Chapter 8 8.

1 Like begets like, more or less *The ability of organisms to reproduce their own kind distinguishes living things from nonliving matter. (Only people make people.) *Asexual reproduction: the creation of genetically identical offspring by a single parent. In asexual reproduction, an organism doubles its chromosomes, or the structures that contain the DNA of an organism. After doubling, identical chromosomes are distributed to opposite sides of the cell. When this cell divides, the resultant two daughter cells are created. *Sexual reproduction: each offspring inherits a unique combination of genes from its two parents. Sexual reproduction creates offspring that have highly varied genes. 8.2 Cells arise only from preexisting cells. *Virchow (1858)- all cells come from a cell *Cell division: The reproduction of a cell. In unicellular organisms, cell division can reproduce an entire organism. Cell division on a larger scale, mulitcellular, allows organisms to reproduce asexually, or sexually. Cell division in sexual reproduction enables sexually reproducing individuals to devolop from a single cell, the fertilized egg, zygote, into an adult organism. Cell division continues to function in renewal and repair. 8.3 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission. *Binary Fission: asexual reproduction in which a parent organism, often a single cell, divides into two individuals of about equal size. *Prokaryotes genes are carried in circular DNA. Chromosomes are much smaller than those of eukaryotes. *Process of binary fission in a prokaryote: As chromosome is duplicating, copies move to opposite ends of the cell. The cell elongates, and the plasma membrane grows inward, dividing the parent cell into two daughter cells.

Eukaryotic Cells 8.4 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division. *Eukaryotic cells are generally more complex and much larger than prokaryotic cells, and they carry many more genes. All of the genes are found in the nucleus, grouped into multiple chromosomes. *Chromosomes exist as long thin fibers called chromatin; a combination of DNA and protein molecules. When cell division begins, chromatin coils up, and compact into visible chromosomes. The protein molecules surrounding chromosomal DNA are more numerous in eukaryotic cells; these proteins maintain the structure and control the activity of the genes. *Humans generally have 46 chromosomes, dogs have 78.

*Before cell division occurs, a eukaryotic cell duplicates all chromosomes. The DNA is copied, and new protein molecules attach. The result of the chromosome doubling is sister chromatids, each of which contain exact copies of the DNA. The two chromatids are joined by a centromere.

When the cell divides, sister chromatids separate, each chromatid are called a chromosome, identical to original chromosome. New chromosomes go to the daughter cells. This is why each daughter cell receives a complete and identical set of chromosomes. 8.5 The cell cycle multiplies cells *Cell division is the basis of reproduction for every organism. It enables a mulitcellular organism to grow to adult size, replaces worn out or damaged cells, maintains number required for life. Cell division is a key part of the cell cycle. *The cell cycle consists of two main stages: a growing stage(interphase-cell doubles everything in cytoplasm, replicates chromosomal DNA) and actual cell division(miotic phase) *Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase(90%). Cell metabolism is high. A cell in interphase increases # of proteins, creates more organelles, and grows in size. Chromosomes duplicate during interphase. *Interphase has three parts: G1, S, G2. A cell grows, doubles chromosomes, and completes prepares for cell division. A time of high metabolic activity, where the cell grows by producing proteins, and organelles are replicated. *G1: This is the portion of the cell cycle just after division, but before DNA synthesis. During this time the cell grows by producing proteins and organelles. *S- phase: DNA is synthesized, and replicated. After replications, chromosomes are doubled, each with two sister chromatids. *G2- third subphase of interphase is a period of metabolic activity and growth. During this phase the cell makes final preparations for division. *Miotic phase(M phase)- when the cell divides, accounts for only 10% of the total time of cell cycle. Two stages: mitosis, and cytokenisis. This phase creates two genetically identical daugter cells, each with a single nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane. After this phase, cells return to G1, and repeat cycle. *Mitosis: the nucleus and its contents, including the doubled chromosomes, divide and become evenly distributed to two daughter nuclei. *Cytokenisis: the cytoplasm divides in two. *Mitosis is unique to Eukaryotes 8.6 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes. *Mitosis has 5 main stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.*The chromosomes movements depend on the mitotic spindle: a structure of microtubules that guides in the separation of the sets

of daughter chromosomes.

8.7 Cytokenisis differs for plant and animal cells. *Cytokenisis, or division of cell into two, begins during telophase, although it may begin late in anaphase.

