Air bag

An automobile air bag, like this one in a crashed SEAT Ibiza car, inflates and deflates within a fraction of a second (about 0.05 seconds). An air bag, A.K.A. a Supplementary Restraint System (SRS), an Air Cushion Restraint System (ACRS), or the Supplemental Inflatable Restraint (SIR) (reflecting the air bag system's intended role as a supplement to conventional restraints such as seatbelts) is a flexible membrane or envelope. Air bags are most commonly used for cushioning, in particular for rapid inflation in the case of an automobile collision. Air bags are designed to complement conventional restraints such as seatbelts and seatbelt pre-tentioners, not replace them. The number of lives saved by airbags is hard to pin down. One study, cited below, puts the number at just under 400 per year (6,000 total), and another study indicates that air bags reduce fatalities by 8% when seatbelts are worn. Airbags also greatly increase the efficiency of seat-belts, in some cases up to 50%. How air bags work The design is conceptually simple - accelerometers trigger the ignition of a gas generator propellant to inflate a nylon fabric bag very rapidly, which reduces the deceleration experienced by the passenger as they come to a stop in the crash. The bag has small vent holes to allow the propellant gas to be (relatively) slowly expelled from the bag as the occupant pushes against it. Many vehicles have several accelerometers and gyroscopes to help sense various impacts and other crash events. The different signals from these sensors are fed into a microprocessor which determines the angle of impact and the severity of the crash. Depending on the result of these calculations, the microprocessor will deploy various restraint devices such as seat belt pre-tensioners and/or air bags. Each restraint device is typically activated with one or more pyrotechnic devices commonly called an initiator or squib. The squib activates with a current pulse between 1 to 3 amperes in less than 2 milliseconds. The squib has a fuse-like conductor inside that heats the pyrotechnic material tightly packed around the conductor. When the conductor becomes hot enough, it ignites the pyrotechnic material which in turn generates hot gas. In a seat belt pretensioner, this hot gas is used to drive a piston that pulls the slack out of the seat belt. In an air bag, the hot gas from the squib is used to ignite solid propellent inside the air bag inflator. The burning propellent generates inert gas which rapidly inflates the air bag in approximately 20 to 30 milliseconds. An air bag must inflate

quickly in order to be fully inflated by the time the forward-traveling occupant reaches its outer surface. Typically, the decision to deploy an airbag in a frontal crash is made within 15 to 30 milliseconds after the onset of the crash, and both the driver and passenger airbags are fully inflated within approximately 60-80 milliseconds after the first moment of vehicle contact. If an air bag deploys too late or too slowly, the risk of occupant injury from contact with the inflating air bag may increase. Since more distance typically exists between the passenger the instrument panel, the passenger air bag is larger and requires more gas to fill it. During the crash, the force of the occupant going forward (toward the point of impact) forces the gas out of the air bag through its vent holes, thereby causing it to deflate. It is the deflation of the air bag that provides the cushioning effect to the occupants as they continue to be thrown forward toward the point of impact. The air bag's volume and the size of the vents in the bag are tailored to each vehicle type to dissipate the occupant's energy over time and distribute the deceleration forces across a larger portion of the occupant's body (compared to a seat belt alone). Front air bags normally do not protect the occupants during side, rear, or rollover accidents. Since air bags deploy only once and deflate quickly after the initial impact, they will not be beneficial during a subsequent collision. Safety belts help reduce the risk of injury in many types of crashes. They help to properly position occupants to maximize the air bag's benefits and they help restrain occupants during the initial and any following collisions. In vehicles equipped with a rollover sensing system, accelerometers and gyroscopes are used to sense the onset of a rollover event. If a rollover event is determined to be imminent, side-curtain air bags are deployed to help protect the occupant from contact with the side of the vehicle interior, and also to help prevent occupant ejection as the vehicle rolls over.

Triggering conditions

Airbag system. Air bags are typically designed to deploy in frontal and near-frontal collisions, which are comparable to hitting a solid barrier at approximately 13-23 km/h (8-14 mph). Roughly speaking, a 23 km/h (14 mph) barrier collision is equivalent to striking a parked car of similar size across the full front of each vehicle at about 45 km/h (28 mph). This is because the parked car absorbs some of the energy of the crash, and is pushed by the striking vehicle. Unlike crash tests into barriers, real-world crashes typically occur at angles, and the crash

forces usually are not evenly distributed across the front of the vehicle. Consequently, the relative speed between a striking and struck vehicle required to deploy the air bag in a real-world crash can be much higher than an equivalent barrier crash. Because air bag sensors measure deceleration, vehicle speed and damage are not good indicators of whether an air bag should have deployed. Occasionally, air bags can deploy due to the vehicle's undercarriage violently striking a low object protruding above the roadway surface. Despite the lack of visible front-end damage, high deceleration forces may occur in this type of crash, resulting in the deployment of the air bag. The air bag sensor is a MEMS accelerometer, which is a small integrated circuit chip with integrated micromechanical elements. The microscopic mechanical element moves in response to rapid deceleration, and this motion causes a change in capacitance, which is detected by the electronics on the chip, which then sends a signal to fire the airbag. The most common MEMS accelerometer in use is the ADXL-50 by Analog Devices, but there are other MEMS manufacturers as well. There was some work initially in mercury switches but they did not work well. Before MEMS, the primary system used to deploy air bags was called a "rolamite". A rolamite is a mechanical device, consisting of a roller suspended within a tensioned band. As a result of the particular geometry and material properties used, the roller is free to translate with little friction or hysteresis. This device was developed at Sandia National Laboratories. The rolamite and similar macro-mechanical devices were used in air bags until the mid-1990s when they were universally replaced with MEMS. Nearly all air bags are designed to automatically deploy in the event of a vehicle fire when temperatures reach 150-200 C (300-400 F). This safety feature, often termed auto-ignition, helps to ensure that such temperatures do not cause an explosion of the entire air bag module. Today, air bag triggering algorithms are becoming much more complex. They try to reduce unnecessary deployments (for example, at low speed, no shocks should trigger the air bag to help reduce damage to the car interior in conditions where the seat belt would be an adequate safety device) and to adapt the deployment speed to the crash conditions. The algorithms are considered as valuable intellectual property. Experimental algorithms may take into account such factors as the weight of the occupant, the seat location, seatbelt use, and even attempt to determine if a baby seat is present.

Inflation
When there is a moderate to severe frontal crash that requires the frontal air bag to deploy, a signal is sent to the inflator unit within the air bag module. An igniter starts a rapid chemical reaction generating primarily nitrogen gas (N2) to fill the air bag making it deploy through the module cover. Some air bag technologies use compressed nitrogen or argon gas with a pyrotechnic operated valve ("hybrid gas generator"), while other technologies use various energetic propellants. Propellants containing sodium azide (NaN3) were common in early inflator designs. However, propellants containing sodium azide were widely phased out during the 1990s in pursuit of more efficient, less expensive and less toxic alternatives. The azide-containing pyrotechnic gas generators contain a substantial amount of the propellant. The driverside air bag may contain a canister which is 5.0 cm (2") in diameter, 3.8 cm (1.5") long, and contains about 50 grams of sodium azide. The passenger side container is 15 cm (6") long and contains 200 grams of sodium azide. The incomplete combustion of the charge due to rapid cooling leads to production of carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen(II) oxide as reaction byproducts. The alternative propellants may incorporate, for example, a combination of nitroguanidine, phase-stabilized ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) or other nonmetallic oxidizer, and a nitrogen-rich fuel different than azide (eg. tetrazoles, triazoles, and their salts). The burn rate modifiers in the mixture may be an alkaline metal nitrate (NO3-) or nitrite (NO2-), dicyanamide or its salts, sodium borohydride (NaBH4), etc. The coolants and slag formers may be eg. clay, silica, alumina, glass, etc. Other alternatives are eg. nitrocellulose based propellants (which have high gas yield but bad storage stability, and their oxygen balance requires secondary oxidation of the reaction products to avoid buildup of carbon monoxide), or high-oxygen nitrogen-free organic compounds

with inorganic oxidizers (e.g., di or tricarboxylic acids with chlorates (ClO3-) or perchlorates (HClO4) and eventually metallic oxides; the nitrogen-free formulation avoids formation of toxic nitrogen oxides). From the onset of the crash, the entire deployment and inflation process is faster than the blink of an eye (about 0.2 seconds). Air bags deploy in about 0.05 seconds. Because a vehicle changes speed so fast in a crash, air bags must inflate rapidly if they are to help reduce the risk of the occupant hitting the vehicle's interior.

