PROFESSORS NOTES SEMICONDUCTORS

7.1 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS When we consider solidstate materials in terms of their electrical properties, we generally group them according to electrical conductivity as: conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. The distinction between these types of materials is relative. All materials are conductive, some are just more conductive than others. But in the electronic kingdom, the mechanisms of conduction (and nonconduction) are of considerable importance, and we will direct our attention thereto. The material that is the most interesting, semiconductors, is more than just a material whose conductivity falls between that of insulators and that of conductors. It is a material with a highly variable conductivity. In its pure state, a semiconductor might have a conductivity as much as 12 orders of magnitude less than that of copper which makes it mighty like an insulator. But with trace amounts of impurities, the same material may be as much as 12 orders of magnitude more conductive than glass which make it reasonably conductive, although not as good as a real conductor. Furthermore, this conductivity is highly sensitive to illumination, temperature, magnetic field and electrical field, and maybe even to the presence of cognitive mental processes. It is this sensitivity to the wide variety of factors, and the fact that impurities exercise considerable control over this sensitivity, that makes the semiconductor one of the most important materials in the electrical engineering community. A pure semiconductor is strongly temperature dependent, and serves well as a temperaturesensitive resistance. Trace levels of impurities inhibit this thermistor behavior, and will strongly increase its conductive properties. Although it might seem that a material with such sensitivity to impurities and temperature is limited in its usefulness, it is these ambivalent qualities that give the semiconductor its immense value. The advances in materials technology have allowed the engineering community to gain a very fine control over the levels of impurity alloying and an accurate patterning of this process. This technology is the way in which we have gained the many options for control and channeling of electrical currents and fields and provided the large menu of transistor devices and integrated circuits. Since a semiconductor is a poor conductor, it can accommodate separation(s) of charge and localized Efields. Localized Efields can block or enhance current flow. Since a semiconductor is a conductor, it can sustain an electrically significant transport of mobile charge carriers. And since the electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is strongly dependent on type and level of impurities, this feature can be patterned to provide channels, paths, and junctions. It is this degree of control that allows us to create many variants of current and voltage characteristics, and means for their control. Semiconductor devices may range from tiny semiconductor switches to huge power transistors. Semiconductors, whether silicon, germanium, galliumarsenide, indium antimonide, or any one of a few dozen others, generally exist in crystalline or polycrystalline form. When atoms join together in a group, as they do in the case of molecules, their energy levels are shared, and they prefer to separate energies into slight differences. In the crystalline state atoms share existence and organize into a highly regimented array, of a massive scale extending off to infinity in all directions. Because of this huge degree of sharing, the energy states of the single atom become considerably spread and smeared out, as atoms seek to slightly differentiate and yet remain a part of the regiment. These energies tend to rearrange into parity groupings, which we define as energy bands.

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When arranged in these crowded states of matter, particularly the highly organized crystalline state, materials share their electrons, and elect, in accordance with the rules of parity, to form two types of states consistent with electron structuring[7.11]: (1) bonding states, which we identify as valence states, and (2) antibonding states, which we identify as conducting states. The antibonding states always are at the more excited, higher energy levels. The energylevel representation of these states for a semiconductor material is shown by figure 7.11.

(crystalline)

(gaseous) discrete energy states

antibonding

EC EV
bonding

transition

atomic separation
5 nm 500 nm

Figure 7.11 Bonding and antibonding states. [McKelvey, p 258]

These states are defined by the parent type of atoms. It is the crowded proximity that causes the splitting and grouping of energies, as represented by figure 7.11. The grouping of these energies form into bands of energy states, as represented by figure 7.11. Insulators will have these distinct energy bands, conductors will have have these bands, and, of course, so will semiconductors. The bands in which the conductive and interactive action takes place are called: (1) the conduction band, which is a band of antibonding energy states, and (2) the valence band, which is the band of chemical bonding energy states. Insulators are the most respectable members of the solidstate community, since they have conduction and valence bands widely separated, with an energy gap of value EG = EC EV on the order of 5 eV or more. EC is the the lower boundary of the conduction band of energy states and EV is the upper boundary of the valence band of energy states. Conductors do not have this respectability, since their energy bands completely overlap, and the concept of a energy gap and separation of bonding and antibonding states is not a meaningful concept. Electrons are like children. They are localized to an atomic site, their own little home, one among many houses regularly spaced within the crystalline community. They are permitted a certain amount of local movement around the neighborhood. Naturally these children are influenced by the thermal events that take place within the crystalline community. And thermal energy is like money. A material for which the energy band edges EC and EV are relatively close will have electrons, who, like children, given a relatively small amount of this thermal energy money, will take leave of

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home (bonding site) in the valence band, take a leap, off into an antibonding state in the conduction band, and venture forth. Maybe after their thermal umbrage becomes depleted, they might sheepishly return, somewhat like the prodigal son. But while they are in the conduction band they are only loosely attached to the lattice and can wander about freely and easily. In conductors, they overlap, so no extra thermal energy is needed for an electron to gain access to an antibonding state. The parents do not provide a stronglybound home situation for them, and they roam freely throughout the streets of the crystal. In insulators, the energy gap is large, and the electrons must acquire a great deal of thermal energy to leave home and jump into one of the conducting states above the conduction band edge, EC . But semiconductors have an energy gap that is just right. It is about 13 eV. Since the band edges EV and EC are relatively close, the statistical probability of an electron gaining enough energy from ambient thermal sources to cross the gap is reasonable. And since the material is (usually) crystalline, impurities may be added to the lattice which will dramatically influence the situation and statistics.

EC EC EV EC conductor (overlapping bands) EV

EV insulator (bandgap > 5 eV)

semiconductor (bandgap < 3 eV)

Figure 7.12: Band structures for the different materials. So, much to our surprise, it appears that much of our semiconductor electronics is nothing more than a gigantic accounting process of thermal statistics associated with large numbers. Electrical behavior is determined by a grand canonical ensemble of probability. The probability of molecular behavior is well documented, and the probability that an electron occupies a given energy state is given by the FermiDirac distribution,

f (E)

This probability distribution is shown by figure 7.12. Note that the value of energy E = EF forms a statistical edge that is relatively abrupt if the thermal energy kT is small. The edge is relatively broad if the thermal energy is large. The parameter k is the Boltzmann energytemperature constant, = 8.62 105 eV/k. At ambient temperature T = 300, kT .02585 eV. We define EF as the Fermi energy. Note that at E = EF, f(E ) = 0.5. This result tells us that EF is an index about which there must be just as many empty states for E < EF as there are filled states for E >EF.

1 e (E

EF) kT

(7.11)

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f(E)

1.0

0.5 E (rear) EF (front)

Figure 7.12 The FermiDirac distribution. Occupation probability of church pews being filled. FermiDirac electron statistics are not unlike the statistics of devout Baptists seated in church on Sunday morning. The pews in the rear fill up first (these = lowest energy levels). As you look toward the front, more and more empty seats are evident, eventually reaching a point where the occupancy level drops to about 50%. Beyond this point the seats become exponentially more empty. Maybe Enrico Fermi was an Italian Baptist. Whatever his affiliation, he was good at assessing combinational probability and the statistics thereto, on the scale of molecular and atomic ensembles, in this case for numbers such as 1016 members being seated in 1022 seats. The result reduces to the interesting and important probability distribution given so clearly and concisely by equation (7.11). For an intrinsic (= pure) semiconductor, this 50% point, E = EF will be approximately at the midpoint of the energy gap, since there must be just as many empty states in the valence band as there are free electrons above the energy gap, just like the situation represented by Figure 7.12 or figure 7.13.

f(E) 1.0 0.5

EF

E EV EC

Figure 7.13 The FermiDirac distribution overlaid upon energy bandgap for an intrinsic (= pure) semiconductor. Note that when an electron leaves a valence state, a void is left behind. The void is the absence of an electron, otherwise known as a hole. Since it is the absence of an electron it has net positive charge. The hole can pass from one site to another, much like the electrons in antibonding states do. Therefore holes represent a form of conduction charges, just like conduction electrons are a form of conduction charges, except that holes are of charge +q each. Even though holes are not there, they are a more physically identifiable presence than are electrons. They are an absence of matter, like the little bubblets in a glass of gingerale. Holes are all about the same size, and they fall in the opposite direction from that of the electrons when subjected to an Efield, just like the bubbles fall upward

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instead of downward (where down is defined by the gravitational field). They can only exist in the presence of the condensed environment, such as solid or liquid. These representations are illustrated by figure 7.14.

E field G field

( bubbles and pellets ) Figure 7.14 Holes and electrons

( holes and electrons )

The flow of holes within a solidstate material is, in all respects, equivalent to a flow of positive charge carriers. They are identical to the concept of a flux of bubbles, which are a flow of negative (absence of) matter, but do not exist unless the space is the filled solid or liquid molecular environment. Because of their mobility, the holes in the valence band are just like electrons in the conduction band, except they fall in the opposite direction of that of the electrons when subject to the drift force of an an electric field. Solidstate materials are characterized by a crystalline form based on a unit cell, which forms the basic stacking block for an infinite lattice extending in all directions as far as the eye can see. For most semiconductor materials, this is the diamond lattice, shown by figure 7.15.

