CARBOHYDRATES

In many ways, our bodies can be thought of as chemical processing plants. Chemicals are taken in, processed through various types of reactions, and then distributed throughout the body to be used immediately or stored for later use. The chemicals used by the body can be divided into two broad categories: macronutrients, those substances that we need to eat regularly in fairly large quantities, and micronutrients, those substances that we need only in small amounts. Three major classes of macronutrients are essential to living organisms: carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES. Carbohydrates are organic substances with C, H and O in the ratio of 1:2:1. (C6H12O6). They are defined as polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone derivatives. Monosaccharides. All Carbohydrates are made up of units of sugar (also called saccharide units). Carbohydrates that contain only one sugar unit (monosaccharides) or two sugar units (disaccharides) are referred to as simple sugars. Simple sugars are sweet in taste and are broken down quickly in the body to release energy. Two of the most common monosaccharides are glucose and fructose. Glucose is the primary form of sugar stored in the human body for energy. Fructose is the main sugar found in most fruits. Both glucose and fructose have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6). Simple sugars cannot be hydrolysed further. They are further classified on the basis of number of carbon atoms present as well as on the presence of functional groups. 1. Trioses (3 Carbon) e.g. Glyceraldehyde(Aldehyde) which is an aldotriose and Dihydroxy acetone (Ketone ), a Ketotriose) 2. Tetroses (4 carbon) e.g. Erythrose (Aldehyde) an Aldotetrose 3. Pentoses (5 carbon) e.g. Ribose (Aldehyde) an Aldopentose Xylose (Aldehyde) an Aldopentose Xylulose (Ketone) a Ketopentose 4. Hexoses (6 carbons) e.g. Glucose (Aldehyde) an Aldohexose Galactose (Aldehyde) an Aldohexose Fructose (Ketone) a Ketohexose The following are structures of D-ribose, D-xylose, D-Mannose D-Glucose and D-Fructose respectively.

Disaccharides Disaccharides have two sugar units bonded together. For example, common table sugar is sucrose, a disaccharide that consists of a glucose unit bonded to a fructose unit.
Trisaccharides

Raffinose, also called melitose, is a trisaccharide that is widely found in legumes and cruciferous vegetables, including beans, peas, cabbage, brussels sprouts, and broccoli. It consists of galactose connected to sucrose via a 16 glycosidic linkage. Humans cannot digest saccharides with this linkage and the saccharides are fermented in the large intestine by gas-producing bacteria. Tablets containing the enzyme alpha-galactosidase, such as Beano, are frequently used as digestive aids to prevent gas and bloating. The enzyme is derived from selected strains of the food grade fungus Aspergillus niger.
Complex Carbohydrates

Complex carbohydrates are polymers of the simple sugars. In other words, the complex carbohydrates are long chains of simple sugar units bonded together (for this reason the complex carbohydrates are often referred to as polysaccharides). The potato we discussed earlier actually contains the complex carbohydrate starch. Starch is a polymer of the monosaccharide glucose. Starch is the principal polysaccharide used by plants to store glucose for later use as energy. Plants often store starch in seeds or other specialized organs; for example, common sources of starch include rice, beans, wheat, corn, potatoes, and so on. When humans eat starch, an enzyme that occurs in saliva and in the intestines called amylase breaks the bonds between the repeating glucose units, thus allowing the sugar to be absorbed into the bloodstream. Once absorbed into the bloodstream, the human body distributes glucose to the areas where it is needed for energy or stores it as its own special polymer - glycogen. Glycogen, another polymer of glucose, is the polysaccharide used by animals to store energy. Excess glucose is bonded together to form glycogen molecules, which the animal stores in the liver and muscle tissue as an "instant" source of energy. Both starch and glycogen are polymers of glucose; however, starch is a long, straight chain of glucose units, whereas glycogen is a branched chain of glucose units. Another important polysaccharide is Cellulose. Cellulose is yet a third polymer of the monosaccharide glucose. Cellulose differs from starch and glycogen because the glucose units form a two-dimensional structure, with hydrogen bonds holding together nearby polymers, thus giving the molecule added stability. Cellulose, also known as plant fiber, cannot be digested by human beings, therefore cellulose passes through the digestive tract without being absorbed into the body. Some animals, such as cows and termites, contain bacteria in their digestive tract that help them to digest cellulose. Cellulose is a relatively stiff material, and in plants it is used as a structural molecule to add support to the leaves, stem, and other plant parts. Despite the fact that it cannot be used as an energy source in most animals, cellulose fiber is essential in the diet because it helps exercise the digestive track and keep it clean and healthy. Inulin consists of a small number of D-fructose joined by 2-1 glycosidic linkages. It is used to measure the glomerular filtration rate, a test to assess the function of kidney.