Post-deployment
Once an air bag deploys, deflation begins immediately as the gas escapes through vent(s) in the fabric (or, as it's sometimes called, the cushion) and cools. Deployment is frequently accompanied by the release of dustlike particles and gases in the vehicle's interior (called effluent). Most of this dust consists of cornstarch or talcum powder, which are used to lubricate the air bag during deployment. Newer designs produce effluent primarily consisting of harmless talcum powder/cornstarch and nitrogen gas (about 80% of the air we breathe is nitrogen). In older designs using an azide-based propellant (usually NaN3), varying amounts of sodium hydroxide nearly always are initially present. In small amounts this chemical can cause minor irritation to the eyes and/or open wounds; however, with exposure to air, it quickly turns into sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). However, this transformation is not 100% complete and invariably leaves residual amounts of hydroxide ion from NaOH. Depending on the type of air bag system, potassium chloride (a table salt substitute) may also be present. For most people, the only effect the dust may produce is some minor irritation of the throat and eyes. Generally, minor irritations only occur when the occupant remains in the vehicle for many minutes with the windows closed and no ventilation. However, some people with asthma may develop an asthmatic attack from inhaling the dust. With the onset of symptoms, asthmatics should treat themselves as advised by their doctor, then immediately seek medical treatment.

History

1975 Buick Electra Limited with ACRS Since the start of 1994, Ford made airbags standard across their entire range of cars sold in Europe (except for the Maverick which was outsourced from Nissan).

Invention
John W. Hetrick of Newport, Pennsylvania, USA invented the air bag in 1952 and patented his device in 1953. Hetrick came up with the idea to help protect his own family using expertise from his naval engineering days.

Throughout the years, the saving of many lives have been attributed to Hetrick's invention and highlighted in television shows such as Nova on PBS, or his winning of awards such as the Golden Gear award. There have been devices similar to airbags for airplanes as early as the 1940s, with the first patents filed for those devices in 1958. Early air bag system origins traces back to air filled bladders. These systems were large and bulky, and primarily consisted of compressed or heated air, compressed nitrogen gas (N2), freon, carbon dioxide (CO2), or a mixture of water and potassium (KH2O). An American inventor Allen K. Breed then developed a key component for automotive use - the ball-in-tube sensor for crash detection. He marketed this innovation first in 1967 to Chrysler. A similar "Auto-Ceptor" crash-restraint, developed by Eaton, Yale & Towne Inc. for Ford was soon offered as an automatic safety system in the USA while the Italian Eaton-Livia company offered a variant with localized air cushions.

First automotive applications: an alternative to the seatbelt

The device was briefly available in the United States in the mid-1970s. During this era, drivers were infrequent users of seat belts and a means of automatically offering seat belt-like levels of occupant protection to unbelted occupants in a head-on collision was felt to be a valuable innovation. Ford built an experimental fleet of cars with airbags in 1971. General Motors followed with a fleet of 1,000 experimental vehicles in 1973, and these Chevrolet cars equipped with dual air bags were sold to the public through GM dealers two years later. GM called this the Air Cushion Restraint System. In the seventies GM cars had two-stage deployment similar to newer air bags. Before these Chevrolets were sold, air bags were made available to the public in November 1973 when General Motors began offering dual air bags as an extra-cost option on several 1974 model full-size cars made by the Buick, Cadillac and Oldsmobile divisions. This system was known as the Air Cushion Restraint System. The 1970s fleet of 10,000 airbag-equipped GM experienced seven fatalities. One is now suspected to have been caused by the airbag. The crash severity was only moderate and at the time a heart attack was suspected. The victim was cremated without autopsy. The standard shoulder belts were removed on these cars, as they were designed to replace seat belts. The market did not appear to reward this innovation. Air bags were first implemented by GM and Ford in lowvolume production (in approximately 12,000 automobiles in the 197376 era), then abandoned by GM and Ford. The passenger side air bag on 1970s cars was located in the lower part of the dashpad and it also acted as a knee restraint. The lower part of the dash on the driver side was also different on cars with air bags as it was padded. The development of air bags coincided with an international interest in vehicle road safety legislation. Some safety experts cautioned that mandating a particular technical solution, rather than a general occupancy safety standard, could rapidly become dated and might not be the most cost-effective approach. Motor manufacturers would tool up for a particular standard which could not easily be changed. This proved to be the case, and as countries successively mandated seat belt restraints there was less emphasis placed on other designs for several decades.

Rebirth: supplemental restraint

Car designers have moved on from the initial view of the air bag as a seat belt replacement. Automobile air bags are now designed and sold as Supplemental Restraint Systems (SRS). In 1980, Mercedes-Benz re-introduced the air bag in Germany that it had patented in 1971 as an option on its high end S-Class (W126), which also offered such other exotic options as hydropneumatic suspension. In the Mercedes system, the sensors would tighten the seat belts and then deploy the air bag on impact. The air bag was thus no longer marketed as a means of avoiding seat belts, but as a way to obtain an extra margin of occupant safety.

In 1987 the Porsche 944 turbo became the first car in the world to have driver and passenger air bags as standard equipment. The Porsche 944 and 944S had this as an available option. This year also saw the first air bag in a Japanese car, the Acura Legend. Audi was relatively late to offer airbag systems on a broader scale; until the 1994 model year, for example, the 80/90, by far Audi's bread-and-butter model, as well as the 100/200, did not have air bags in their standard versions. Instead, the German automaker until then relied solely on its proprietary Procon-ten belt tensioner restraint system. Air bags became common in the 1980s, with Chrysler and Ford introducing them in the mid-1980s; the former made them standard equipment across its entire line in 1990. In Europe, air bags were almost unheard of on family cars until the early 1990s. The first European Ford to feature an air bag was the facelifted Escort MK5b in 1992; within a year, the entire Ford range had at least one air bag as standard. By the mid 1990s, European market leaders such as Vauxhall/Opel, Rover, Peugeot, Renault and Fiat had included air bags as at least optional equipment across their model ranges. By the end of the decade, it was very rare to find a mass market car without an air bag, and some late 1990s products - such as the Volkswagen Golf MK4 - also featured side airbags. The Peugeot 306 was a classical example of how commonplace airbags became on mass market cars during the 1990s. On its launch in early 1993, most of the range did not even have driver air bags as an option. By 1999, however, side airbags were available on several variants. During the 2000s, side air bags were commonplace on even budget cars such as the smaller-engined versions of the Ford Fiesta and Peugeot 206, and curtain air bags were also becoming regular features on mass market cars. The Toyota Avensis, launched in early 2003, was the first mass market car to be sold in Europe with a total of nine airbags.

Air bags become mandatory

On July 11, 1984, the U.S. government required cars being produced after April 1, 1989 to have driver's side air bags or automatic seat belts (the automatic seat belt was a technology, now discarded, that "forced" motorists to wear seatbelts). Airbag introduction was stimulated by the U.S. DOT. However, airbags were not mandatory on light trucks until 1995. In 1998, dual front airbags were mandated by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), and de-powered, or second-generation air bags were also mandated. This was due to the injuries caused by first-generation air bags that were designed to be powerful enough to restrain people who were not wearing seatbelts. In the United Kingdom and most other developed countries there is no direct legal requirement for new cars to feature airbags. Instead, the compulsory Euro NCAP vehicle safety rating encourages manufacturers to take a comprehensive approach to occupant safety; a good rating can only be achieved by combining air bags with other safety features. Thus almost all new cars now come with at least two airbags as standard.

Side-Impact Air Bags

Side-impact air bags are a category of air bag usually located in the roof rail above the door and inflate next to the windows, or are mounted inside the door panel. These are specifically designed to reduce the risk of head injury and/or help keep the head and upper body inside the vehicle. Some vehicles are now being equipped with a different types of designs to help reduce injury and ejection from the vehicle in rollover crashes. Side-impact air bags have been said to reduce brain injury or fatalities by up to 45% in a side impact with an SUV. These air bags come in various forms (e.g., tubular, curtain, door-mounted) depending on the needs of the application. The Swedish company Autoliv AB, was granted a patent on side air bags, and they were first offered as an option on the 1995 model year Volvo 850, and as standard equipment on all Volvo cars made after 1995. The first head protection air bags were included as standard equipment on the 1997 Volvo S70.