(1 0 0 )

a
(1 1 0 )

Figure 7.15 Diamond lattice structure of silicon, and Miller index notation. For the diamond lattice, the bond length, or distance between nearest neighbors, is a 3 4 , where a is the lattice constant. Note that the diamond unit cell is of the form of a facecenteredcubic lattice, if you are acquainted with crystalline terminology. It has 8 atoms per unit cell. You might see if you can count these up, with attention to the fact that some atoms are shared at the corners and at the faces with other cells. If we think about each site as being encompassed by a sphere of a radius of half the bond length, then the packing fraction, which is the fraction of the

cube filled by the spherical zones, is

3 16 .

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If we apply this lattice geometry to silicon, which crystallizes in the form of a diamond lattice since it is tetrahedral, the lattice constant a = 0.543 nm, corresponding to a density of 5 1022 atoms/cm3.

7.2 CARRIER LEVELS IN SEMICONDUCTORS The energy bandgap causes the semiconductor materials to have two types of charge carriers, (1) electrons which are charge carriers of magnitude q, and (2) holes which are carriers of magnitude +q. Because of the polarity, these carriers are usually designated as ntype and ptype, respectively. Semiconductors in which ntype carriers dominate are called ntype semiconductors, and semiconductors in which ptype carriers dominate are called ptype semiconductors. The conductive properties of a semiconductor are a function of the available conductive charge density, and therefore are proportional to the density of the charge carriers. The density of the mobile, conducting, ntype carriers can be determined from the density of states that exist in the conduction band and the probability that they will be occupied, as given by equation (7.11). Density of energy states is a measure of how many possible energy levels exist between E and E + dE per volume. These energy states are nothing more than energy harmonics ringing and vibrating within the crystalline lattice. (They are at frequencies on the order of 1015 Hz, so dont expect them to be audible). There are, of course, a virtually infinite number and density of these molecular harmonics. The energy density of these vibrational energy states is defined by the number of possible wavenumber harmonics that can exist within the crystalline lattice, which means that we consider 3dimensions worth of harmonics. Like any kind of harmonics, they are only sustained if they match the selection rules defined by the nodes (= atomic sites) of the crystalline lattice. It is these selection rules, taken on a grand scale, which causes the grouping of these energy states into energy bands. Definition of these energy states is not as wicked an analysis as it sounds because molecular harmonic energy of vibrating masses (electrons) of mass me is related to magnitude of the wavenumber k by[7.21]

where k is the wavenumber, and where me is the effective mass of an electron within the semiconductor material. Note that we need only to deal with the lattice energies in the conduction band, i.e. (E > Ec ), since these are the only ones for which the electrons are free and mobile. Since we are dealing with atomic and molecular dimensions, we find ourselves using h = Plancks constant. Do you remember Plancks constant? Maybe not. It comes from thermal physics, equations of state and all that stuff, and simply says that there is a minimum amount of momentum that an atomic or molecular structure of any type can resolve. Plancks constant has value of h = 4.135 1015 eV.s (which is pretty durn small). The density of states is the number of harmonics between k and k + dk in 3dimensions, which is

dN(k)

1 (4 k 2dk) 3 8

If you elect to look more closely at this equation, you see that it is the volume of a spherical shell in kspace, with spherical area 4 k 2 and shell thickness dk, defined for the first octant. Equation (7.22) defines the density of harmonics, where each harmonic = k/ . We have to include a factor 2 in equation (7.22), because electrons have a measure called spin,with two states, up and down, and these two states need to be included in the count density. As indicated by equation (7.21) the radius of the sphere represents energy, and so a shell in kspace represents the energy density between E and E + dE.

1 h 2m e 2

k2

(7.22)

(7.22)

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When equation (7.21) is applied to equation (7.22), we get the density of states in terms of energies rather than the momentum harmonics:

2 EC

This information is sufficient to determine the equlibrium density, n0 , of mobile electrons having a statistical probability of existing in the conduction band. This density of negative chargecarriers is the sum of all the occupied states for which E > EC , which is just the integral, f (E) 4 3 (2m e) 3 2(E h

EC

EC

where, in order to have a closed analytical form, we have made an approximation to the FermiDirac distribution, for the usual situation, in which E > EF,

This is called the the Boltzmann approximation, and makes the mathematics simpler with very little compromise in accuracy. It allows us to have a nice, closed analytical form for density n of the conduction electrons. If you want to check the mathematics of the steps in equation (7.24) we recommend the definite integral (which is = gamma function):

x 1 2e
0

ax

dx

1 2a

Note that we have let the mess of coefficients in equation (7.24) be replaced either by NC , the effective densityof states for the conduction band, or by use of e , the thermal wavelength for electrons. The effective density of states in the conduction band, NC , is given by
 

NC


and the thermal wavelength

is given by

h2 2 m ekT

At room temperature (T = 300K) the thermal wavelength for electrons in silicon is about 4.10 nm, assuming that the densityofstates effective mass for electrons, me = 1.08m0 , m0 being the mass of a free electron (approx 9.11 1031 kg). With this value for thermal wavelength, the effective densityofstates NC will be approximately 2.9 1019 #/cm3. By a similar process, we can beat our way through an equal amount of mathematics to show that the equilibrium density of holes, p0 , is given by
 

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2 m ekT h2

3 2

EF) kT

f (E)

1 e (E

N Ce

(E C

EF) kT

(E EF) kT

2
3 e

4 (2m ) 3 e h3

(E E F) kT

(E

E C) 1 2dE

n0

n(E

E C)

dN(k)

dN(E)

4 (2m ) 3 2(E e h3

f (E)dN(E)

E c) 1 2dE

(7.23)

E C) 1 2dE

(7.24)

(7.25)

(7.26)

Ev

where NV 2
3 h

is the effective density of states in the valence band.

The thermal wavelength for holes at room temperature is about 5.75 nm, assuming that the effective densityof states effective mass for holes mh = 0.56m0 . This thermal wavelength gives an effective densityofstates NV of 1.05 1019 #/cm3. Note that h is different from that of e . These lengths are different because electrons and holes have distinctly different effective masses, mn and mh , within the crystalline lattice. Keep in mind that an electron does not exist as a little pellet ricocheting through the crowded solidstate array, since energy states, and therefore electrons, are shared, often over many sites. Therefore the effective mass of a q electron charge is not at all likely to be the same as the freeelectron mass m0 . The effective mass of a hole, or bubblet is a displacement mass, and is even less likely to match the freeelectron mass m0 . Dont be perturbed over the fudgefactor use of effective mass. Just perceive an electron in the same manner as you would a water droplet, where in free space it could be hurled from one point to another, with its translational dynamics defined by the free mass of the droplet. But if we push it into the end of a hose, filled with water, a droplet will pop from the other end of the hose, as if transmitted through the hose. The apparent velocity, and therefore the effective mass of the droplet, may appear to be greater or less than that of the free mass, depending on whether the hose is a stiff hose or a flaccid hose. In like manner, if electrons are transmitted through a crystalline lattice, they will have an apparent effective mass different from that of free electrons. They will even have different effective masses for different lattice directions! If we look at distinctly different lattice energy levels, they will even have different effective masses according to the energy state in which they exist, so that we can have heavy electrons and lightweight electrons, as well as heavy holes and lightweight holes. If we take the product of (7.24) and (7.27), we see that the Fermi level (= equilibrium index), EF, is wiped out, and the equilibrium equation can be put in the form n 0p 0 N CN Ve
(EC E V) kT

N CN Ve

EG kT

where EG = EC EV is the value of the gap energy. EG is about 1.12 eV for silicon. This equation shows that the product np is a constant for T = constant. This result is an important fact of equilibrium. Our favorite semiconductor, silicon, is a tetravalent material. Its lattice is identical to the crystalline structure for carbon that we know as diamond, represented by figure 7.1.5. Certain properties of the diamond lattice itself are fascinating, but the primary feature of the lattice that we should recognize at the moment is that each lattice site is a covalentlybonded node. It is a covalent community, and therefore impurities, particularly those which are pentavalent and trivalent, will be expected to share four of their electrons with their neighbors. If a pentavalent impurity, such as phosphorus, is alloyed into a lattice node, it has the four electrons necessary for sharing, but also has an extra electron which is loosely bound since it has no covalent assignment. With relatively little effort, this extra electron can move right into an antibonding state, and therefore join the ranks of the rootless,

77

h2 2 m hkT

p0

[1

f (E)]dN(E)

(E F E v) kT

N Ve

(EF EV) kT

is the thermal wavelength for holes, and is given by (7.29)

2e 3

(7.27)

(7.28)

(7.210)

freeroaming lifestyle of conduction electrons. The absence of the electron from the site of the impurity does not, however, create a hole, since there are still four electrons left at the site to covalently bond with the neighbors. The donor site does have a net (+) charge, so it will act as a strong deflection point to any incoming charges. Such impurities are called donor impurities, since they donate an electron to the conduction band. We designate donor doping concentration as ND . Typically ND is on the order of 1015 #/ cm3, corresponding to an impurity doping of only about five parts in 100 million! In like manner, if a trivalent impurity, such as boron, takes up residence at a lattice node, it only has three electrons, and therefore must borrow one from a neighbor. This creates a hole, and the neighbor must borrow an electron from another neighbor to fill his hole. In this way, electron theft on a frantic scale takes place, and the hole is frantically passed around, creating the (+) mobile charge carrier that we call a hole. These impurities are called acceptor impurities, since they accept an electron, leaving a hole in the valence band. We designate the acceptor doping concentration as NA . The acceptor site does have a net () charge since it has an extra electron, any therefore it can strongly deflect any incoming charges. Note that for a pure semiconductor, thermal statistics yield a hole for every electron created, and n0 = p0 = same ni . We define ni = the intrinsic carrier density. Then equation (7.210) can be expressed in the more compact form

n 0p 0

n2 i

(7.211)