*Animal cells: cytokenisis occurs by a process called cleavage. *A cleavage begins at a cleavage furrow, a shallow groove in the cell surface. At this site, the cytoplasms ring of microfilaments(actin) and associated proteins(myosin). *The cleavage furrow deepens and eventually divides the parent cell in two, producing two separate cells, each with its own nucleus and cytoplas,/ *Plant cells that posess cell walls: in telophase, vesicles collect at the middle of the parent cell. The vescilces fuse, and a membraneous cell plate forms. The cell plate moves outward, and two daughter cells are created. 8.8 Anchorage, cell denisity, and chemical growth factors affect cell division. *Cell division can repair wounds. *There are many factors, both chemical and physical that can influence cell division. *A growth factor is a protein secreted by certain body cells that stimulates other cells to divide. *Density dependent inhibition is a phenomenon in which crowded cells stop dividing. This is an example of a physical factor. *Most cells exhibit anchorage dependence, as they must be in contact with a solid surface to divide.dasdffads 8.9 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system. *Most cells usually do not divide unless they arre signaled by other cells to do so. Growth factors are the main signals-they promote cell division. *A cell cycle control system operates in cycles, operates a set of molecules to trigger and coordinate key events in the cell cycle. (The cell cycle isnt like a row of domioes falling, it requires proteins to trigger sequential steps). *The checkpoints in the cell cycle are critical points where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cycle.

*The G1 checkpoint is the most important. If a cell receives a go ahead signal from a growth factor, it will usually complete its cycle entirely, and divide. IF it does not receive a go ahead signal at G1, then the cell will exit the cycle, and switch into a nondividing state galled the G0 phase. *Growth factors have specific receptor proteins in a cells plasma membrane. Binding of the growth factor to the receptor triggers a pathway that leads to division. Via a series of relay molecules the signal reaches the cell cycle control system and overrides the brakes that would have otherwise prevented progress. 8.10 Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors. *Cancer is a disease of the cell cycle; cancer cells do not respond to the cell cycle control system, and they can divide excessively and invade other tissues in the body. If unchecked, cancer cells may continue to grow until they kill an organism. *Cancer cells begin when a single cell undergoes transformation(normal-cancerous). *If the cell evades the immune system destruction, then it may proliferate into a tumor; an abnormally growing mass of body cells. If abnormal cells remain at the original site, it is called a benign tumor. (often can be completely removed by surgery) *A malignant tumor can spread into neighboring tissues. Blood vessels grow toward the tumor, and if tumor cells enter the blood stream, it moves to various parts of the body. Someone with a malignant tumor is diagnosed with cancer. *Cancers are named according to the organ or tissue in which they originate.

*Cancer cells disregard density dependent inhibition, and continue to divide even at high densities. *Many tumors can be removed surgically, if localized; or treated with high energy radiation. *To treat widespread or metastatic(spread via bloodstream) tumors, chemotherapy is used. 8.11 Mitosis makes it possible for organisms to grow, regenerate and repair tissues, and reproduce asexually by producing cells that carry the same genes as the parent cells. 8.12 Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs. *In humans, a typical body cell, or somatic cell, has 46 chromosomes. Each chromosme has 2 sister chromatids, and is paired with another chromosome identical in lentgth and centromere position. Together, the cell contains 23 pairs of duplicated chromosomes. *Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere. *Two chromosomes composing a pair are called homologous chromosomes, because both carry genes that control the same inherited characteristics. *A gene that determines a particular characteristic is located at a particular place or locus, on a chromosome. *The two distinct chromosmes, X and Y are an exeption to the pattern of homologus chromosomes. *Females have a homolgous pair XX, males have XY. These determine sex, and are called sex chromosomes. The other pairs of chromosomes(22 pairs) are called autosomes. 8.13 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes. *Two sets of chromosmes, one inherited from each parent is characteristic of humans. *Any cell with two homologous sets of chromosomes is called diploid. 2n=46. *Egg and sperm cells, or gametes have 22 autosomes plus a single sex chromosome, either X or Y. *A cell with a single chromosome set is called a haploid cell. n=23. *Sexual intercourse allows a haploid sperm cell to reach and fuse with a haploid egg cell: fertilization. The resulting fertilized egg, called a zygote is diploid. *Gametes are made by meiosis, which occurs only in reproductive organs (ovaries/testes) 8.14 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid. *Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces haploid gametes in diploid organisms. *Many stages of meiosis closely resemble corresponding stages in mitosis. Both mitosis and meiosis are preceeded by the duplication, or doubling of chromosomes. This duplication is followed by two cell divisions, meiosis I and meisois II. *The result of the divisions are four daughter cells, each with a single haploid set of chromosomes. Meiosis produces half as many chromosomes as the parent cell.

