Today we will start with chapter three from your book : Cell structure and Taxonomy .

The cell : is the fundamental unit of all living organism

e.g.: human, plants, animal. except some structure which called acellular e.g.: viruses.

Metabolism :refers to all the chemical reactions that occur

within a cell (anabolism: the buildup of molecule within the cell and. catabolism: breaks down of macromolecules that help to make larger unit in the cell ).

Prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell:

Bacteria and archaea are called prokaryotes or prokaryotic cells because they do not have true nucleus (the nucleus that has nuclear envelop =their DNA is enclosed by a nuclear membrane) in contrast they contain * nucloid which is a space in the cytoplasm where you going to find the nuclear material of prokaryotes .The more complex cell, containing a true nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles are called eukaryotic cells or eukaryotes e.g. humans, animals, plants and fungi (fungi considered eukaryotes because it has specific structures caused the similarity between them and eukaryotes).

* nucloid (oid means look like so nucloid means look like nucleus .

Note:
Bacterial cells do not have the complex system of membranes organelles .However, it helps us to know a lot about our genes and functions of these genes e.g. the genetic engineering studies on E-coli . -Some microorganisms are prokaryotic, some are eukaryotic, and some are not cell at all.

Microorganisms
Acellular
viroids prions viruses

Cellular

Prokaryotes
archaea bacteria cynobateria

Eukaryotes
algae protozoa fungi

Viroids: structures look like viruses ,found only in plants cells and can caused diseases to plants. Prions: abnormal protein (turn normal protein to abnormal and of course the function going to be different ) they caused mad cow disease.

Viruses: (an acellular microorganism)

Composed of only a few genes protected by protein coat that coated the genetic material which can be(double stranded DNA, single stranded RNA , single stranded DNA or double stranded RNA). If the virus is coated by protein coat only we call it naked

virus, but if it has additional envelope we call it enveloped virus. Virus depend on energy and metabolic machinery of the host
cell in order to reproduce. that means, viruses use all reproduction enzymes of the host cell that needed for its reproduction e.g. DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase. also use some enzyme for different purpose other than replication like integrase to integrate their genome into our cells."HIV virus can live only 2 minutes outside the host cell".

1+3

naked( non- enveloped) viruses

&

2+4 enveloped viruses

Viruses : can infect human cells and bacterial cells by

different way .so each virus is specialized that means it can infect specific type of cell e.g. Hepatitis viruses like (Hepatitis C , Hepatitis D, Hepatitis E ) can only infect hepatocytes . and there is a specific virus can only infect E-coli bacteria. How virus infect E-coli?
First of all we call the virus that infect bacteria phage or

bacteriophage. These phage attach to the bacteria and it starts

secreted enzyme that makes a hole in bacterial membrane then phage injects its genetics material directly into the bacterial cytoplasm .genes of phage start producing phage's head ,tail and all parts of phage's body then these parts assembled to create (complete phage= virions) these when virions increased in number they rupture the bacterial cell membrane and spread outside looking for another bacterial cell to infect and attack it. (remember: virus infection to human cell has different way).

Eukaryotic cell structures

Here is the eukaryotic cell structures where all the organelles are bounded by membranes you can see: the nucleus and the ribosomes and SER & RER (the difference between them is the
presence of the ribosomes ) and you can see also the lysosmes and many other structure . we are going to talk about them one by one.

Yeast cell

Transmission e-microscope

diagram

You can see the nucleus and nuclear pores (these also found in our cells help to transport and export of RNA ) and vacuole important and mitochondria and cytoplasm surrounding by cell membrane.

Note: Yeast cells is eukaryotes it is a fungi and it is

bigger than bacteria cell.

Know let us start discussing the cell structures starting from outside with:

Cell membrane:
Mosaic of large molecules of proteins and phospholipids ,it regulate the passage of nutrition ,wastes and secretions in and out of the cell. So it consist of phospholipids bilayer and inserted within it you can find proteins- embedded in it- called
Plasma membrane ,cell membrane and cytoplasmic membrane are all have the same meaning

transmembrane proteins can form channels for

transport different molecules in and out of the cell, some of them are general channels and some of them are specialized.. you can also find other proteins in the inner or the outer surface of the cell membrane.