This equation is an important and convenient relationship, and we will make extensive use of it in other calculations. Before we do make use of it, however, we should take note of some of the features of ni . In particular, we note that ni is strongly affected by the temperature, since, according to equation (7.210),

n 0p 0 or,

n2 i

N CN Ve ni

(E C

EV) kT

N CN Ve

E G kT

(7.212a)

where EG is the magnitude of the energy gap. Whenever we consider temperature behavior of our semiconductor materials, then this equation is where we begin. Since EG is on the order of about 40 kT for normal ambient temperatures, then ni is on the order of 108 to 1010 #/cm3. This level, although relatively weak, is electrically significant. For our favorite semiconductor, silicon, the benchmark value for ni is usually accepted as: ni

The other thing of which we should take note is that equation (7.212b) is an equation derived from molecular quantum statistics, and therefore is somewhat ideal. In this respect, equation (7.212b) is primarily a disciplinary equation, but is useful in that it identifies the strong temperature sensitivity (thermistor behavior) of an intrinsic semiconductor. If we use the values for e and h , which are 4.103 nm and 5.7508 nm, respectively, at T = 300K, and EG = 1.1245 eV (for Si at room temperature), we get ni = 6.255 109 #/cm3. This result is about half the benchmark value. In solidstate physics vernacular, this discrepancy is OK, but may not be satisfactory for the engineering analysis. Engineers should use the equation,
3 2

78

ni

n i0

T T0

exp

EG 1 2kT 0

T0 T

n i0

1.5

10 10# cm 2

N CN V e

EG 2kT

(7.212b)

at T

300K

(7.213)

This equation is the one that you should program into your calculator, not equation (7.212). We assume T0 = 300K (typical semiconductor ambient temperature), and ni0 = ni at T = To . We usually assume silicon, and therefore take the benchmark value ni0 = 1.5 1010 #/cm3. Since silicon has about 5 1022 atoms/cm3, then ni0 represents about 1 ionization in 1012 sites!

EG (eV) Si* GaAs*

ni0 (#/cm3)

1.12 1.43 2.9

1.5

1010 106 105 20

2.25 3.0

SiC SiC

2.2

Table 7.21 Intrinsic carrier concentrations at T=300K for various semiconductors (* Includes the presence of both heavy holes and light holes in the valence band.) For the temperature approximately constant, we note that the complete mess of equilibrium statistics is concisely represented by equation (7.211). It tells us that if we increase the number of electrons without changing temperature, then the statistics of equilibrium will decrease the number of holes. We can easily increase the number of electrons without changing the physical temperature, simply by alloying with donor impurities. Likewise, we can very simply increase the number of holes by alloying the semiconductor with acceptor impurities. Equation (7.211) therefore is usually called the massaction law, since the increase of one quantity results in decrease of the other. When we add a donor impurity, we increase the number of free electrons, since the extra electron of the impurity represents energy levels which are close to the conduction band edge, EC . These donor energy levels are within about .05 eV of EC , which is a very small ionization energy difference, and means that virtually all of these sites will donate an electron, as indicated by figure 7.21.

EC

ED

EV

Excess electrons escaping homesite responsibilities

Electrons contributed by donor impurities

Figure 7.21 Donor doping and ionization energy ED

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Note that when a site donates an electron, it becomes ionized with net polarity +q. The material itself stays electrically neutral, and therefore the charge count will balance:

n0 If we apply the massaction law, then

ND

p0

which is a quadratic equation with solution N2 D

Only the positive solution is used since a negative density would be meaningless. Note that if ND >> ni ,

n0

ND

within a good approximation. It does not take much of an impurity doping to establish this condition. A donor doping of only 1 part in 107, which is a lot more pure than most of the water we drink, corresponds to ND = 5 1015 #/cm3. This concentration is approximately five orders of magnitude greater than that of ni ! Similarly, if the semiconductor is doped with acceptor impurities, of acceptor concentration NA , p0

which, if NA >> ni , then

p0

NA

for which

If both types of doping are applied, with ND > NA , then we expect that

n0 or, if, instead, NA > ND , then

ND

NA

since, in order to make the neighbors happy, the donors will contribute electrons to acceptor sites, and vice versa. This case, which we call counterdoping is represented by figure 7.22

p0

NA

ND

N2 A

4n 2 i

80

1 N 2 A

n0

4n 2 i

for which

1 N 2 D

n0

ND

n2 n0 i

(7.214)

p0

n2 i Nd

(7.215)

n0

n2 i NA

EC

ED

EA EV

Some excess electrons find homes at acceptor sites

Band diagram: Counterdoping

Figure 7.22: Counterdoping with ND > NA . Note that the donor electrons merely fill up the acceptor sites, so that n ND NA . Majoritycarrier density n0 = ND NA if ND > NA >> ni , and minoritycarrier density p0 is found by the massaction law (equation 7.211) p0 = ni 2/n0 . If NA >> ND , then p0 = NA ND , and the minority carrier density n is determined by n0 = ni 2/p. DONT BE FOOLED into thinking that both types of charge carriers can be increased by doping. The massaction law, equation (7.211), which is our statement of equilibrium, clearly forbids this option. Whatever the case, it is clear that we can considerably shift the magnitude of the levels of chargecarrier by means of the doping. We therefore usually identify a semiconductor according to the type of doping as ntype if doped with donors, and ptype if doped with acceptors. Since both types of charge carriers, n and p, are always present, we can further designate them according to the relative densities, as majority carriers and minority carriers. For example, in a material which is ntype, the majority carrier level might more properly be designated by nn = ND , for which the minority carrier level will be designated by np = ni 2/ND. ******************************************************************************** EXAMPLE: A monolithic (= singlecrystal) wafer of ntype silicon of doping ND = 1014 #/cm3 is implanted by boron (= acceptor) at 2 parts in 107 to form a localized pwell region. What is the minority carrierlevel density in the pwell? SOLUTION: Since there are

NA

(5

******************************************************************************** A semiconductor to which a dopant has been added is called an extrinsic semiconductor. If the dopant is a donor, the majority and minority carrier densities are given by equations (7.214) and (7.211), which yield the complementary pair of equations:

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np

2.25

n2 i NA

then p = NA ND = 1016 1014

1016#/cm3 = pp , and 2.25 10 20 10 16 10 4# cm 3

10 22)

2 10 7

10 16# cm 3

As identified earlier, nn ND for ND >> ni . However, should we have elevated temperatures, e.g. T = 250oC, (T = 527 K) we now see, via equation (7.213), that ni will increase, to become approximately the same order of magnitude as ND , for which we must turn to the more complicated equation, (7.216). Behavior of an extrinsic semiconductor with respect to temperature is shown by figure 7.23. Note how its thermistor properties are corrupted..! Over a large part of the temperature range we see that nn ND . But at temperatures in excess of 300 oC, n ni $, and the semiconductor is said to have become intrinsic, (i.e. ni > ND ).

n intrinsic

ND = 1016 ni

80 K

550 K

Figure 7.23 Electron density as a function of temperature in ntype silicon. An ND = 1016 #/cm3 is assumed. Note that at lower temperatures, the carrier density falls off. This rolloff is a result of thermal statistics affecting even the ionization density. Typically these temperatures are on the order of 6090 K, which are temperatures where maybe another semiconductor material would serve better. Similarly, if the dopant is an acceptor, the majority and minority carrier densities are given by

7.3 CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS In semiconductors, the density levels of charge carriers can be varied with respect to position due to impurity doping, or as result of nonequilibrium situations. Because of this gradient and because a finite Efield can exist within the material, the conduction processes in semiconductors will have two different driving forces. These driving forces are called the drift component and the diffusion component, respectively, of the current. The drift component is due to the carriers being drifted by the Efield force. The diffusion component is due to the thermodynamic force resulting from a gradient in the carrier density.

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In general, a semiconductor which is acceptordoped will have doping density NA >> ni , and therefore pp

np

N2 A

4n 2 i

NA

pp

1 2 1 2

N2 A

4n 2 i

NA

pn

N2 D

4n 2 i

ND

nn

1 2 1 2

N2 D

4n 2 i

ND

(7.216a) (7.216b)

(7.217a) (7.217b) NA .