In 1998 the Volvo S80 was first given curtain airbags to protect both front and rear passengers. They were then were made standard equipment on all new Volvo cars from 1998. The Volvo Curtain Airbag design is now considered to be superior by most car manufacturers and is the one mostly used; in some cars it has been designed to stay inflated for rollover crashes. The Volvo XC90 and some other SUVs and MPVs have a long inflatable curtain air bag that protects all 3 rows of seats. In 1998 the BMW 7-series and E39 5-series were fitted with a smaller driver's head protection, called an "air tube". However, if the driver is taller or shorter than usual the tube may be found wanting; the air tube system was also not designed to protect rear seat passengers (unlike the Volvo design). It was suspected that this system was provided merely in order to help score well on NCAP testing in Europe, which only tests front seat passengers for head protection.

Motorcycle air bags

In 2006, Honda introduced the first motorcycle air bag safety system on its Gold Wing motorcycle.

Other air bag design

The Citron C4 provides the first "shaped" driver air bag, made possible by this car's innovative fixed hub steering wheel.

Dual-stage air bags

Many advanced air bag technologies are being developed to tailor air bag deployment to the severity of the crash, the size and posture of the vehicle occupant, belt usage and how close that person is to the air bag module. Many of these systems use multi-stage inflators that deploy less forcefully in stages in moderate crashes than in very severe crashes. Occupant sensing devices let the air bag diagnostic unit know if someone is occupying a seat in front of an air bag, whether the person is an adult or a child, whether a seat belt or child restraint is being used and whether the person is forward in the seat and close to the air bag module. Based on this information and crash severity information, the air bag is deployed at either a high force level, a less forceful level or not at all. Adaptive air bag systems may utilize multi-stage air bags to adjust the pressure within the air bag. The greater the pressure within the air bag, the more force the air bag will exert on the occupants as they come in contact with it. These adjustments allow the system to deploy the air bag with a moderate force for most collisions; reserving the maximum force air bag only for severest of collisions. Additional sensors to determine the location, weight or relative size of the occupants may also be used. Information regarding the occupants and the severity of the crash are used by the electronic control unit to determine whether air bags should be suppressed or deployed, and if so, at various output levels. Air bags in certain car models deploy twice, for two crashes; it first deploys and deflates, and then re-inflates upon a subsequent collision.

Benefits
Air bags supplement the safety belt by reducing the chance that the occupant's head and upper body will strike some part of the vehicle's interior. They also help reduce the risk of serious injury by distributing crash forces more evenly across the occupant's body. Curtain air bags help to keep all parts of the occupant inside the vehicle. One recent study concluded that as many as 6,000 lives have been saved as a result of air bags.

Costs
Air bags cost about $500 (USD) per vehicle from OEMs, who typically pay the supplier less than $100. If they are deployed in error or stolen, the registered vehicle owner is required to repurchase them. Since they are an integral part of the vehicle design, it is not usually possible to retrofit air bags to a vehicle that does not have them, though in the early 1990s Breed Technologies of Lakeland, Florida, offered a retro driver side system, the SRS-40 for seven of the top selling vehicles of the time. The SRS-40 system used the same sensor as the early 1990s Jeep Cherokee. When the vehicle exceeded a preset negative acceleration threshold for a specific length of time, the sensor released two firing pins,

initiating the deployment. This simple all-mechanical system eliminated the need for any electrical connections. Sensor calibration was changed from vehicle to vehicle to allow for the structural differences. The kits supplied by Breed included a new steering wheel. Most manufacturers specify the replacement of undeployed air bags after a certain period to ensure their reliability in an accident. Although self installation of used or surplus components may result in considerable cost savings, air bags should only be serviced by those who are properly qualified. Accidental deployment while servicing could result in severe injury and an improperly installed or defective airbag unit may not provide sufficient protection in an accident. For these reasons, laws limiting sale, shipping, handling and maintenance have been imposed in several countries. In Germany, where some of the strictest laws are in place, air bags count as harmful explosives and only car mechanics with additional special training are allowed to service air bag systems. Under German federal law, used but intact air bags are to be detonated under secure conditions and must not be passed on to third parties in any way, and private (i.e. layman) individuals are not allowed to handle air bag units under any circumstances. Legal purchase is restricted to buying a new replacement unit for immediate installation by the seller's qualified personnel.

Air bag injuries and fatalities

Air bags involve the extremely rapid deployment of a large cushion. While air bags can protect a person under the right circumstances, they can also injure or kill. To protect occupants not wearing seat belts, U.S. air bag designs trigger much more quickly than air bags designed in other countries. As seat belt use in the U.S. climbed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, auto manufactures were able to adjust their designs. Today all air bag control units recognize if a belt is used and set the trigger time accordingly. Newer air bag designs trigger at a lesser speed; nonetheless, passengers must remain at least 25 centimeters (10 in) from the panel from which frontal air bags deploy to avoid injury from the bag in a crash. While driving, a driver must be seated so that the center of the chest remains 25 centimeters (10 in) from the center of the steering wheel hub. The design of side air bags means occupants of a vehicle must not lean against the inside of the car window or doors, the pillars or place objects between themselves and the side of the vehicle. Despite many cars still featuring hooks on passenger assist grips, these can not be used when side thorax, and in particular, curtain air bags are fitted. Injuries such as abrasion of the skin, hearing damage (from the sound during deployment), head injuries, eye damage for spectacle wearers and breaking the nose, fingers, hands or arms can occur as the air bag deploys. In 1990, the first automotive fatality attributed to an air bag was reported, with deaths peaking in 1997 at 53 in the United States TRW produced the first gas-inflated air bag in 1994, with sensors and low-inflation-force bags becoming common soon afterwards. Dual-depth (also known as dual-stage) air bags appeared on passenger cars in 2005. By that time, deaths related to air bags had declined, with no adults deaths and two child deaths attributed to airbags that year. Injuries remain fairly common in accidents with an air bag deployment. Air bags must inflate very rapidly to be effective, and therefore come out of the steering wheel hub or instrument panel with considerable force, generally at a speed of about 97.8 m/s (220 mph). Because of this initial force, contact with a deploying air bag may cause injury. These air bag contact injuries, when they occur, are typically very minor abrasions or burns. The sound of air bag deployment is very loud, in the range of 165-175 dB for 0.1 second. Hearing damage can result in some cases. More serious injuries are rare; however, serious or even fatal injuries can occur when someone is very close to, or in direct contact with an air bag module when the air bag deploys. Such injuries may be sustained by unconscious drivers who are slumped over the steering wheel, unrestrained or improperly restrained occupants who slide forward in the seat during pre-crash braking, and even properly restrained drivers who sit very close to the steering wheel. Objects must never be attached to an air bag module or placed loose on or near an air

bag module, since they can be propelled with great force by a deploying air bag, potentially causing serious injuries. The increasing use of air bags may actually make rescue work for firefighters, EMS and police officers more dangerous. Every first responder should be properly trained on how to safely deactivate air bags or be aware of the potential hazards. Removing the car battery does not deactivate the air bags. Improvements in sensing and gas generator technology have allowed the development of second generation air bags systems that can adjust their deployment parameters to size, weight, position and restraint status of the occupant. These improvements have demonstrated a reduced injury risk factor for small adults and children who had an increased risk of injury with first generation air bag systems.

Safe use of air bags

An unrestrained or improperly restrained occupant can be seriously injured or killed by a deploying air bag. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) recommends drivers sit with at least 25 cm (10") between the center of their breastbone and the center of the steering wheel. Children under the age of 13 years should always be properly restrained in a rear seat. A rear-facing infant restraint must never be put in the front seat of a vehicle with a front passenger air bag. A rear-facing infant restraint places an infant's head close to the air bag module, which can cause severe head injuries or death if the air bag deploys. Modern cars include a switch to turn off the air bag system of the passenger seat, in case a child-supporting seat is used there. Smoking a pipe should be avoided while driving. If the air bag inflates and hits the pipe, it is likely to be fatal, even if the crash is moderate.

Aerospace Applications
The aerospace industry and the US Government has applied air bag technologies for many years. NASA and DoD have incorporated air bag systems in various aircraft and spacecraft applications as early as the 1960's. Air bag landing systems NASA engineers test the Mars Pathfinder air bag landing system on simulated Martian terrain. The first use of air bags for landing were Luna 9 and Luna 13, which landed on the Moon in 1966 and returned panoramic images. The Mars Pathfinder lander employed an innovative air bag landing system, supplemented with aerobraking, parachute, and solid rocket landing thrusters. This prototype successfully tested the concept, and the two Mars Exploration Rover Mission landers employed similar landing systems. The Beagle 2 Mars lander also tried to use air bags for landing, but the landing was unsuccessful for reasons which are not entirely known.

