frequency end and the internal transistor capacitances (parasitic) at the high frequencies.

LOW-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER RESPONSE

The capacitively coupled amplifier above has three high-pass RC circuits that affect its gain as the frequency is reduced below midrange.

FOURLow-Pass Filter (LPF) CATEGORIES Active

A type of filter that passes frequencies below the cutoff frequency (fc) while rejecting higher frequencies. Active High-Pass Filter (HPF) A type of filter that passes frequencies above the cutoff frequency while rejecting lower frequencies. Active Band-Pass Filter (BPF) A type filter that passes the midrange frequencies lying between the lower-cutoff frequency (f1) and the upper-cutoff frequency Active Band-Stop Filter (BSF) Band-Elimination Filter Notch Filter Band-Reject Filter A type of filter that rejects a range of frequencies lying between f1 and f2.

Important Terms

Bandwidth the usable range of frequencies that pass from input to output section Bode Plot a comparative plot (graph) of the gain versus frequency used to illustrate the response of an amplifier Critical Frequency (Cutoff) frequency at which the response of a filter is 3 dB less than midrange Decade ten times increase or decrease Midrange the part of a response curve between the two cutoff frequencies Octave two times increase or decrease Passband range of frequencies that are allowed to pass through a system Quality Factor the ratio of the center frequency (fo) to its bandwidth (BW)

CE Voltage-Divider

RC Network

Cutoff frequency

INPUT RC CIRCUIT
One RC circuit is formed by the input coupling capacitor, Cs, and the input impedance of the amplifier.

Zi = R1 // R2 // Rin = R1 // R2 // re

Cutoff frequency due to Cs

OUTPUT RC CIRCUIT
RC network that is formed by the coupling capacitor, Cc, and the resistance looking in at the collector and the load resistance.

Cutoff frequency due to Cc

Considering the effect of ro

BYPASS RC CIRCUIT

Rth = R1 // R2 // Rs

fCE = 1/ ( 2 RTCE ) = 1 / [ 2(( re + Rth/ )// RE ) CE ]

THE DOMINANT (highest) LOWER CRITICAL FREQUENCY WILL DETERMINE THE LOWER CUTOFF FREQUENCY, f1, OF THE SYSTEM. If fCE < fCB < fCC then f1 = fCC If fCC < fCE < fCB then f1 = fCB If fCB < fCC < fCE then f1 = fCE

System Voltage Gain, AVS

Considering the effect of Rs

HIGH - FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER RESPONSE

At the higher frequency end, the transistors internal capacitances begin to have a significant effect on the gain.

MILLER CAPACITANCE
The interelectrode capacitances between terminals can be used to simplify the analysis of inverting amplifiers at high frequencies. The coupling and bypass capacitors have all been replaced by their short-circuit equivalent due to their very low reactance.

Millers theorem states that Cf effectively appears as a capacitance from input to ground. It also states that Cf effectively appears as a capacitance from output to ground. Avmid = (-Rc//RL)/re

Cin(Miller) = Cf ( 1 Avmid) Cout(Miller) = Cf ( 1 1 / Avmid )

INPUT RC CIRCUIT

RT = Rs // R1 // R2 // Rin = Rs // R1 // R2 // re CT = Cw(input) + Cbe + Cin(Miller)

Upper cutoff frequency due to input RC network.

fCi = 1/ ( 2 RTCT ) = 1 / [ 2( Rs // R1 // R2 // re) (Cw(input) + Cbe + Cin(Miller) ) ]

OUTPUT RC NETWORK

RT = Rc // RL CT = Cw(out) + Cce + Cout(Miller)

Upper cutoff frequency due to output RC circuit.

fCo = 1/ ( 2 RTCT ) = 1 / [ 2( Rc // RL ) (Cw(iout) + Cce + Cout(Miller) ) ]

THE LOWER OF THE TWO CRITICAL HIGH FREQUENCIES IS THE DOMINANT UPPER CUTOFF FREQUENCY, f2, OF THE SYSTEM.