When we treat current as a velocity of carriers, then we are assessing their drift current flux: Jn qnv (7.31)

The drift velocity v of the carriers is highly dependent upon the extent to which they are scattered as they travel through the material. Assuming that this scattering is approximately a statistical collision process, then the drift velocity will be an averaged velocity proportional to the electric field, given by v E (7.32)

where we define the coefficient of proportionality, as the mobility of the charge carriers. We might note that this definition gives us that old familiar law of conduction that we know as Ohms law(!): Jn q nnE

Si GaAs

1.12 1.43 2.9 2.2 0.66 1.35 0.36 2.26

1340 8500 400 1000

3900 4600 33000 110

460 400 50 40
1900 150 460 75

SiC

SiC
Ge InP

InAs GaP

Table 7.31 Intrinsic mobility values at T=300K for various semiconductors

qn

(7.34a)

We have been careful to make a distinction about the type of charge carriers, since, in like manner, for semiconductors we will have a complementary form of equation (7.34a) for ptype charge carriers: qp (7.34b)

The mobility of the ptype charge carriers p may be considerably different than that of the ntype charge carriers. In silicon p is a factor of about 2.5 smaller than n . From a purely conductive standpoint, the current through a uniform semiconductor is then

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as written for electron current density. In equation (7.33) n is the conductivity of the ntype charge carriers and is their mobility. From these equations we see that conductivity of ntype chargecarriers will then be

Bandgap EG

E
mobilities (in cm2/Vs)
p

(7.33)

just like any other kind of material. But for semiconductors,

Given that semiconductors are dominated by either ntype or by ptype carriers, we may safely assume that n if the material is ntype or p if the material is ptype. ******************************************************************************** EXAMPLE: A monolithic substrate of ntype silicon of doping ND = 1014 #/cm3 is implanted by boron at doping level of 1016 #/cm3 to form a localized pwell region. Assuming that the mobility of the n and ptypes of carriers is n = 1209 cm2/Vs and p = 437 cm2/Vs, find the conductivity of the pwell.

SOLUTION: p and np then NA n2 i NA

10 16# cm 3

2.25

10 4# cm 3

(1.602

10
1

1209

(2.25

437

0.70( cm)

Note that it was not truly necessary, in this case, to include conductivity due to minority carriers since its value is approximately 12 ordersofmagnitude smaller than that due to majority carriers. ******************************************************************************** The mobility of the charge carriers is closely associated with scattering effects. Therefore the analytical measure of mobility can be a mess, since scattering is dependent on the crystalline lattice structure and everything therein. Mobility is particularly affected by the presence of the donor/acceptor impurities, since these impurities produce ionized sites, and thereby constitute a set of very powerful scattering nodes. We prefer a direction within the crystalline diamond lattice for which the scattering crosssection is minimal. For this reason, the transistors are usually oriented so that the current paths are along the (110) paths, shown by figure 7.31. Note that when we sight along the (110) direction, the diamond lattice shows a relatively open crosssection, with lattice spacings aligned to form hexagonal microchannels.

84

  

19

10 4)

(7.35)

(10 16)

Figure 7.31 Structure of silicon as viewed along the (110) direction of (diamond) lattice. The scattering due to ionized impurities is independent of the type of impurity since a charge carrier will be deflected by either a (+) site or a () site. All impurity doping of a semiconductor, whether ND or NA , represents a density of ionized impurities. The scattering is also strongly temperature dependent since carrier velocities are associated with thermal energy. A semiempirical relationship of mobility that accommodates both ionized impurity scattering and lattice scattering is given by the form[7.32]

has been developed for silicon[7.32] and the forms for

n

and

and
p

N I (2.35

10 T )

17

2.4 n

where Tn = T/300. NI represents the total density of ionized impurities, whether ND , or NA , or ND + NA , in measure of #/cm3 At T = 300 K, which is the usual temperature for benchmarks, these relationships reduce to

and

A plot of mobility vs impurity doping, using these equations is shown by figure 7.32. Note that the mobility for both holes and electrons rolls off dramatically for NI > 1017 #/cm3.

85

54

407 [N I (2.35

88

1252 [N I (1.26 10 17)] 0.88

10 17)] 0.88

 

(54T n

0.57

1.36

10 8T

2.23 0.88

(88T n

0.57

7.4 [N I (1.26

10 8T 2.33 10 17T 2.4)] 0.88 n

max min min

(N I N R)

are given as follows: (7.36a)

Tn

0.146

(7.36b) Tn
0.146

(7.37a)

(7.37b)

(in cm2/Vs)

1330

461

Figure 7.31 Empirical behavior of mobility in silicon along the [110] direction, with respect to impurity doping.

Take note again that any ionized impurity, NI , will affect the mobility

****************************************************************************** EXAMPLE: A monolithic (= singlecrystal) substrate having a thick ptype layer of silicon of doping NA = 1016 #/cm3 is implanted by phosphorus at ND = 1.5 1016 #/cm3 to form a shallow layer. Find the densities and mobilities of the n and ptype charge carriers in this shallow implant layer. SOLUTION:

n p

ND

NA n2 i

applying this value of NI to equations (7.37a) and (7.37b) gives

n

1088cm 2 Vs 412cm 2 Vs

An ambient temperature T = 300 K has been assumed. Note that, for counterdoping, BOTH types of impurity dopings have contributed ionized scattering sites, and hence NI = NA + ND . We recommend that you program equations (7.36) or (7.37) into your calculator, rather than manually evaluating these equations every time you need a value of silicon mobility. ****************************************************************************** The diffusion component of current results from the presence of a gradient of the chargecarriers. Such a gradient is usually a result of a nonequilibrium situation in which the carriers are injected across an interface. This occurs whenever we forward bias a pn junction or when radiation falls upon a semiconductor surface. In the case of the forward bias of the pn junction, an excess of ntype carriers flow into the ptype region from the nside, and

86

NI

NA

ND

1.5

10 16

1.0

10 16

(N D

N A)

1017

NI (in #/cm3)

and

for both type charge carriers.

1.5

10 16

1.0

10 16

10 15

2.25 10 20 5 10 15

4.5

10 4# cm 3

2.5

10 16# cm 3

conversely, an excess of ptype carriers flow into the nregion from the pside. This flux of carriers may be identified entirely by the negative gradient of the carriers, as follows: Jp and Jn qD p dp dx

where Dp and Dn are the diffusion coefficients of the p and ntype chargecarriers, respectively, representing the ability of the material to diffuse from one point in the material to another, as governed by transport properties. Note that direction of flow of positive carriers relates to a negative gradient, so the sign of equation (7.38a) is negative; whereas the diffusion flow of negative carriers (electrons), as represented by equation (7.38b), takes a (+) sign since the polarity of these charge carriers is negative. It should not be any surprise that diffusion coefficient D and mobility, , are linearly related to each other, since they both are defined by scattering processes. This relationship is Dn VT and D p

VT

where VT = kT/q is defined as the thermal voltage, and is of value .02585 V at T = 300K. Equation (7.39) is called Einsteins law. It may be derived from molecular thermodynamics as a disciplinary exercise, but otherwise we will assume it to be gospel. But it also may be straightforwardly derived from the analysis of thermal equilibrium, as we will see in chapter 8 when we develop a few more concepts.

7.4 THE FERMI ENERGY LEVEL: AN INDEX OF EQUILIBRIUM In section 7.2 we showed that FermiDirac statistics define the equilibrium distribution of chargecarriers. The result of applying this probability distribution to the semiconductor energy situation was the thermodynamic relationships for active chargecarrier densities n and p, as follows: n p N Ce (EF N Ve

E C) kT

(E F E V) kT

where EF is the Fermi energy, and NC and NV are the effective densityofstates for the conduction and valence bands, respectively. Note that EF is not a real, existing energy level, but is only an index energy level. If we look back at its point of origin, we see that it is a level marking the fill level, of available electrons into energy states of the crystalline lattice. It is also a representation of the average equilibrium thermodynamic energy, since at E = EF, the probability of occupation of energy states is f(E) = 0.5. In this respect, if more electrons are supplied to energy slots in the conduction band, by way of donor doping or other means, the index EF will rise closer to the conduction band. If electrons are taken away from the valence band, which is another way of saying that more (hole) charge carriers are supplied to the valence band, usually as result of acceptor doping, then EF will sink closer to the valence band. If there are just as many carriers in the conduction band as in the valence band, this index energy EF should be approximately at (EC + EV )/2.

87

(7.38a)

qD n dn dx

(7.38b)

(7.39)

(7.41) (7.42)

We can confirm that EF is nearly at midgap energy for the intrinsic case, in which n = p = ni , by equating (7.41) and (7.42). This equality gives intrinsic Fermi energy,

EF

Ei

We see that Ei , the Fermi index for the intrinsic case, is almost at gap center, as we expected. It is not exactly at gap center, since equilibrium statistics also depend on the effective densities of states, NV and NC , which differ from one another as a consequence of the different effective masses me and mh . Equation (7.43) shows that it is slightly lower than the midpoint by approximately .0131 eV, for ambient temperature T = 300 K.
EG (eV) Si GaAs

me/m0 1.08 .067

mp/m0 0.56* 0.48*

1.12 1.43 2.9

SiC

Table 7.41 Densityofstates effective masses of various semiconductor materials. * includes the presence of both heavy holes and light holes in the valence band. Note that this is consistent with use of either (7.41) or (7.42) as a means of defining intrinsic Fermi energy, Ei , in terms of ni . Or we can alternatively define ni in terms of Ei , i.e.