CABS test Occupant Protection The US Army has incorporated air bags in its UH-60A/L Black Hawk and OH-58D Kiowa Warrior helicopter fleets. The Cockpit Air Bag System (CABS) consists of forward and lateral air bags with an Electronic Crash Sensor Unit (ECSU). The CABS system was conceived and developed by the US Army Aviation Applied Technology Directorate, Fort Eustis, Va. It is the first conventional air bag system for occupant injury prevention designed and developed specifically for helicopter applications.

Engine Control Unit

An engine control unit (ECU) is an electronic control unit which controls various aspects of an internal combustion engine's operation. The simplest ECUs control only the quantity of fuel injected into each cylinder each engine cycle. More advanced ECUs found on most modern cars also control the ignition timing, variable valve timing (VVT), the level of boost maintained by the turbocharger (in turbocharged cars), and control other peripherals. ECUs determine the quantity of fuel, ignition timing and other parameters by monitoring the engine through sensors. These can include, MAP sensor, throttle position sensor, air temperature sensor, oxygen sensor and many others. Often this is done using a control loop (such as a PID controller). Before ECUs most engine parameters were fixed. The quantity of fuel per cylinder per engine cycle was determined by a carburetor or injector pump.

Contents
[hide]

1 ECU operation o 1.1 Control of fuel injection o 1.2 Control of ignition timing o 1.3 Control of idle speed o 1.4 Control of variable valve timing o 1.5 Electronic valve control 2 Programmable ECUs 3 ECU flashing 4 History o 4.1 Hybrid digital designs o 4.2 Modern ECUs 5 Other applications 6 ECU failures 7 See also o 7.1 Manufacturers of aftermarket ECUs o 7.2 Open source engine management systems o 7.3 Pseudo open source engine management systems o 7.4 DIY engine management systems 8 References 9 External links

[edit] ECU operation

[edit] Control of fuel injection

For an engine with fuel injection, an ECU will determine the quantity of fuel to inject based on a number of parameters. If the throttle pedal is pressed further down, this will open the throttle body and allow more air to be pulled into the engine. The ECU will inject more fuel according to how much air is passing into the engine. If the engine has not warmed up yet, more fuel will be injected (causing the engine to run slightly 'rich' until the engine warms up).

[edit] Control of ignition timing

A spark ignition engine requires a spark to initiate combustion in the combustion chamber. An ECU can adjust the exact timing of the spark (called ignition timing) to provide better power and economy. If the ECU detects knock, a condition which is potentially destructive to engines, and "judges" it to be the result of the ignition timing being too early in the compression stroke, it will delay (retard) the timing of the spark to prevent this. A second, more common source, cause, of knock/ping is operating the engine in too low of an RPM range for the "work" requirement of the moment. In this case the knock/ping results from the piston not being able to move downward as fast as the flame front is expanding. But this latter mostly applies only to manual transmission equipped vehicles. The ECU controlling an automatic transmission would simply downshift the transmission were this the cause of knock/ping.

[edit] Control of idle speed

Most engine systems have idle speed control built into the ECU. The engine RPM is monitored by the crankshaft position sensor which plays a primary role in the engine timing functions for fuel injection, spark events, and valve timing. Idle speed is controlled by a programmable throttle stop or an idle air bypass control stepper motor. Early carburetor based systems used a programmable throttle stop using a bidirectional DC motor. Early TBI systems used an idle air control stepper motor. Effective idle speed control must anticipate the engine load at idle. Changes in this idle load may come from HVAC systems, power steering systems, power brake systems, and electrical charging and supply systems. Engine temperature and transmission status also may change the engine load and/or the idle speed value desired. A full authority throttle control system may be used to control idle speed, provide cruise control functions and top speed limitation.

[edit] Control of variable valve timing

Some engines have Variable Valve Timing. In such an engine, the ECU controls the time in the engine cycle at which the valves open. The valves are usually opened later at higher speed than at lower speed. This can optimise the flow of air into the cylinder, increasing power and economy.

[edit] Electronic valve control

Experimental engines have been made and tested that have no camshaft, but has full electronic control of the intake and exhaust valve opening, valve closing and area of the valve opening. Such engines can be started and run with out a starter motor for certain multi-cylinder engines equipped with precision timed electronic ignition and fuel injection. Such a static-start engine would provide the efficiency and pollutionreductiton improvements of a mild hybrid-electric drive, but without the expense and complexity of an oversized starter motor.[1]For more information also see the following references: 1. Freescale site: http://www.freescale.com/webapp/sps/site/application.jsp? nodeId=02Wcbf56hRCrcd 2. Utah University site: http://www.mech.utah.edu/senior_design/06/index.php/ElectronicValveControl/HomePag e 3. New York Times Article 8/23/03: http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html? res=9503E1DB1F30F932A1575BC0A9659C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 4. MIT Technology Review November 2002: http://grants.nih.gov/grants/funding/SBIRConf2002/arms/sld029.htm

[edit] Programmable ECUs

A special category of ECUs are those which are programmable. These units do not have a fixed behavior, but can be reprogrammed by the user. Programmable ECUs are required where significant aftermarket modifications have been made to a vehicle's engine. Examples include adding or changing of a turbocharger, adding or changing of an intercooler, changing of the exhaust system, and conversion to run on alternative fuel. As a consequence of these changes, the old ECU may not provide appropriate control for the new configuration. In these situations, a programmable ECU can be wired in. These can be programmed/mapped with a laptop connected using a serial or USB cable, while the engine is running. The programmable ECU may control the amount of fuel to be injected into each cylinder. This varies depending on the engine's RPM and the position of the gas pedal (or the manifold air pressure). The engine tuner can adjust this by bringing up a spreadsheet-like page on the laptop where each cell represents an intersection between a specific RPM value and a gas pedal position (or the throttle position, as it is called). In this cell a number corresponding to the amount of fuel to be injected is entered. By modifying these values while monitoring the exhausts using a wide band lambda probe to see if the engine runs rich or lean, the tuner can find the optimal amount of fuel to inject to the engine at every different combination of RPM and throttle position. This process is often carried out at a dynamometer, giving the tuner a controlled environment to work in. Other parameters that are often mappable are:

Ignition: Defines when the spark plug should fire for a cylinder. Rev limit: Defines the maximum RPM that the engine is allowed to rev to. After this fuel and/or ignition is cut. Water temperature correction: Allows for additional fuel to be added when the engine is cold (choke). Transient fueling: Tells the ECU to add a specific amount of fuel when throttle is applied.

Low fuel pressure modifier: Tells the ECU to increase the injector fire time to compensate for a loss of fuel pressure. Closed loop lambda: Lets the ECU monitor a permanently installed lambda probe and modify the fueling to achieve stoichiometric (ideal) combustion.

Some of the more advanced race ECUs include functionality such as launch control, limiting the power of the engine in first gear to avoid burnouts. Other examples of advanced functions are:

Waste gate control: Sets up the behavior of a turbo waste gate, controlling boost. Banked injection: Sets up the behavior of double injectors per cylinder, used to get a finer fuel injection control and atomization over a wide RPM range. Variable cam timing: Tells the ECU how to control variable intake and exhaust cams. Gear control: Tells the ECU to cut ignition during (sequential gearbox) upshifts or blip the throttle during downshifts.

A race ECU is often equipped with a data logger recording all sensors for later analysis using special software in a PC. This can be useful to track down engine stalls, misfires or other undesired behaviors during a race by downloading the log data and looking for anomalies after the event. The data logger usually has a capacity between 0.5 and 16 megabytes. In order to communicate with the driver, a race ECU can often be connected to a "data stack", which is a simple dash board presenting the driver with the current RPM, speed and other basic engine data. These race stacks, which are almost always digital, talk to the ECU using one of several proprietary protocols running over RS232, CANbus]].

[edit] ECU flashing

Many recent (around 1996 or newer) cars use OBD-II ECUs that are sometimes capable of having their programming changed through the OBD port. Automotive enthusiasts with modern cars take advantage of this technology when tuning their engines. Rather than use an entire new engine management system, one can use the appropriate software to adjust the factory equipped computer. By doing so, it is possible to retain all stock functions and wiring while using a custom tuned program. This should not be confused with "chip tuning", where the owner has ECU ROM physically replaced with a different one -- no hardware modification is (usually) involved with flashing ECUs, although special equipment is required. Factory engine management systems often have similar controls as aftermarket units intended for racing, such as 3-dimensional timing and fuel control maps. They generally do not have the ability to control extra ancillary devices, such as variable valve timing if the factory vehicle was a fixed geometry camshaft or boost control if the factory car was not turbocharged.