Example1

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER, DIFF-AMP

An amplifier that produces an output signal proportional to the difference of the two input signals. It has a very large gain when opposite signals are applied to the inputs as compared to the negligible gain resulting from common inputs. Commonly used for the input stages of an operational amplifier.

BASIC CIRCUIT
The circuit has two separate inputs, two outputs, and both emitter terminals are connected together.

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION:

SINGLE-ENDED INPUT
Case 1: Vi1 0 and Vi2 = 0

Input signal is applied to B1 ( Vi1 0 ). B2 is grounded ( Vi2 = 0). Inverted amplified output signal, Vo1, appears at terminal C1. A signal voltage Ve appears in phase at the emitter of Q1 and Q2 which becomes an input to Q2. Q2 functions as a common-base amplifier. Noninverted amplified output signal, Vo2, appears at terminal C2. Voltage gain Av1 = - Rc / re. Voltage gain Av2 = +Rc / re.

CONFIGURATION

Case 2: Vi2 0 and Vi1 = 0

Input signal is applied to B2 ( Vi2 0 ). B1 is grounded ( Vi1 = 0). Inverted amplified output signal, Vo2, appears at terminal C2. A signal voltage Ve appears in phase at the emitter of Q1 and Q2 which becomes an input to Q1. Q1 functions as a common-base amplifier. Noninverted amplified output signal, Vo1, appears at terminal C1. Voltage gain Av2 = - Rc / re. Voltage gain Av1 = +Rc / re.

CONFIGURATION

DIFFERENTIAL INPUT

Two opposite-polarity input signals are applied to the inputs ( double-ended operation). Vi1 and Vo2 are in phase. Vi2 and Vo1 are in phase. There is a 180 out-of-phase relationship between Vo1 and Vo2. / Vo1/ = / Vo2/

COMMON-MODE INPUT

The same input is applied to both input terminals. The output signals for both transistors are equal to zero

COMMON-MODE REJECTION RATIO, CMRR

The ratio between differential voltage gain and common-mode gain. The measure of an amplifiers ability to reject common-mode signals. CMRR = (ideal).
CMRR = Avd / Acm Where: Avd = differential voltage gain Acm = common-mode gain Expressed in decibels CMRR = 20 log ( Avd / Acm)

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS (OP-AMPS)

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
An op-amp is a high gain differential amplifier with high input impedance (Zi) and low output impedance (Zo). An op-amp contains several stages of differential amplifier to achieve a very high voltage gain.

Typical op-amp unit

The concept of negative feedback is used in several op-amp applications. Negative feedback is the process whereby a portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is returned to the input with a phase angle that opposes the input signal.

AC Equivalent Network

OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Op-amp provides an output component that is due to the amplification of the difference of the signals (Vd) applied to the two inputs and a component due to the signals common to both inputs (Vc).
Where : Vd = difference voltage Vd = Vi1 Vi2 Vc = common voltage ( unwanted) Vi1 + Vi2 Vc = -------------2 Ad = differential gain Ac = common mode gain Ad >> Ac

Vo = AdVd + AcVc

COMMON MODE REJECTION RATIO, CMRR

The measure of an amplifiers ability to reject unwanted signals. The main purpose of differential connection is to amplify the difference signal while rejecting the common signal (noise) at the inputs.

CMRR = Ad Ac CMRRdB= 20 log Ad Ac CMRR = infinite (ideal) the larger the value, the better the circuit operation Vo = AdVd + AcVc Vo = AdVd 1 + AcVc AdVd AdVd Vc 1 + ------------CMRR Vd

Vo =

DC OFFSSET PARAMETER (output error voltage)

Unwanted voltage and current generated by the internal circuitry and not by the applied input signal.

INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE; VIO (1mV ~ 6mV)

When Vi = 0, the circuit acts like an noninverting amplifier.