The Fermi level is therefore not only an index for equilibrium thermodynamic energy, it is an index for the charge carrier density. If we apply equation (7.44) to (7.41) and (7.42) then we have a convenient means of relating extrinsic carrier levels to intrinsic carrier level through their Fermi energies: n ie (EF

This behavior is indicated by figure 7.41. These equations are important and convenient relationships, and will be used extensively to deal with equilibrium thermodynamic statistics particularly where we have both n and ptype semiconductor material present.

88

n ie

(EF Ei) kT

E i) kT

ni

N Ce (Ei

EC) kT

N Ve

(E i E V) kT

E V)

1 (E 2 C 1 (E 2 C

E V)

1 kT ln 2 3 kT ln 4

NV NC me mh

(7.43)

(7.44)

(7.45a)

(7.45a)

EC EF Ei

EC

Ei EF

EV doped with ND type impurities

EV doped with NA type impurities

Figure 7.41 Donor/acceptor impurity doping and effect on the Fermi level The figure shows that we may use the Fermi level EF as an index for carrier levels, as well as for the equilibrium thermodynamics. ****************************************************************************** EXAMPLE: A monolithic (= singlecrystal) wafer of ptype silicon, doped at NA = 1014 #/cm3 is implanted by phosphorus at ND = 2 x 1017 #/cm3. Where is the Fermi level relative to (a) Ei (b) EC ? SOLUTION:

ND

n ie (EF

E i) kT

Inverting this equation, we get

Similarly:

(b)

where we have assumed that NC = 2.9 x 1019 #/cm3. ******************************************************************************

7.5 THE HALL GALVANOMAGNETIC BALANCE If a semiconductor carrying a current I is placed in a magnetic field such that current I is transverse to the magnetic field, the flow of charges through the semiconductor will develop an electromagnetic condition in which the magnetic force is balanced by an induced electrostatic force. This galvanomagnetic balance is a useful and interesting application of semiconductor materials, and is also appropriate to the measurement of semiconductor properties. The galvanomagnetic balance is usually identified as the transverse Hall effect. To interpret the transverse Hall effect, we assume that a slab of semiconductor material carrying current in the x direction, Ix , is immersed in a magnetic field in the zdirection, Bz , as shown by figure 7.51.

89

EC

EF

kT ln

.02585eV

ln 2.9 2

NC ND

10 19 10 17

EF

Ei

.02585eV

ln 2 1.5

N kT ln nD i

(a)

10 17 10 10

0.425eV

0.129eV

Figure 7.51 Transverse Halleffect geometry. The reference frame is chosen so that current flow is in the xdirection and the magnetic field is in the zdirection. For the transverse Hall effect, charges with velocity vx transverse to the magnetic field will experience the Lorentz force, transverse to both Ix and Bz ,

For a galvanomagnetic balance, this Lorentz force will be balanced by an induced Efield force, Fy = +qEy, so that

If the slab is is of uniform, rectangular geometry, as represented by the figure, then current density Jx is

where p represents the density of +q charges and vx represents the average velocity of the carriers. Combining equations (7.51) and (7.52),

where EH is usually called the Hall electric field. and RH is called the Hall coefficient. Since we have a uniform rectangular geometry we may define

where the induced voltage VH is called the Hall voltage. If we solve equation (7.53) for RH , then the Hall coefficient will be RH Ey J xB z (7.54)

The fields Bz , Ey and current Jx are all readily measurable quantities, and therefore provides us a straightforward means for measurement of the Hall coefficient, RH . From equation (7.53), we expect that:

RH

1 qn ,

RH

1 qp ,

VH

wE y

type charge charriers type charge charriers

90

Ey

Jx

qE y

Fy

qv xB z

qv xB z

qpv x

1 qp J xB z

R H J xB z

EH

(7.51) (7.52) (7.53) NO!

Oops! Why not? All of our mathematics seemed to be OK!? Trouble is, equation (7.53) is not complete, because charge carriers in a crystalline lattice are not free to assume just any velocity. At best, vx is an averaged velocity, due to scattering. And the scattering effects will alter direction of carrier velocities, and thereby not be confined to the nice transverse Hall geometry. In semiconductors, charge carriers also obey a natural distribution of velocities due to the distribution of energies in conduction and valence bands. Carriers will be scattered by collisions, either from acoustic collision processes with the crystalline lattice, or from scattering by ionized impurity sites. 1 mv 2 and the probability statistical distribu2 tion of carriers in energy states. The distribution of occupied states is defined by FermiDirac statistics, with mathematics simplified by use of Boltzmann distribution. Effective mass m will differ for different crystalline directions, and this wrinkle must be considered in analyzing the velocity distribution. When these effects are integrated into the galvanomagnetic balance condition, the coefficient that relates Ey to Jx and Bz is changed: the Hall coefficient RH will take the form: The natural velocity distribution is defined by the relationship, E

RH

or

RH

We still find RH by use of the field equation (7.54). We see that the mess of effects due to the velocity distribution nicely fall into nothing more than a extra coefficient, rH , called the Hall factor. The Hall factor itself also separates cleanly into crystalline and velocitydistribution factors, as given by[7.51] 3K(K 2) (2K 1) 2

rH

The process of developing equation (7.56) does takes a serious amount of mathematical physics, the finer details r of which we will politely skip. In this equation, m represents an energydependent scattering time m 0 (E/kT) , where 0 represents the collision relaxation time, typically on the order of 0.1 ps. Exponent r is a consequence of the type of collision process. Parameter K is the mass ratio of the effectivemass tensor for the crystalline lattice, and represents a ratio of the longitudinal and transverse components of the masstensor ellipsoid. The mass tensor ratio K = 5.2 for silicon[7.51]. F represents the averaging process over the velocity distribution,

F(t)

f (v)v x

f 3 dv vx

f 0d 3v

v 2F v2

where f0 represents the equilibrium velocity distribution function and F is the average over the equilibrium distribution function,

F(v)f 0(v)d 3v
0 0

f 0(v)d 3v

(7.58)

vx is the velocity of the carriers in the xdirection, and f0 is the equilibrium Boltzmann velocity distribution function. The v 2 in the numerator comes from relationship between velocity and energy for an electron gas of free particles, E

1 mv 2 . Each of the integrals in equation (7.58) is of the form 2

91

    

rH qp

rH qn

2 m 2 m

 

  

(7.55)

(7.56)

  

(7.57)

3 e 0

Which are called MaxwellBoltzmann integrals, and are little more than a modified form of the gamma function. If we take the function m = 0 (E/kT) r and follow the mathematics to completion over the Boltzmann integrals, the result is


where 0 is the relaxation time constant for collisions. Applying this analysis to equation (7.56) gives a Hall factor of[7.51,7.53]
     

where (x) is an old friend, the gamma function. If the collision scattering is due to acoustic deformation of the lattice, r = 1/2. If the scattering is due to ionized impurities, such as donor and acceptor impurities, then r = 3/2. The Hall factor has value rH = (3 /8) kK if the scattering is due to acoustic deformation (= lattice) scattering, and rH = (315 /512) kK if the process is due to ionized impurity scattering. We also may identify conductive properties of a semiconductor along the direction of applied current by: Jx Ex
  

where, for convenience, we have assumed that only ptype chargecarriers are present. When equations (7.54), (7.55) and (7.510) are combined, we have a means by which we may measure mobility:

For ntype charge carriers, everything is much the same: 1 qnR H



For convenience, we usually define the mobility measured by the Hall effect as the the Hall mobility:
H

for which
H

Ey 1 Ex Bz

 

1 qpR H

Ey 1 Ex Bz

Ey 1 Ex Bz

RH

92

qp pE x

 

rH

3K(K 2) 3 (2K 1) 2 4


(2r [ (r

5 2) 5 2)] 2

kK

(2r 4 [ (r

2 m

Similarly, the average of the quantity

2 m

over the velocity distribution will give 4

2 0

(2r

5 2)

4 3

(r

5 2)

v 2F(v)f 0(v)d 3v

v 2F(v)e

mv 2 2kT

dv

5 2) 5 2)] 2

(7.59)

(7.510)

(7.511a)

(7.511b)

(7.512)

(7.513)

From equation (7.511) and (7.513), and using equation (7.55) we see that the relationship between Hall mobility H and drift mobility, , will be:

The Hall mobility is sometimes cited as being virtually the same as the drift mobility, or that rH 1. Whereas this is a reasonably good approximation for metals, it is a lousy approximation for crystalline semiconductors, since will overestimate the value of by factor rH . Otherwise the Hall effect is a simple and forthright means for measuring the mobility. It is useful in other ways, in which a galvanomagnetic transducer may have an advantage for either measuring either magnetic or electric fields. At one time the Hall effect served a circuit function, that of an analog multiplier [7.52], since Ey = RH Bz Jx , represents the product of two independent electromagnetic quantities. ******************************************************************************** EXAMPLE: A sample of silicon is doped with 1017#/cm3 phosphorus. (a) Determine the conductivity of the sample. (b) If the sample is of 100 m thickness and carries a current Ix = 1 mA, what Hall voltage should be expected if it is subjected to magnetic field Bz = 1 kGauss = 105 Wb/cm2? Assume that the Hall factor rH = 1.65. SOLUTION: Phosphorus doping represents ntype carriers, and the majoritycarrier mobility for NI = 1017 #/cm3in Si at T = 300K is n = 771.6 cm2/Vs, using equation (7.3.7a). Therefore since is negligible.