[edit] History
[edit] Hybrid digital designs
A hybrid digital design was popular in the mid 1980s. This used analogue techniques to measure and process input parameters from the engine, then used a look-up table

stored in a digital ROM chip to yield precomputed output values. Later systems compute these outputs dynamically. The ROM type of system is amenable to tuning if one knows the system well. The disadvantage of such systems is that the precomputed values are only optimal for an idealised, new engine. As the engine wears, the system is less able to compensate than a CPU based system.

[edit] Modern ECUs

Modern ECUs use a microprocessor which can process the inputs from the engine sensors in real time. An electronic control unit contains the hardware and software (firmware). The hardware consists of electronic components on a printed circuit board (PCB), ceramic substrate or a thin laminate substrate. The main component on this circuit board is a microcontroller chip (CPU). The software is stored in the microcontroller or other chips on the PCB, typically in EPROMs or flash memory so the CPU can be re-programmed by uploading updated code or replacing chips. This is also referred to as an (electronic) Engine Management System (EMS). Sophisticated engine management systems receive inputs from other sources, and control other parts of the engine; for instance, some variable valve timing systems are electronically controlled, and turbocharger wastegates can also be managed. They also may communicate with transmission control units or directly interface electronicallycontrolled automatic transmissions, traction control systems, and the like. The Controller Area Network or CAN bus automotive network is often used to achieve communication between these devices. Modern ECUs sometimes include features as cruise control, transmission control, antiskid brake control, and anti-theft control, etc. General Motors' first ECUs had a small application of hybrid digital ECUs as a pilot program in 1979, but by 1980, all active programs were using microprocessor based systems. Due to the large ramp up of volume of ECUs that were produced to meet the US Clean Air Act requirements for 1981, only one ECU model could be built for the 1981 model year[2]. The high volume ECU that was installed in GM vehicles from the first high volume year, 1981, onward was a modern microprocessor based system. GM moved rapidly to replace carburetor based systems to fuel injection type systems starting in 1980/1981 Cadillac engines, following in 1982 with the Pontiac 2.5L "GM Iron Duke engine" and the Corvette Chevrolet Small-Block engine#L83 "Cross-Fire" engine. In just a few years all GM carburetor based engines had been replaced by throttle body injection (TBI) or intake manifold injection systems of various types. In 1988 Delco Electronics, Subsidiary of GM Hughes Electronics, produced more than 28,000 ECUs per day, the world's largest producer of on-board digital control computers at the time[3].

[edit] Other applications

Such systems are used for many internal combustion engines in other applications. In aeronautical applications, the systems are known as "FADECs" (Full Authority Digital Engine Controls). This kind of electronic control is less common in piston-engined aeroplanes than in automobiles, because of the large costs of certifying parts for aviation use, relatively small demand, and the consequent stagnation of technological innovation in this market. Also, a carburated engine with magneto ignition and a gravity feed fuel system does not require any electrical power to run, which is a safety bonus.

[edit] ECU failures

As usually occurs with a technology shift, computer-controlled engine management has replaced old failure modes with new ones[citation needed]. With advanced age, a failing ECU can cause seemingly random starting and driveability faults. For example, a vehicle may refuse to start when cranked with the starter motor, but may respond easily to a push start. Failing electrolytic capacitors in the ECU no longer smooth the power supply to the microprocessor, and the varying load on the starter motor causes sufficient line voltage fluctuation that the computer reboots repeatedly while attempting to start the engine[citation needed]. An industry has evolved to refurbish ECUs with this and other types of failures related to age and use.

Traction Control System (TCS

A traction control system (TCS), also known as Anti-Slip Regulation (ASR), on current production vehicles, are typically (but not necessarily) electro-hydraulic systems, designed to prevent loss of traction of the driven road wheels, and therefore the control of the vehicle, when excessive throttle is applied by the driver, and the condition of the road surface (due to varying factors) is unable to cope with the torque applied. Although similar to electronic stability control (ESP) systems, traction control systems do not have the same goal. The intervention can consist of any, or all, of the following:

Retard or suppress the spark to one or more cylinders Reduce fuel supply to one or more cylinders Brake one or more wheels Close the throttle, if the vehicle is fitted with drive by wire throttle. In turbo-charged vehicles, the boost control solenoid can be actuated to reduce boost and therefore engine power.

Typically, the traction control system shares the electro-hydraulic brake actuator (but does not use the conventional master cylinder and servo), and the wheel speed sensors with the anti-lock braking system.

Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Use of traction control 3 Traction control in cornering 4 References 5 See also 6 External links

[edit] History
The predecessor of modern electronic traction control systems can be found in hightorque, high-power rear-wheel drive cars as a limited slip differential, known as Positraction.[citation needed] As this system worked mechanically to transfer power to the individual rear wheel slipping the least, it still allowed some wheel spin to occur. Mercedes-Benz pioneered and introduced electronic traction control to the market. In 1971, the Buick division of GM introduced MaxTrac, which used an early computer system to detect rear wheel spin and modulate engine power to those wheels to provide the most traction. A Buick-exclusive at the time, it was an option on all full-size models, including the Riviera, Estate Wagon, Electra 225, Centurion, and popular LeSabre family sedan. Cadillac also introduced the ill fated Traction Monitoring System (TMS) in 1979 on the redesigned Eldorado. It was criticized for it's slow reaction time and extremely high failure rate.

[edit] Use of traction control

In road cars: Traction control has traditionally been a safety feature in high-performance cars, which would otherwise need very sensitive throttle input to keep them from spinning the driven wheels when accelerating, especially in wet, icy or snowy conditions. In recent years, traction control systems have become widely available in non-performance cars, minivans, and light trucks. In race cars: Traction control is used as a performance enhancement, allowing maximum traction under acceleration without wheel spin. When accelerating out of turn, it keeps the tyres at the optimum slip ratio. The factual accuracy of this section is disputed.
Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page.(May 2008)

In off road vehicles: Traction control is used instead or in addition to the mechanical limited slip or locking differential. It is often implemented with an electronic limited slip differential, as well as other computerized controls of the engine and transmission. The spinning wheel is slowed down with short applications of brakes, diverting more torque to the non-spinning wheel. This form of traction control has an advantage over a locking differential, as steering and control of a vehicle is easier, so the system can be continuously enabled. It also creates less stress on the drivetrain, which is particularly important

to the vehicles with an independent suspension that is generally weaker compared to solid axles.[citation needed] On the other hand, only half of the available torque will be applied to a wheel with traction, compared to a locked differential, and handling is less predictable.[citation needed]

In motorsports: it is widely thought that TC removes some skill and control from the driver. As such it is unpopular with many motorsport fans. Some motorsports series have given up trying to outlaw TC. [citation needed] With current state of technology, it is possible to implement TC as a part of software in ECU, and as such it is very hard to detect by scrutineers.[citation needed] Very effective yet small units are also available through a company in the US, Davis Technologies [1], that allow the driver to remove the traction control system after an event if desired. In Formula One, an effort to ban TC has led to the change of rules for 2008: every car must have a standard (but custom mappable) ECU, issued by FIA, which is relatively basic and does not have TC capabilities.

[edit] Traction control in cornering

The factual accuracy of this section is disputed.
Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page.(May 2008)

Traction control is not just used for moving a vehicle from stationary without slippage. [citation needed] During hard maneuvers in a front-wheel drive car, there is a point where the wheels cannot both steer and drive the car at the same time without losing traction. With traction control, it's less likely for this loss of control to occur.[citation needed] There is a limit though, when the tyres lose grip. If the car does not corner as sharply as indicated by the front wheels, understeering occurs. In some front-wheel drive cars, traction control can induce lift-off oversteering due to its throttle retarding capabilities.[citation needed] This can keep some cars stable in long maneuvers.[citation needed] In rear wheel drive cars, traction control can prevent oversteering. All car manufacturers strongly point out in vehicle manuals that the traction control system is not to be taken for granted, and that its presence should not encourage dangerous driving or situations beyond the driver's control.