The nucleus:
Is the command center of the cell so nucleus to the cell is like a brain to our body.

It has three components : nucleoplasm ,chromosomes and nuclear membrane. You have taken in biochemistry that the transcription take place in the nucleus and then they leave it by nuclear pores in the nuclear envelope to the cytoplasm and attach to the ribosomes that has mRNA and the translation process start ending with mature protein . In bacterial cell replication (transcription and translation )is different from human cell and the difference is that in bacterial cell both transcription and translation happened at the same time. The chromosomes: are embedded in the nucleoplasm ,in eukaryotes it consist of: linear DNA molecules-actully they are complex and heavily folded we have about 46chr in somatic cell and 23chr in germ cells. and proteins-histones- . Genes are located in the DNA molecules each gene of them contain information to produce genetic product. Most genes code for proteins but some code for 2 types of RNA : rRNA & tRNA . this is an important point in molecular microbiology because we use it to know the origin of bacteria.

The organism complete collection of genes is the organism's

genotype or genome. Some books included also RNA to the this

term. The number and composition of chromosomes and the number of genes on each chromosome are characteristic of the particular species of organism . Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs.and they are homologs = half from the mother and the other half from the father.

Cytoplasm:
Is a semi-fluid gelatinous nutrient matrix. contains storage granules and variety of organelles each has specific function. It is the place where most metabolic reactions occur like :catabolism and anabolism.

Endoplasmic reticulum :
A highly convoluted system of membranes arranged to form a transport network in the cytoplasm. It makes some modification to protein e.g. in its C or N terminals (so ER serve as factory modified protein) then transport it to Golgi apparatus where the modification is

completed also packaging of protein and flag them to go to specific organelles doing specific function .

Ribosomes:
Mainly ribosomal RNA and proteins .important in the synthesis of protein.

Golgi complex:
Communicates with ER complete transformation of newly synthesized proteins and package them for storage or export.

Lysosomes and peroxisomes:

Originate in the Golgi complex. Lysosomes contain lysozyme and other digestive enzymes e.g. (protease :breaks protein ,nuclease :RNAase or DNAase , phosphtedase , peptidase :breaks peptide bonds )but the question is Why we have such enzyme? The answer is our cell component has a life span and it become like waste and we should break it and recycle it. So our cells is well organized they know what they need ,when they need it and when they need to break it .that is why we have post translation modification. Lysozyme also important to

get rid of bacterial infections. So lysosome in single cell is like antibody in our bodies. Peroxisomes are membrane bound vesicles where H2O2 is generated and broken down . Hydrogen peroxide is responsible for aging of the cell and its destroyed by catalase that is why some people say when the white hair start to appear the catalase rate is low. So H2O2 is really bad to our cells.

Mitochondria
"power plants" ,"power houses" or "energy factories" of the eukaryotic cell.ATP molecules are formed by cellular respiration .((so we have our respiration =breathing and cellular respiration which is three types produce ATP with different levels first type aerobic and second is anaerobic that produce ATP with low level and the third type is fermentation that produce nicotinamide )) Number of mitochondria varies depending on activities of the cell . e.g. muscle cells has large number of mitochondria because we depend on our muscle to breath to move

Plastids
Membrane bound structures containing photosynthetic pigments .they found in plants and not found in animal cells. they are sites of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are a type of plastid.

Cytoskeleton
a system of fibers throughout the cytoplasm.3types of fibers: microtubules , microfilaments and intermediate filaments. Microtubules important for cell division or mitosis. Microfilaments = actin filaments found in the peripheries of the cell to give it a shape and they are important for cell movement . Intermediate filaments found in the cytoplasm of the cell to move and transport molecules inside the cell.

Cell wall :
Some eukaryotic cells contain cell walls an external structure to provide shape, protection and rigidity. It is simpler than prokaryotic cell wall. Chitin found in the cell wall of fungi; cellulose in cell wall of plants and algae.

Cell wall

Absent animals protozoa mycoplasma species

Present
plants algae fungi most bacteria

Please forgive me for any mistake AND please do not forget to pray for security and stability in Yemen, Syria and all the Arab world.

To YEMEN : my

heart is with you and my voice never

ceases to pray for victory.

Azal Amshoosh.