The Hall coefficient is

******************************************************************************** All of this treatment of the transverse Hall effect makes assumptions that the fields are sufficiently low so that linear relationships exist between fields and currents, and that the relaxation time 0 is independent of field strength. Equation (7.53) is generally identified as the lowfield Hall effect, and is usually appropriate only for Bfields that are less than 10 kGauss.

7.6 INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELDS: The fact that there are two mechanisms for conduction in semiconductors,

tells us that nonuniformlydoped semiconductors will contain a builtin electric field. This statement may be confirmed by considering a ntype semiconductor for which ND = ND (x) varies uniformly with respect to position.

J(drift)

J(diffusion)

93

10

 

103

 

BZ

(1.602

10 17 10
3

 

RH

10

0.103mV

rH qn 0 Then the Hall voltage is I VH RH x

1.65 10 19)

103cm 3 C

 

q nn 0

(1.602

10

19

771.6

10 17

12.36(

cm)

(7.61)

rH

(7.514)

Then, from equations (7.33) and (7.38b): J J n(drift) J n(diff) q nn(x)E

where we are recognizing that n(x)

ND (x).

The condition of n = n(x), by definition of equilibrium, show that the energy bands EC and EV will also vary with respect to position, as represented by figure 7.61.
EC EF Ei EV

Figure 7.61 Energy bands for a semiconductor with impurity gradient ND (x), at equilibrium. Note that, at equilibrium, EF must be a constant throughout the material. d N e (EF dx C

dE C n(x) 1 kT dx

The variation of (potential) energy with respect to position is the definition of electric field, E

provided we include the basic unit of charge associated with these energy levels, which is the charge q of the electron. Applying equation (7.63) to equation (7.64), the electric field is then E kT 1 dn q n(x) dx

V T 1 dn n(x) dx

where VT is defined as the thermal voltage, and is (approximately) .02585 V at T = 300K. If equation (7.65) is applied to equation (7.62), and equilibrium is assumed, (for which J = 0), then 0 q nn(x)V T 1 dn n(x) dx

Eliminating common terms in equation (7.66),

Dn

VT

which confirms equation (7.39), which was defined by argument rather than by analysis. In like manner we can carry through the process of equations (7.62) through (7.67) for ptype charge carriers with like result: Dp

VT

94

d dx

1 dE C q dx

qD n dn dx

E C) kT

N Ce (EF

 

    

dn(x) dx

Since n = n(x), then

qD n dn dx

(7.62)

EC) kT

1 dE C kT dx

(7.63)

(7.64)

(7.65)

(7.66)

(7.67)

(7.68)

7.7 EXCESS CARRIERS IN SEMICONDUCTORS Whenever nonequilibrium conditions are created in a semiconductor, the natural transition process will drive the situation back toward a state of equilibrium. The equilibrium state is represented by the massaction law, equation (7.2.11). Nonequilibrium is typically a result of excess charge carriers being injected into the semiconductor material. In most cases, excess carriers are a result of the following situations: (1) Injection of carriers across a surface of the semiconductor as result of conduction (2) Photoresponsive injection, due to transitions from radiation incident upon a surface. These cases are represented by figure 7.71.
carrier density

n(x) Ix

Figure 7.71a Carrier injection due to a conduction process

carrier density

n(x)

Figure 7.71b Carrier injection due to a photoelectric process It should be noted that photoresponsive processes are a result of photons of energy greater than EG being absorbed by the semiconductor. This energy causes an increase in the transition probability, as represented by figure 7.72.

95

EC

EC

EV photoresponse photoemission

EV

Figure 7.72 Photoresponsive processes Note that photoresponsive processes involve both absorption and emission. This tells us that an excess of charges may also yield an emission of radiation. Although this is usually not the case for silicon devices, some very unusual circuit glitches have occurred as result of photoreactive situations. For this reason, it is important that working circuits live in a sealed package, protected from external photogenerative radiation levels. Also, the measurement of device characteristics must take place in the dark. Normal room lighting generally is of radiation of wavelength on the order of 0.6 m, or energy Eph = 2.07eV. The silicon energy gap EG = 1.12 eV, corresponds to radiation of wavelength 1.1 m, and therefore room lighting is more than adequate to cause transitions across the gap and create a flux of excess carriers away from the surface and into the semiconductor. The concept of excess carriers makes it necessary to identify equilibrium levels by an additional subscript, such that the massaction equation must be rewritten in the form n 0p 0 n2 i

If we elect to be more specific, then we can identify the equilibrium level of ptype carriers in an ntype material as pn0 , or equilibrium ntype carriers in an ntype material as nn0 . In the majority of cases that need to be considered, excess carriers will exceed the level of minority carriers, but not the level of majority carriers. This situation is referred to as lowlevel injection. The rate at which this excess will return to equilibrium is proportional to the excess density of minority carriers, p = pn pn0 , or d p dt B p p
p

where the constant of proportionality B may be identified in terms of a recombination time equivalent to an exponential decay p n(t) p n0 p(t) p(0)e

t p

similar to most natural decay processes. Recombination time constants are a function of the transition probability within the semiconductor, and, in most semiconductors, ranges from ns to s. The excess of minority carriers at a surface, regardless of the mechanism that originated the excess, will result in a flow of carriers into the material. This flux is governed by the continuity equation,

dp dt

dF dx

(G

R p)

96

(7.71)

(7.72)
p.

Equation (7.72) is

(7.73)

(7.74)

where F = flux, G = rate at which the carriers are generated, and Rp = rate at which the carriers are annihilated by recombination. This equation merely says that the rate of increase of carriers, dp/dt, depends on how much the flux F will increase across a slice dx and by the rate at which are generated in excess of their death rate. Equation (7.74) often is clarified by considering a volume V = Adx as represented by figure 7.73. F represents the flux of carriers in from the left and F + dF represents the flow of carriers out to the right. Within this volume generation and recombination may take place. The rate at which these carriers increase within this volume is F (F dF) (G

where N = p Adx = (carrier density)

volume = total number of carriers in the slice of thickness dx.

F + dF area = A dx

Figure 7.73 Carrier accretion in a onedimensional slice. Note that if we divide out the volume dV = Adx we end up with the continuity equation (7.74) Equation (7.74) is the continuity equation in onedimension. If we extend this concept to three dimensions then the continuity equation will be F (G

The continuity equation occurs in almost every situation in which we have to consider the balance between flux and the rate of generation or recombination. It is likely that you have seen it elsewhere, in similar form. The explanation elsewhere may have taken more of a mathematical development, but the result is the same. When an excess of carriers exists at a surface, then the flux away from the surface is due to the diffusion process, which occurs as result of a gradient in the density of (excess ptype) carriers, i.e. F Dp dp dx

and the recombination rate Rp is given by equation (7.72). Rp

For the case where no carriers are being generated G = 0. At steadystate conditions, for which the dp/dt = 0, then 0 Dp Rp

Assuming that p

0 at x

, this differential equation has solution p(x) p n(x) p n0 p(0)e

97



d 2p dx 2

Dp

d 2p dx 2

Dp

d2 p dx 2

x Lp

dp dt

R p)

p
p

dN dt

R p)Adx

(7.75)

p
p

(7.76)

(7.77)

where Lp

Lp is defined as the recombination length or diffusion length of the carriers as they flow from the surface into the semiconductor and are annihilated by the recombination processes. It is not unlike the famous march of the Spanish army into the jungle from the coast of Nicaragua in 1839 with 10,000 men. Twelve days and 120 miles later, the strength of the army was only 2,000 men, as result of the deaths due to malaria, snakes and snipers, as they marched forward through the steaming jungle. The death rate S translated into a death distance LS as the soldiers marched (diffused) forward through the hostile territory. In like manner, when the ptype carriers are injected into the hostile territory, their numbers will also decline exponentially as a function of distance, according to how fast they diffuse forward Dp and what the characteristic death time constant p may be. This concept is represented by figure 7.74.

carrier density

p n(x)

p n0

p n(0)e

Ix pn0 x Figure 7.73 Carrier recombination as a function of recombination distance, as the carriers diffuse forward into the material.

Equation (7.77) and all of the analysis preceding it has defined the recombination distance Lp in terms of an excess of ptype carriers injected into an ntype region. Similarly we will have a recombination distance (or diffusion length) for ntype carriers with lifetime n , injected into a ptype region, of Ln

Dn

The flow of electrons and holes, of course, also corresponds to a flow of current, for which F = Jp /q, if the carriers are ptype, and F = Jn /q, if the carriers are ntype. ******************************************************************************** EXAMPLE: Determine the diffusion length for electrons injected into a ptype material doped with 5 1016 #/cm3 of Boron, assuming recombination time for the electrons n = 200 ns. Assume T=300K. SOLUTION: The mobility for ntype carriers in a material of ionized impurity density 5 1016 #/cm3, according to equation (7.37a) is: 1 [(5

Then the diffusion coefficient,

Dn

VT

905

.02585

98

88

10 17)] 0.88

23.4cm 2 s

1252 10 16) (1.26

905cm 2 Vs

Dp

(7.78)

 

Lp

(7.79)

And the diffusion length for the dying electrons will then be:

Ln

Dn

23.4

(200

21.6 m

******************************************************************************** Note that it is unnecessary to evaluate the majority carrier mobility p, even though we sometimes do so for disciplinary purposes. The only relevant mobility (and diffusion length) for a recombination process is that of the minoritycarriers. It is NOT necessary to consider the diffusion length for majority carriers.