Automotive shredder residue

The shredding of automobiles and major household appliances is a process where a hammermill acts as a giant tree chipper by grinding the materials fed into it to fist-size pieces. The shredding of automobiles results in a mixture of ferrous metal, non-ferrous metal (e.g. alloys of copper and aluminium) and shredder waste, called automotive shredder residue (ASR). ASR consists of glass, fiber, rubber, automobile liquids, plastics and dirt. ASR is sometimes differentiated into shredder light fraction and dust. ASR often contains hazardous substances such as lead, cadmium, and PCB. Therefore, some countries have classified ASR as hazardous waste and have established legislative controls.

Brake Noise, Vibration and Harshness:

Technology Driving Customer Satisfaction

As vehicles continue to move upscale in amenities and pricing, motorists have become increasingly more demanding in regard to smooth, quiet braking performance over the life of their vehicles. The entire automotive industry can attest to this, with brake noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) repairs often dominating OE warranty claims at dealerships and aftermarket service center workloads. More than $100 million is spent annually on brake NVH warranty work in North America alone. To reduce such warranty and brake repair costs, more attention is being placed on optimizing NVH performance to eliminate brake squeals, groans and other related issues at the OE level. This is especially true considering new vehicle quality perceptions are often driven in part by brake performance and warranty repairs. The aftermarket parts and service industry, likewise, has placed greater focus on brake NVH issues. Consumers are beginning to expect OE level performance over the life of their vehicles. Aftermarket friction material suppliers have introduced a multitude of friction products during the past few years to restore OE brake NVH performance with varying degrees of success. Technology-based aftermarket suppliers with comprehensive engineering capabilities have done well. Others without access to such resources have struggled to produce viable friction products that live up to their NVH performance claims.

Japanese Technology Credited with Original Brake NVH Breakthroughs

The focus on brake NVH performance is a relatively recent trend. Up until the 1980s, most motorists accepted a certain level of brake noise and roughness, even in some luxury and near-luxury models imported from Europe. The first breakthroughs in brake NVH technology coincided with the industry push to develop non-asbestos organic (NAO) brake pads. Much of this work was led by Japanese brake suppliers Akebono Corp., Nisshinbo (NBK) and Sumitomo. Their efforts focused on low metallic and other NAO friction formulations. Akebono introduced the automobile industrys first NAO brake pads for mass production featuring proprietary ceramic formulations in the 1980s. They were specifically engineered for the popular Honda Accord and Toyota Camry models sold in North America.

To reduce warranty and brake repair costs, more attention is being placed on optimizing NVH performance to eliminate brake squeals, groans and other related issues at the OE level.
These friction technology advances forever helped to change consumer expectations in North America and, not surprisingly, sales of these Japanese vehicles exploded. The Japanese OEMs set new performance and quality benchmarks for quiet, smooth braking that were admired by the entire industry.

During this time, North American OEMs were losing longtime customers to the Japanese automakers and facing a rising amount of costly brake noise warranty work. In response, the domestic auto industry began devoting increasingly more resources toward benchmarking Japanese vehicles to identify the attributes which lead them to steady market gains in the early 1990s. Ford Motor Co. led the charge during this time to make quiet, smooth braking the OE standard in North America. The bestselling Ford Taurus was one of the first North American passenger cars to feature ceramic brake pads. GM, concerned with brake noise on its growing lineup of light duty trucks and SUVs, also began using ceramic friction products during the 1990s. DaimlerChysler began to focus more resources on brake NVH performance and advanced ceramic friction materials as well, particularly in North America.

Akebono System Approach to Solving Brake NVH Issues Most Effective.Vehicle program launch delays are not easily tolerated in todays increasingly competitive automotive marketplace. Unfortunately, brake NVH

The first breakthroughs in brake NVH technology coincided with the industry push to develop non-asbestos organic (NAO) brake pads.
issues can stop a vehicle launch in its tracks or cause irreparable harm to consumer impressions during this time. Consequently, automakers try to pinpoint brake NVH issues as early as possible in a vehicles development. Brake NVH expertise is a key factor when selecting suppliers for vehicle programs. All brake technology suppliers are concerned with eliminating noise and vibration. Their levels of commitment to

optimizing brake NVH and approaches taken vary, however. In its simplest terms, brake NVH performance is determined by

the interaction of friction material, caliper and rotor. Since many brake systems are multi-sourced, most suppliers still evaluate NVH issues on a component level. Akebono is one of the few suppliers that uses a more comprehensive system approach to evaluate and optimize brake NVH performance. The goal is to find the root cause of an NVH performance issue, which is not always easy. In addition to evaluating friction material, caliper and rotor on both an individual and three-set system level, other braking and suspension components are examined closely to optimize their compatibility during the design process. When engineers first began concentrating on NVH performance during the early 1990s, they focused much of their attention on eliminating high-frequency squeals and brake judder (roughness), often the result of mechanical brake issues.Today, however, engineers also direct their efforts one liminating low frequency groans and pulsations. In many cases, the brakes work fine from a performance perspective and these noises are simply annoying.

The essence of brake NVH technology has evolved little in recent years, with the focus remaining on optimizing component compatibility and eliminating vibration. But, the analytical and measurement tools used today are much more advanced
Squealing, for example, is sometimes the result of an abrasive friction material on a rotor surface. Nevertheless, current consumer braking performance expectations necessitate the development of solutions to eliminate these occurrences. In addition to evaluating the compatibility of pad, caliper and rotor, this system approach to evaluating NVH performance also involves making sure the brake system itself is robust and durable enough for the vehicle. This is a real challenge today as automakers are looking to reduce the weight of the vehicle and, in turn, component weight. Less robust brake systems are much more sensitive to excitations (friction forces) that generate noise and vibration. Modern Analysis Tools Lead to New Brake NVH Standards

The essence of brake NVH technology has evolved little in recent years, with the focus remaining on optimizing component compatibility and eliminating vibration. But the analytical and measurement tools used today are much more advanced. The resources needed to effectively evaluate

brake NVH performance simply did not exist as recently as a decade ago, when the automotive industry could measure brake noise frequency, but not much else. Contrast this to the modern NVH labs at Akebono and other leading brake suppliers. In addition to sophisticated structural and thermal analysis tools, advanced dynamic motion studies are regularly conducted in real brake-stopping environments to see how components interact. The movement that causes vibration and noise is very subtle, almost always invisible to the human eye. Most people cannot appreciate the tolerances involved in refining brake NVH performance. Engineers today are measuring distances on the micron level down to one millionth of a meter. Proximity sensors are used to measure how components move relative to each other when brakes are applied. In instances where it is not possible to attach sensors, laser measuring devices are employed. Another major improvement in brake NVH analysis is environmental control. NVH events, especially those noise related, are almost always linked to specific temperature and humidity ranges. Akebonos engineering center in North America is the only one in the world that has full environmental controls on all of its custombuilt brake and chassis noise dynamometers. The world-class facility also features a number of small-scale dynamometers with complete environmental controls. In addition to running performance and basic wear tests, the Akebono small-scale dynamometers were custom designed to evaluate noise and feature all of the necessary instrumentation. Most OE brake suppliers typically have such environmental capabilities on only 20 percent of their dynamometers, forcing them to often use a hit-and-miss approach to identifying NVH issues. Very few, if any, brake suppliers in the aftermarket have environmental capabilities whatsoever. Such technology is cost prohibitive to many companies, considering the typical cost of a full-size component dynamometer with environmental controls is at least $1 million. This point alone illustrates Akebonos commitment to optimizing brake NVH performance. Market Dynamics May Play Biggest Role in Future of Brake NVH Performance As global automotive tastes continue to merge, customer demand for quiet, smooth braking is growing in North america and other key markets worldwide.To meet this requirement,Akebono and other leading suppliers are spearheading technological revolution in brake system design and safety. The greatest challenge they face in this regard is

finding a balance between optimizing brake NVH performance and minimizing engineering and

manufacturing costs to provide the greatest value to motorists. Their expectations must be met, however, or automakers run the risk of turning them into dissatisfied customers. The price to win these customers back may be more than dedicating the technological resources and ongoing commitment needed to ensure optimal NVH performance and quiet, smooth braking.

Most people cannot appreciate the tolerances involved in refining brake NVH performance. Engineers today are measuring distances on the micron level down to one millionth of a meter.