Mucopolysaccharides (MPS) are Hyaluronic acid, Chondroitin sulfate, Heparin, keratan sulfate, Heparan, Sulphate and Dermatan Sulphate. Mucopolysaccharides are heteropolysaccharides. Proteoglycan protein = MPS. MPS are also known as glycosaminoglycans. Modified sugars are important constituents of complex carbohydrates, glycoproteins and glycolipids. They are commonly of two kinds, deoxy and amino. In deoxy sugars an -OH is replaced by -H or a -CH2OH by CH3. The former typically occurs at C2 and the latter at C6.. In amino sugars the OH is replaced by -NH2, commonly at C2. The amino group may subsequently be acetylated to give the N-acetyl derivative. E.g N-acetyl muramic acid (NAM). PROPERTIES Isomerism In Carbohydrates The presence of asymmetric carbon atoms (A carbon atom to which four different atoms or groups attached is known as asymmetric carbon) in a compound produces following effect; It gives rise to the formation of stereoisomerism of that compound It also confers optical activity to the compound
Sterioisomerism

Compounds which are identical in composition and structural formula but differ in spatial configuration sterioisomers These include: a. Enantiomer: D and L-sugars are referred to as enantiomers. Their structures are mirror images of each other. Only D-glucose or D- sugars are utilized by humans. D and L-glucose are termed D and L form depending on the arrangement of H and OH on the penultimate carbon atom. When the sugar has OH group on right, is D isomer. If OH group is on left side then it is L isomer. b. Anomerism: Sugars in solution exist in ring form and not in straight chain form. Aldosugar form mainly pyranose ring and ketosugar form furanose ring structure Carbon 1, after ring formation becomes asymmetric and it is called as anomeric carbon atom. If the two sugars which differ in the configuration at only C1 in case of aldoses and C2 in ketoses are known as anomers and represented as alpha and beta sugars. E.g. -D glucose and -D-glucose and -D fructose and -D-fructose.
Epimerism: The isomers formed due to variations in the configuration of H and OH around a single carbon atom in a sugar molecule is called as epimers. Mannose is 2 epimer of glucose because these two have different configuration only around C2. Galactose is 4-epimer of glucose [at C4].

Optical Activity The compounds having asymmetric carbon atoms can rotate the beam of plane polarized light and are said to be optically active. An isomer which can rotate the plane of polarized light to the right is called as dextrorotatory and is designated as (d) or (+). Example: D- (d)-glucose or it is also known as dextrose. While the isomer which rotates the plane of polarized light to left is known as levorotatory, and is identified as (l) or (-). Example is D-(l)-fructose. A compound with D- configuration can be dextrorotatory (D+) or levorotatory (D-). E.g. D + glucose and D- fructose. Reduction Tests Due to the presence of a free aldehyde or ketone group, carbohydrates are readily oxidised and behave as the reducing agents. These sugars have the capacity to reduccupric ion (Cu2+) to cuprous ion (Cu+). Therefore the reducing sugar like glucose will give positive Benedicts reactions. Non-reducing sugars like sucrose will respond to these tests provided it is first hydrolysed into its reducing components glucose and fructose.

FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES 1. Most abundant dietary source of energy (4Cal/g).

2. They are precursors for many organic compounds (fats, amino acids) . 3. Carbohydrates (glycoprotein, glycolipids) participate in the structure of cell membrane and cellular functions 4. Structural components of many organisms. These include the fibers (cellulose) of plant, exoskeleton of some insects and the cell wall of microorganisms. 5. Serve as the storage form of energy (glycogen) to meet the immediate energy demands of the body. 6. Hyaluronic acid acts as a barrier in tissues against the penetration of bacteria. Heparin acts as anticoagulant in vitro as well as in vivo. It inhibits thrombin. 7. They are good sources of dietary fibres.