7.7 NONEQUILIBRIUM THERMAL STATISTICS Since it is convenient to think of carrier levels n and p relative to equilibrium, as represented by Fermi level EF, then equations (7.4.5) and (7.4.6) give us an equilibrium reference. These can be related to electrical potential energies, since the relationship between energy and potential for electrons, of charge q, is given by qE

Equations (7.4.5a) and (7.4.5b) can then be rewritten as n and p where = qEi and n ie ( n ie (

F) V T

) VT

= qEF , and VT is the thermal voltage, given by VT

kT q

is usually defined as the Fermi potential and

is identified as the intrinsic potential.

Equations (7.72a) and (7.72b) represent equilibrium conditions. If we should have a nonequilibrium condition, we prefer to keep the simplicity of these equations and their relationships to the semiconductor potentials. This is accomplished by defining quasiFermi potentials Fn and Fp , such that n and p n ie ( n ie (
Fn) V T

Fp

) VT

which is equivalent to splitting the equilibrium reference Fermi level EF. This is represented by figure 7.71.

99

10 9)

   

  

   

  

(7.71)

(7.72a)

(7.72b)

(7.73)

(7.74a)

(7.74b)

EC EFn Ei EFp EV

Figure 7.71 Nonequilibrium: The Fermi level EF is split into two imrefs, EFn and EFp . The quasiFermi levels are also called imrefs, since they are associated with imaginary reference levels used outside of the framework of the equilibrium statistics that define Fermi level EF. Note that the product np no longer satisfies equation (7.2.11) since the semiconductor is no longer in equilibrium np n 2e ( i

As the semiconductor approaches equilibrium, for which

Fp

Fn ,

then np

7.8 RECOMBINATION PROCESSES AND THE RECOMBINATION RATE The recombination process is one in which an electron an electron gives up energy and falls into a hole Energy, either in the form of radiation or thermal energy, is released. The process is continuous, since recombination and emission, wherein an electron gains energy and jumps into the conduction band. are driven by thermodynamics. The thermodynamic process is governed by transition probability. When in nonequilibrium, the transition probability and the recombination time constant, pulls the system back toward an equilibrium state. The transition probability is dependent on the magnitude of the energy gap, EG , loosely defined as the difference between the upper edge of the valence band, EV, and the lower edge of the conduction band EC . Unfortunately, in the three dimensional crystalline lattice, these band edges vary with respect to position in momentum space, and the peak of the valence band does not necessarily line up with the valley of the conduction band. Since, for a conducting electron the free energy is E = h 2k 2/2me , we see that the concept of varying energy is one for which E = E(k), where k is the wavenumber. This is the plot space, otherwise known as kspace which is represented by figure 7.81.

100

Fp Fn) VT

(7.75) ni 2.

E EC EG

EV k

Figure 7.81 Transition probabilities and the energygap in the crystalline lattice. Note that for Silicon, the bandtoband transition must take an indirect path, with a given momentum value necessary to make the transition. An indirect bandtoband transition, as represented by this figure, requires that an energy transition must be accompanied by a particular value of momentum. This complementary requirement drastically reduces the transition probability, and therefore may make the process of regaining equilibrium relatively slow, much too slow for the quick electrical responses demanded of modern semiconductor circuits. Pure silicon may have a recombination time on the order of s, whereas ns are usually needed. The recombination rate is a transition rate. For recombination of electrons, it will then be directly proportional to the excess density of electrons, n, and the density of available recombination sites (holes), p0 . Therefore it will be of the form

This principle is illustrated by figure 7.82.

(excess ntype carriers in a ptype semiconductor)

p0

Figure 7.82 Recombination process in a semiconductor material. Equation (7.81) also has a similar form for recombination of holes as excess carriers. Rp

c pn 0 p

Rn

c np 0 n

(7.81)

EC

Ei EF EV

(7.82)

101

Impurities and surface defects will considerably improve the speed of the recombination process. If intermediate energy states are introduced within the bandgap, an alternate recombination process, indirect recombination, will also occur. This process is illustrated by figure 7.83.

EC

R1
trap levels

R2
Et

R3

R4
EV

Figure 7.83 Indirect recombination using intermediate trapcenters. Both recombination and emission processes are involved. In reference to the figure, the four processes are:

(1) (2) (3) (4)

capture of an electron from the conduction band by an empty trap center, R1 . emission of an electron to the conduction band from an occupied trap center, R2 . capture of a hole from the valence band by a filled trap center, R3 . emission of a hole to the valence band from an empty trap center, R4 .

The probability that a center is occupied is given nicely by the FermiDirac distribution, assuming that the trap centers fall at energy level E = Et ,

As noted by equation (7.81) the transition rate is proportional to the number of carriers available and the number of sites available to them. Using the occupation probability given by equation (7.82), the transition rates associated with the indirect recombination process can be defined in terms of the densities as:

where cn , en , cp , ep , represent capture and emission coefficients, for the electrons and holes, respectively. Note that the emission rates R2 and R4 are proportional only to the density of the emitting population, although the idea of emitting a hole does seem somewhat strange. Nt represents the density of the trap centers within the semiconductor. At equilibrium, the number of electrons lost and gained from the conduction band should be equal, and therefore R1 = R2 , for which:

R4

R3

R2

e nN t f t c ppN t f t e pN t (1 f t)

102

R1

c nnN t (1

f t)

ft

f (E

E t)

e (Et

E F) kT

(7.83)

(7.84a) (7.84b) (7.84c) (7.84d)

Similarly R3 = R4 is also necessary for equilibrium, which gives 1

Under a nonequilibrium process, the rate at which electron are lost from the conduction band must be equal to the rate at which they are gained by the valence band (same as the rate as which holes are lost from the valence band). This condition is called the principle of detailed balance, and requires that R1 R2 R3

If equations (7.83) and (7.84) are applied to (7.85) then c nnN t(1 which gives ft as c nn n ic p e f t) c n n ie N tf t c ppN tf t c pn ie N t(1

The net recombination rate is the same as the loss rate from the conduction band, given by R1 R2 . Applying equation (7.87) to this definition we get c nn

If we assume that the capture crosssections for electrons and holes are about the same, then cn = cp , and equation (7.88) will be somewhat simplified,

Under lowlevel injection, p = pn >> p0 , and n = nn = n0 >> p. Since ni 2 = n0 p0 , then equation (7.89) will reduce to

Note the similarity of equation (7.810) to equation (7.81). This analysis tells us that the recombination rate is dependent on the density Nt of the intermediate states, the density of carriers n0 + pn , and the location of the intermediate energy level Et within the energy gap EG . The recombination rate is a minimum for = 0, for which Et Ei , and tells us that impurities such as Au or Cu are the most effective for speeding up the recombination time.

103

1 1 c nN t

Since pn p0 =

p, then the recombination lifetime is of the (approximate) form 2n i n 0 cosh (7.812)

(1

n0

  

c nN t(p n p 0)n 0 p n 2n i cosh

c nN t(p n p 0) (2n i n 0) cosh )

c nN t(pn n 2) i n p 2n i cosh

R1

R2

c nc pN t(pn n 2) i c pp n ic ne n ic p e

ft

c n n c n n ie c p p n ic n e

ep

c pp

ft

c pn ie

R4

en

c nn

ft

c n n ie

ft

f t)

p
p

c n(n i(EF

E i) kT

)(e (Et

E F) kT

c nn ie (Et

E i) kT

ft

(7.85a)

(7.85b)

(7.86)

(7.87)

(7.88)

(7.89)

(7.810)

(7.811)

Homework, Chapter 7: Semiconductor materials

(* Indicates advanced problems)

Vers 2.2

71. Determine the temperature at which there is a 106 probability that an energy state 0.55 eV above the Fermi level will be occupied by an electron. 72. Consider the energy gap and band edges as shown for Si. (a) If EC EF = 0.3 eV, determine the probability that an energy state at E = EC is occupied by an electron, and the probability that a state at E = EV is empty.
(a)

EC EF

0.3 eV

EG = 1.12 eV EV

73. Repeat problem 72 for the case when the gap energy is 1.43 eV (as in the case of GaAs ). *74. What is the maximum allowed temperature that assures that the intrinsic carrier concentration in Si will be less than 1.5 1012#/cm3. Hint: Use your calculator to set up the equation for ni . You will have to iterate. Assume that EG = 1.12 eV for Si.

75. Find the ratio of intrinsic carrier concentrations (a) Si (b) GaAs.

76. If the densityofstates function in the conduction band is

g = K(E EC ) for E

EC ,

derive an expression for the thermal equilibrium concentration of electrons in the conduction band, assuming that FermiDirac statistics can be replaced by the Boltzmann approximation. *77. If the probability of occupation of states in the conduction band is f(E ) = 1.0 determine the upper limit E1 = EC + E to which these states would fill, assuming that the lowest fill first, and n is limited to n = 2 n 3 = NC .