Abstract
An electronic climate control system for a car air conditioner comprises sensors for detecting an ambient temperature, an in-car temperature and a heat load, a climate control unit responsive to signals from the sensors for adjusting an interior environment within the vehicle passenger compartment towards desired in-car temperature and humidity conditions, a manual-input panel for manually setting a system's operating mode, and a communications line between the climate control unit and the manual-input panel. The climate control system has a fail-safe function for automatically selecting an automatic air-conditioning mode and/or a freshair mode as the system's operating mode necessary to prevent any moist air from fogging the windshield in the presence of a failure in communication between the control panel and the control unit. An electronic climate control system for a car air conditioner comprising: Sensor means for detecting environmental conditions including at least an ambient temperature, an incar temperature and a heat load radiating into a vehicle passenger compartment; Control means being responsive to signals from said sensor means for adjusting an in-car temperature condition towards a desired in-car temperature; Manual input means for manually setting a system's operating mode; Communication means for intercommunicating said control means with said manual input means; Communication-line detection means for determining whether a mutual-communication between said control means and said manual input means is made normally; and Defogger means for automatically determining said system's operating mode necessary to prevent a windshield from being fogged when said communication-line detection means determines that a failure in mutual communication is present. An electronic climate control system as said defogger means comprises means for automatically shifting said system's operating mode to an automatic air-conditioning mode and for simultaneously setting an air inlet mode at a fresh-air mode, when said communication-line detection means determines that said failure in mutual communication is present. An electronic climate control system wherein said defogger means comprises operating-state decision means for determining whether an air-conditioning compressor is in an on state and for determining whether the car air conditioner is in an on state, and means for automatically setting an air inlet mode at a fresh-air mode, when said communication-line detection means determines that said failure in mutual communication is present and said operating-state decision means determines that one of the air-conditioning compressor and the car air conditioner is in an off state. Fail-safe means for automatically determining said system's operating mode necessary to prevent a windshield from being fogged when said communication-line detection means determines that said failure in data transmission is present. An electronic climate control system wherein said fail-safe means comprises means for automatically shifting said system's operating mode to an automatic air-conditioning mode and for simultaneously setting an air inlet mode at a fresh-air mode, when said communication-line detection means determines that said failure in data transmission is present. An electronic climate control system said fail-safe means comprises means for fixing an in-car temperature setting to a predetermined temperature value, when said communication-line detection means determines that said failure in data transmission is present. An electronic climate control system said fail-safe means comprises operating-state decision means for determining whether an air-conditioning compressor is in an on state and for determining whether the car air conditioner is in an on state, and means for automatically setting an air inlet mode at a fresh-air mode, when said communication-line detection means determines that said failure in data transmission is present and said

operating-state decision means determines that one of the air-conditioning compressor and the car air conditioner is in an off state.

Convertible car
Convertible (sometimes called cabriolet in British English) is a car body style with a folding or retracting roof. The collapsible roof section is typically made from flexible canvas or vinyl, although plastic, aluminum and steel have occasionally been used in elaborate folding designs. When the top is made of a rigid material such as steel it is often referred to as a "retractable hardtop" instead of a convertible. Unlike a roadster, which may also have a soft folding top, a convertible has roll-up glass windows in the sides, and so the entire vehicle is "convertible" to an enclosed coup. Convertibles are usually 2 door models, only a few 4 door models exist e.g. the 1960s Lincoln Continental. In Europe this body style is frequently called cabriolet or cabrio. When the model has a rigid folding top, the body style is called Coup Cabriolet ("CC") or coup convertible. In the vintage car era, the convertible was the default body style. It was not until 1910 that Cadillac introduced the first closed-body car. A combination of weak engines and public expectation that a car was analogous to a wagon meant that steel roofs were not in demand until then. Later, convertibles were made less often, possibly due in part to an unfulfilled threat made in the mid-1970s by the United States government to increase rollover safety requirements that may have made auto manufacturers hesitant to manufacture cars that would be unsaleable under those new restrictions.

By the 1970s they had almost disappeared and in 1976 the Cadillac Eldorado was advertised as "The last convertible in America". During this period of very low convertible production, T-tops became a popular alternative to convertibles, especially in muscle cars. It was not until the 1980s and cars like the Chrysler LeBaron and Saab 900 convertibles that the body style made a comeback.

Also in the 1980s, small sporty family cars such as the Escort xr3i and Golf gti were selling a high amount of cabriolets, and in the 1990s, the Mazda MX-5 again cemented the convertible as the sports car body style of choice.Today, there are scores of convertible cars offered by nearly every manufacturer.

Disc brake

Close-up of a disc brake on a car

On automobiles, disc brakes are often located within the wheel The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel. A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English), usually made of cast iron or ceramic composites (including carbon, kevlar and silica), is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads (mounted on device called a brake caliper) is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop.

History
Disc-style brakes began in England in the 1890s; the first ever automobile disc brakes were patented by Frederick William Lanchester in his Birmingham factory in 1902, though it took another half century for his innovation to be widely adopted. Modern-style disc brakes first appeared on the low-volume Crosley Hotshot in 1949, although they had to be discontinued in 1950 due to design problems. Chrysler's Imperial also offered a type of disc brake from 1949 through 1953, though in this instance they were enclosed with dual internal-expanding, full-circle pressure plates. Reliable modern disc brakes were developed in the UK by Dunlop and first appeared in 1953 on the Jaguar C-Type racing car. The Citron DS of 1955, with powered inboard front disc brakes, and the 1956 Triumph TR3 were the first European production cars to feature modern disc brakes.[2] The first production car to feature disc brakes at all 4 corners was the Austin-Healey 100S in 1954. [3] The next American production cars to be fitted with disc brakes were the 1963 Studebaker Avanti[4] (optional on other Studebaker models), standard equipment on the 1965 Rambler Marlin (optional on other AMC models), and the 1965 Chevrolet Corvette Stingray (C2). These brakes offer better stopping performance than comparable drum brakes, including resistance to "brake fade" caused by the overheating of brake components, and are able to recover quickly from immersion (wet brakes are less effective). Unlike a drum brake, the disc brake has no self-servo effect and the braking force is always proportional to the pressure placed on the braking pedal or lever. Many early implementations for automobiles located the brakes on the inboard side of the driveshaft, near the differential, but most brakes today are located inside the wheels. (An inboard location reduces the unsprung weight and eliminates a source of heat transfer to the tires, important in Formula One racing.) Disc brakes were most popular on sports cars when they were first introduced, since these vehicles are more demanding about brake performance. Discs have now become the more common form in most passenger vehicles, although many (particularly light weight vehicles) use drum brakes on the rear wheels to keep costs and weight down as well as to simplify the provisions for a parking brake. As the front brakes perform most of the braking effort, this can be a reasonable compromise.

Discs
The design of the disc varies somewhat. Some are simply solid cast iron, but others are hollowed out with fins or vanes joining together the disc's two contact surfaces (usually included as part of a casting process). This "ventilated" disc design helps to dissipate the generated heat and is commonly used on the more-heavilyloaded front discs. Many higher performance brakes have holes drilled through them. This is known as cross-drilling and was originally done in the 1960s on racing cars. Brake pads will outgas and under use may create boundary layer of gas between the pad and the disc hurting braking performance. Cross-drilling was created to provide the gas someplace to escape. Although modern brake pads seldom suffer from outgassing problems, water residue may build up after a vehicle passes through a puddle and impede braking performance. For this reason, and for heat dissipation purposes, cross drilling is still used on some braking components, but is not favored for racing or other hard use as the holes are a source of stress cracks under severe conditions. Discs may also be slotted, where shallow channels are machined into the disc to aid in removing dust and gas. Slotting is the preferred method in most racing environments to remove gas, water, and de-glaze brake pads.

Some discs are both drilled and slotted. Slotted discs are generally not used on standard vehicles because they quickly wear down brake pads; however, this removal of material is beneficial to race vehicles since it keeps the pads soft and avoids vitrification of their surfaces.

Mountain Bike Disc brake

On the road, drilled or slotted discs still have a positive effect in wet conditions because the holes or slots prevent a film of water building up between the disc and the pads. Crossdrilled discs will eventually crack at the holes due to metal fatigue. Cross-drilled brakes that are manufactured poorly or subjected to high stresses will crack much sooner and more severely. New technology now allows smaller brake systems to be fitted to bicycles, mopeds and now even mountain boards. The market for mountain bike disc brakes is very large and has huge variety, ranging from simple, mechanical (cable) systems, to highly expensive and also powerful, 6-pot hydraulic disc systems, commonly used on downhill racing bikes. Improved technology has seen the creation of the first vented discs for use on mountain bikes. The vented discs are similar to that seen on cars and have been introduced to help prevent heat fade on fast alpine descents. Disc brake discs are commonly manufactured out of a material called grey iron. The SAE maintains a specification for the manufacture of grey iron for various applications. For normal car and light truck applications, the SAE specification is J431 G3000 (superseded to G10). This specification dictates the correct range of hardness, chemical composition, tensile strength, and other properties necessary for the intended use. Historically, brake discs were manufactured throughout the world with a strong concentration in Europe, and America. Between 1989 and 2005, manufacturing of brake discs is migrating predominantly to China. Leading manufacturers in China include Laizhou Sanli, MAT (Midwest Air Technology), Winhere, Longji, and Haimeng.