8.15 Mitosis and meiosis have important similarities and differences. *Mitosis provides for growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction. Mitosis produces daughter cells genetically identical to the parent cell. Meiosis, needed for sexual reproduction, creates haploid daughter cells. *Both: chromosomes double only once, interphase. *Mitosis: one division of the nucleus, cytokenisis. *Meiosis: two nuclear and cytoplasmic divisions, yielding 4 haploid cells.

*Meiosis I is the only events unique to meiosis. In this part, prophase I duplicates homologus chromosomes, and they pair to form tetrads, or four chromatdis, each pair joined at centromeres. Crossing over occurs between homologous chromatids. Metaphase I, tetrads align on the metaphase plate. Anaphase I, homologous pairs separate, sister chromatids stay together. Result of meiosis I= two haploid cells, each chromosome has two sister chromatids. *Meiosis II is identical to mitosis, and it separates sister chromatids. However, unlike mitosis, each daughter cell produced by Meiosis II has only haploid sets of chromosomes. 8.16 Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring. *Offspring that are produced by sexual reproduction are highly varied, and genetically unique. *Mutations are the source of genetic diversity, changes in DNA create varied versions of genes. *Sexual reproduction reshuffles the genes, and produces genetic variation. *The arrangement of homologous chromosome pairs in metaphase(meiosis I) affects the gametes. Tetrads, the homologous pairs at metaphase I are oriented randomly. There are four possible chromosome combinations. *The total number of combinations of chromosomes that meiosis can package into gametes=2N. N= the haploid number. *Each gamete a human produces contains 8 million possible combinations of chromosomes btwn m+f. When a gamete from one individual unites with a gamete of another during fertilization, the zygote has about 64 trillion possible combinations of chromosomes. 8.17 Homologous chromosomes can carry different versions of genes. *Homologous chromosomes have genes for the same characteristic at corresponding loci, or location on a chromosome. *Gametes, and offspring produced are different from one another because homologous chromosomes can bear two different kinds of genetic information for the same characteristic. 8.18 Crossing over further increases genetic variablility. *Crossing over: an exchange of corresponding segments between two homologous chromosomes in prophase I of meiosis. The chromosomes are a tetrad-4 chromatids, each pair of sister chromatids joined at the centromere. *The sites of crossing over are called chiasma. This is where two homologous(nonsister) chromatids are attached to each other.

*At the time of prophase I of meiosis, homologous chromosomes are paired, and each gene on one homolog is aligned precisely with corresponding gene on other homolog. *The DNA molecules of two nonsister chomatids break at the same place. *Then the broken chromatids join together, and the two homologous segments trade places, crossing over. This produces hybrid chromosomes with new combinations. *When homologus chromosomes separate in anaphase I, new segements are created. *Meiosis II- the sister chromatids separate. *Genetic recombination: the production of gene combinations different from those carried by the original chromosomes. 8.19 A karotype is a photographic inventory of an individuals chromosomes. *Errors in meiosis can lead to gametes containing chromosomes in abnormal numbers or with major alterations to their structures.

*Karyotpe: can detect these conditions, shows the chromosomes condensed and doubled, as they appear in metaphase of meiosis. 8.20 An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome. *Trisomy 21: three number 21 chromosomes, making 47 chromosomes in total. *Down syndrome: A human genetic disorder resulting from the presence of an extra chromosome 21; characterized by heart and respiratory defects and varying degrees of mental retardation. 8.21 Accidents during meiosis can alter chromosome number *Almost always, the meiotic spindle distributes chromosomes to daughter cells without error. *An accidental mistake, called a nondisjunction occurs when the members of a chromosome pair fail to separate. *If an abnormal gamete produced by nondisjunction unites with a normal gamete in fertilization, the result is a zygote with an abnormal number of chromosomes. *Abnromal numbers of genses can produce a syndrome of disorders. 8.22 Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes do not usually affect survival. Nondisjunction in meiosis does not affect just autosomes, but also, it can lead to abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes X and Y. This causes less of an impact because the Y chromosome is small and caries few genes.

8.23 New species can arise from errors in cell division Errors in meiosis or mitosis are hypothesized to have led to the evolution of new species. Polyploid: an organism with more than two sets of homologous chromosomes in each somatic cell. At least half of all species of flowering plants are polyploidy. Polyploidy is less common in animal. 8.24 Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancer. *Even if numbers are all normal, abnormalities in chromosome structure may cause disorder. Breakage of a chromosome can lead to a variety of rearrangements affecting the genes of that chormosme. *Deletion: If a fragment of a chromosme is lost, the remaining chromosome will have this. *Duplication: If a fragment from one chromosome joins to a sister chromatid or homologous chromosome. *Inversion: If a fragment reattaches to the original chromosome but in reverse direction. *Translocation: the attachemtn of a chromosomal fragment to a nonhomologous chromosome.