Answer:

E1

EC

78. Determine the value of n0 and p0 for Si at T = 300K if EF Ei = 0.22 eV 79. The value of p0 in Si at T = 300K is 1015 #/cm3. Determine: (a) n0 and (b) EC EF. 710. A Si substrate doped with ND = 1015 #/cm3. Determine n0 , p0 , and (EC EF ). 711. Assume that a semiconductor is doped with concentrations ND = 2 1015 #/cm3 and NA =1.5 1015 #/cm3. Determine: (a) n0 and p0 at T = 300K (b) determine ni , n0 , and p0 at T = 500K. 712. A 10mm x 10mm x 10mm cube of Si at T = 300K has 1014 #/cm3 of Ga and 1.5 1014 #/cm3 of As, as trace impurity concentrations, respectively. Determine the resistance between opposite faces of the cube. Assume n = 1330 cm2/Vs and p = 460 cm2/Vs
 

3 4

2 3


kT

1.21kT

104

n i(T n i(T

330K) for: 300K)

713. A strip of Si having crosssectional area 2500 m 20 m and length 2 mm has 25 mA of current flowing through it. If we desire a voltage drop of not more than 2 V, determine: (a) maximum allowed resistance (b) minimum allowed conductivity (c) Assuming light doping so that n = 1330 cm2/Vs, determine concentration of donor atoms needed to achieve this goal. (d) What concentration of acceptor atoms must be added to counterdope the material such that the same conductivity will be achieved for a ptype material? *714. In the year 2009 engineers have been tasked to design a series of probes that will assess some disturbing activity in and around the Jovian red spot. They have discovered that, as well as surface temperatures on the order of 450K, there are often boron and phosphorus storms. In order to monitor the extent and duration of these storms, a young engineer has proposed that sensor strips made up of Si be plated on the hull of the probe, (an excellent idea, since the hull is to be made of pure quartz (SiO2)) and that the impurity doping be assessed by monitoring the resistance of these strips. The resistance of a strip of thickness 25 m doped at ND = 1014 #/cm3 is observed to decrease from 12.5k to 10k . Assuming that diffused impurities have affected the top 5 m of the strip, identify the possible type(s) and density(s) that have caused of this change. Assume that mobilities of Si at this temperature, for low levels of doping, are:
n

Figure P714: Jovian surface probe 715. (a) Determine the electron mobility at T = 300K for a Si substrate when it is doped at ND = 5 1016 #/cm3. (b) If it is counterdoped with an acceptor of concentration NA = 1017#/cm3, what is the hole mobility? (c) What is the conductivity of the counterdoped material? 716. Engineers at the Thames River power complex have decided to monitor the #4 reactor with a network of Si thermistor sensor strips doped at NA = 1014 #/cm3 plated on each fuel rod. They will be used to control and inhibit temperature fluctuations within the core. At T = 500K, which is the best operating temperature for a nonpressurized reactor, sensor conductance is G = 0.2 1. However, there is some concern, that over a period of time, phosphorus byproducts from the reaction may contaminate the sensors and give false readings that indicate lower temperatures than truly exist. Assuming that the Si does become contaminated with phosphorus at 1 part in 107, determine the conductance at T = 500 K. Measurements of lightlydoped Si have shown that at T = 500 Si has n = 443 cm2/Vs and p = 171 cm2/Vs. 717. (a) Determine the electron mobility at T = 300K in Si for doping concentration NA = 5 1016 #/cm3. (b) If it is counterdoped with a donor material of concentration ND = 6 1016 #/cm3, what is the electron mobility? (c) what is the hole mobility for case (b)? and (d) what is the conductivity?

105

    

= 551 cm2/Vs

= 207 cm2/Vs

718. An 10 m thick stripe of Si doped at NA = 1015#/cm3 is implanted with NA = 1017#/cm3 to form a more heavilydoped layer of thickness 1 m, as shown by figure P718. If width and length of the stripe are 15 mm and 5 cm, respectively, determine (a) the resistance in the long direction of the stripe before implant (b) after implant (c) after a long annealing process in which the heavily doped layer diffuses throughout the Si to form a uniformly doped stripe. Assume T = 300K. As part of your assessment, calculate the mobilities for the various doping densities.

implant NA = 1017 #/cm3 thickness = 1 m thickness = 10 m

NA = 1015 #/cm3

Figure P718: silicon strip 719. Determine the average drift velocity of holes in a strip of Si having crosssectional area 500 m 200 m that contains a hole concentration of 4 1015 #/cm3 and carrying a current of 20 mA. *720. In the year 2004, research in medical electronics determined that nerve impulses may be enhanced by several orders of magnitude if the nerve filament is accompanied in parallel by a 40 m dia. strand of golddoped silicon. Research being conducted on a $6 million mouse (codename: Mighty Mouse) discovered that the mouse developed a strange weakness as result of exposure to Krypton gas. It was since determined that the Krypton acted as a catalyst that causes alloying of trace elements of phosphorus (=donor) with the silicon filaments, thus creating an implanted cylindrical outer layer, of thickness approximately 5 m and doping concentration ND = 2 1015#/cm3. If the filament was originally doped with Boron (= acceptor), of concentration 1015#/cm3, determine the resistance per length of the fibers: (a) before the phosphorous infusion layer is formed, and (b) after phosphorus infusion layer is formed. Assume T = 300 K and evaluate n and p thereto as part of your analysis.

implant ND = 2 1015 #/cm3 layer thickness = 5 m

Figure 720: Silicon filament 721. In a ptype GaAs semiconductor, the conductivity is measured to be = 5 ( cm)1. Determine the equilibrium values of electron and hole concentrations, assuming that T = 300K.

722. Determine the intrinsic conductivity

of (a) Si and (b) GaAs, assuming T = 300K.

106

where

i is the

intrinsic conductivity. (b) Show that the corresponding hole concentration is:

p0

ni

min

p p

*723. A semiconductor material has electron and hole mobilities mum value of conductivity is:

and

p,

respectively. Show (a) that the mini-

724. The electron concentration in a modulationdoped Si substrate is formed such that

where a = 15 m, and where 0 < x < 25 m. Assume that Dn = 25 cm2/s. The total electron current density through the semiconductor is Jn = 10 A/cm2. The electron current has both diffusion and drift components. Determine the electric field as a function of x that exists in the semiconductor. 725. A constant Efield of magnitude Ex = 12 V/cm exists in a GaAs material for 0 < x < 50 m. The total current density Jn = 100A/cm2. At x = 0 the drift and diffusion currents are equal. Assume that T = 300K and that n = 8000 cm2/Vs. Determine: (a) the expression for the electron concentration n(x), (b) the electron concentration at x =0 (c) electron concentration at x = 50 m. (d) drift and diffusion components of Jn at x = 50 m. 726. A sample of Si is doped with 1016#/cm3 of Boron. A strip of dimensions as shown and oriented so that it is subject to field Bz = .04T. Assume that the Hall factor rH = 1.10. If current Ix = 1 mA, determine (a) Ey and (b) VH .

*727. A Si sample of dimensions as shown is evaluated using the transverse Hall effect. If Bz = 0.1T, Ix = 25 mA, Vx = 16V and VH = 30mV determine (a) carrier type, (b) majority carrier concentration, (c) Hall mobility, (d) Hall factor. Note that an iteration is necessary since rH is an unknown.

d = 50 m, w = 500 m, L = 0.5 cm,

728. A GaAs sample at T = 300K is evaluated by a Hall effect test strip of dimensions d = 100 m, w = 0.5mm, L = 0.5cm. For Ix = 2.5mA, Vx = 2.2V, and Bz = 25 mT the Hall voltage is 4.5V. Find (a) type carrier (b) carrier concentration (c) Hall mobility (d) resistivity. 729. In a ptype substrate material with NA = 5 1016 #/cm3, excess carriers (electrons) are injected into the surface such that np (0) = 1014 #/cm3. (a) Determine n , and Dn . Assuming that n = p = 0.1 s determine (b) Ln and (c) the steadystate excess electron concentration n(x) at: (c) x = 5 m and at x = 20 m. (d) Determine p(x) at x = 5 m and x = 20 m.

107

 

&

    

'

n(x)

) (

10 16e

x a

 

  

# $"

730. Power transistors are constructed with a relatively thick, lightlydoped layer anode capable of withstanding reasonably high levels of voltage in reverse bias. The drawback is that, in forward bias, these layers have a significant series resistance to current flow. If we have a Si power transistor as shown has layer doping ND = 5 1014 #cm3, determine (a) the current that the transistor will conduct in forward saturation, when 1.6 V falls across this layer, and (b) the power that will be dissipated in heat when the transistor is in this conducting state.

Figure P730: Power transistor *731. The typical crosssection and surface pattern of a power MOSFET ( HEXFET) is shown, with current flow lines as indicated by the arrows. Assuming that the bulk layer of the FET is made of lightlydoped Si at ND = 1014 #/cm3, (a) determine the voltage drop that will fall across it when conducting 12 kA, assuming that the device pattern shown is replicated many thousands of times to cover a circular wafer of diameter 10 cm with this pattern. (b) Determine the power dissipated in the lower 40 m of the conducting layer. (c) Determine the power/area dissipated in the upper 4 m of the conducting layer. Hint: think triangles.
  
4 m

linear model of current flow distance between hexagon pattern centers = 20 m

20 m

5 m

Figure P731: Power MOSFET (HEXFET) device.

108

cm

20 m

40 m