Vo(offset) =

VIO [ 1 + Rf / R1 ]

INPUT OFFSET CURRENT;IIO (20nA ~ 200 nA)

An offset current due to the difference in currents at the two inputs.

Vo(offset) = IIO Rf TOTAL OUTPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE

Vo(offset) = VIO [ 1 + Rf / R1 ] + IIO Rf

INPUT BIAS CURRENT , I IB I+IB + I-IB IIB = --------------2 I+IB = IIB + IIO 2 I-IB = IIB - IIO 2 IIO = I+IB - I-IB

FREQUENCY PARAMETERS
CUTOFF FREQUENCY, fc

fc = f1 / AVD Where B1 = unity- gain BW f1 = unity- gain freq AVD = voltage differential gain = open loop voltage gain = 200V/mV typical = 20V/mV (min)

SLEW RATE, SR
Slew rate is the maximum permissible rate at which op-amp output can change in volts per microsecond. If the rate of output voltage change is greater than SR, the output signal will be distorted.

SR = Vo / t
Vo = ACL Vi Vo / t = ACL [ Vi / t ] SR = ACL [ Vi / t ]

MAXIMUM SIGNAL FREQUENCY

The input frequency of an op-amp is dependent on both the bandwidth and slew rate parameters

ws < SR/ K K =output gain factor K = ACL Vi

APPLICATIONS: INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Vo = - (Rf / R1) Vi Zi = R1 + Rf / AOL R1 Zo = [ AOL / ( 1 + AOL)] Rf // Zout Zo Zout

Where Zout = open-loop output impedance Zin = open-loop input impedance AOL = open-loop gain Zi = input impedance of the inverting amplifier Zo = output impedance of the inverting amplifier B = feedback fraction AOL(mid) = midrange open-loop gain fi = signal frequency fc = critical frequency BWCL = closed-loop BW

NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER

Vo = [ 1 + Rf / R1 ] Vi Zi = [ 1 + AOLB ] Zin Zo = Zout / ( 1 + AOLB)

UNITY FOLLOWER
A voltage buffer configuration provides a means of isolating an input signal from a load.

Vo = Vi B=1 ACL = 1 Zi = ( 1 + AOL) Zin Zo = Zout / ( 1+ AOL)

SUMMING AMPLIFIER

Rf Rf Rf Vo = - ------ V1 + -------- V2 + ---------V3 R1 R2 R3

INTEGRATOR

DIFFERENTIATOR

VOLTAGE DIFFERENCE

INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER

Vo = [1 + 2Rf / RG ] ( V1 V2 )
Let R1 = R3 = R2 = R4 = R Rf1 = Rf2 = Rf

PHASE-SHIFT OSCILLATOR
Oscillator is a circuit that produces periodic (repeating) waveforms on its output with only the dc supply as a required input.

fo =

1_____ 26 RC

B = 1 / 29

ACTIVE FILTERS

First-order LPF

Fourth-order LPF

Values for Butterworth Response

Order Roll off rate dB/Decade First stage Poles First stage DF Second stage Poles Second stage DF Third stage Poles Third stage DF

1 2 3 4 5 6

20 40 60 80 100 120

1 2 2 2 2 2

Optional 1.414 1.0 1.848 1.0 1.932 1 2 2 2 1.0 0.765 1.618 1.414 1 2 0.618 0.518

FUNCTION GENERATOR
Vz1 R4 Vz2 R3 R2 2 R1 3 + C11 C12 C13 X1 2 X10 2 X100 2 X1k 2 X10k 2
11

1 1 1

V-

11

OUT
V+

C14
0

1 1 1

2 X1 2 X10

1 1

C1 C15 C2 3 1 R9 2 1 R5 2 2 + 4 V+

C3 2 X100 X1k

OUT
V11

V-

R7

R10 1 2 2 3

OUT
V+

1 1

2 X10k 2

C4
0

C5

R6 X1
2

C6

C7

C8 X1k
2

C9

C10 X10k
2 2 2 2

2 R8 1

X10 X100
2 2

2 R11 1

Vout