Racing
In racing and very high performance road cars, other disc materials have been employed. Reinforced carbon discs and pads inspired by aircraft braking systems were introduced in Formula One by Brabham in conjunction with Dunlop in 1976. Carbon-Carbon braking is now used in most top-level motorsport worldwide, reducing unsprung weight, giving better frictional performance and improved structural properties at high temperatures, compared to cast iron. Carbon brakes have occasionally been applied to road cars, by the French Venturi sports car manufacturer in the mid 1990s for example, but need to reach a very high operating temperature before becoming truly effective and so are not well suited to road use. Ceramic composites Ceramic discs are used occasionally at the very highest end of the road car market, such as the Porsche 911 Turbo, optional extras on various large and high performance cars from the Volkswagen Group, namely certain Audi cars, including RS4, S6, RS6, S8, R8, Q7, and the Volkswagen Touareg, along with all current Bentleys. A similar rationale to carbon is claimed for their use, although prestige probably also plays a large part. In very recent years though, the usage of ceramic brakes on consumer vehicles has increased - mainly due to an increased number of heavy, high-performance passenger vehicles on the road. The first development of the modern ceramic brake was made by British Engineers working in the railway industry for TGV applications in 1988. They were looking for light weight, half the number of brakes per axle, stable friction from very high speeds and all temperatures. They developed the basic carbon fibre re-inforced ceramic process which is now used in various forms for automotive, railway and aircraft brake applications.

Disc damage modes

Discs are usually damaged in one of three ways: warping, scarring, and cracking. Machining the discs to correct these problems also leads to reduced life. It is usually cheaper just to replace the disc instead of repairing the parts.

Warping
Warping is often caused by excessive heat, which softens the metal and allows it to be reshaped. The main causes of overheating are: undersized/overmachined brake discs, excessive braking (racing, descending hills/mountains), "riding" the brakes, or a "stuck" brake pad (pad touches disc at all times). Another cause of warping is when the disc is overheated and the vehicle is stopped. When keeping the brakes applied, the area where the pads contact the disc will cause uneven cooling and lead to warping. Incorrect fitting also leads to many cases of warping; the disc's retaining bolts (or the wheel/lug nuts, if the disc is simply sandwiched in place by the wheel, as on many cars) must be tightened progressively and evenly. The use of air tools to fasten lug nuts is extremely bad practice. Several methods can be used to avoid overheating brake discs. Use of a lower gear when descending steep grades to obtain engine braking will reduce the brake loading. Also, operating the brakes intermittently braking to slower speed for a brief time then coasting will allow the brake material to cool between applications. Riding the brakes lightly will generate a great amount of heat with little braking effect and should be avoided. High temperature conditions as found in automobile racing can be dealt with by proper pad selection, but at the tradeoff of everyday driveability. Pads that can take high heat usually do best when hot and will have reduced braking force when cold. Also, high heat pads typically have more aggressive compounds and will wear discs down more quickly. Brake ducting that forces air directly onto the brake discs, common in motorsports, is highly effective at preventing brake overheating. This is also useful for cars that are driven both in motorsports and on the street, as it has no negative effect on driveability. A further extension of this method is to install a system which mists the discs with water. Jaguar has reported great reductions in disc temperatures with such a system.

Warping can also be caused by improperly torquing the lug nuts when putting on a wheel. The manual will indicate the proper pattern for tightening as well as a torque rating for the bolts. The tightening pattern varies little between manufacturers and most mechanics are familiar with them. Lug nuts should never be tightened in a circle. Some vehicles are sensitive to the force the bolts apply and tightening should be done with a torque wrench. Warping will often lead to a thickness variation of the disc. If it has runout, a thin spot will develop by the repetitive contact of the pad against the high spot as the disc turns. When the thin section of the disc passes under the pads, the pads move together and the brake pedal will drop slightly. When the thicker section of the disc passes between the pads, the pads will move apart and the brake pedal will raise slightly, this is pedal pulsation. The thickness variation can be felt by the driver when it is approximately 0.17 mm or greater (on automobile rotors). Not all pedal pulsation is due to warped discs. Brake pad material operating outside of its designed temperature range can leave a thicker than normal deposit in one area of the disc surface, creating run-out due to a "sticky" or "hotspot" that will grab with every revolution of the disc. Grease or other foreign materials can create a slippery spot on the disc, also creating pulsation.

Cracking
Cracking is limited mostly to drilled discs, which get small cracks around outside edges of the drilled holes near the edge of the disc due to the disc's uneven rate of expansion in severe duty environments. In the main small hairline cracks will appear in all cross drilled discs, this is normal. Manufacturers that use drilled discs as OEM are doing so for two reasons: looks, if they determine that the average owner of the vehicle model will not overly stress them; or as a function of reducing the unsprung weight of the brake assembly, with the engineering assumed that enough brake disc mass remains to absorb racing temperatures and stresses. A brake disc is a heat sink, so removing mass increases the heat stress it will have to contend with. Generally an OEM application that is drilled will crack somewhat and could fail catastrophically if used over and above the original equipment design. Once cracked, these discs cannot be repaired.

Calipers

Disc brake calliper (twin-pot) removed from brake pad for changing pads

The brake caliper is the assembly which houses the brake pads and pistons. The pistons are usually made of aluminum or chrome-plated steel. There are two types of calipers: floating or fixed. A fixed caliper does not move relative to the disc. It uses one or more pairs of opposing pistons to clamp from each side of the disc, and is more complex and expensive than a floating caliper. A floating caliper (also called a "sliding caliper") moves with respect to the disc, along a line parallel to the axis of rotation of the disc; a piston on one side of the disc pushes the inner brake pad until it makes contact with the braking surface, then pulls the caliper body with the outer brake pad so pressure is applied to both sides of the disc. Floating caliper (single piston) designs are subject to failure due to sticking which can occur due to dirt or corrosion if the vehicle is not operated regularly. This can cause the pad attached to the caliper to rub on the disc when the brake is released. This can reduce fuel effiency and cause excessive wear on the affected pad. Additional heat generated by the constantly rubbing pad can lead to warping of the disc also. Types of brake calipers is also used on bicycle rim brakes. Pistons and cylinders The most common caliper design uses a single hydraulically actuated piston within a cylinder, although high performance brakes use as many as twelve. (Some pre-1969 Chrysler and General Motors vehicles and some pre-1968 Ford vehicles had four-piston calipers - usually sought after by restorers.) Modern cars use different hydraulic circuits to actuate the brakes on each set of wheels as a safety measure. The hydraulic design also helps multiply braking force. The number of pistons in a caliper is often referred to as the number of 'pots', so if a vehicle has 'six pot' calipers it means that each caliper houses six pistons. Failure can occur due to failure of the piston to retract - this is usually a consequence of not operating the vehicle during a time that it is stored outdoors in adverse conditions. On high mileage vehicles the piston seals may leak, which must be promptly corrected.

Brake pads
The brake pads are designed for high friction with brake pad material embedded in the disc in the process of bedding while wearing evenly. Although it is commonly thought that the pad material contacts the metal of the disc to stop the car, the pads work with a very thin layer of their own material and generate a semi-liquid friction boundary that creates the actual braking force. Of course, depending on the properties of the material, disc wear rates may vary. The properties that determine material wear involve trade-offs between performance and longevity. The brake pads must usually be replaced regularly (depending on pad material), and most are equipped with a method of alerting the driver when this needs to take place. Some have a thin piece of soft metal that causes the brakes to squeal when the pads are too thin, while others have a soft metal tab embedded in the pad material that closes an electric circuit and lights a warning light when the brake pad gets thin. More expensive cars may use an electronic sensor. Although almost all road-going vehicles have only two brake pads per caliper, racing calipers utilize up to six pads, with varying frictional properties in a staggered pattern for optimum performance. Early brake pads (and linings) contained asbestos. When working on an older car's brakes, care must be taken not to inhale any dust present on the caliper (or drum).

Brake squeal
Sometimes a loud noise or high pitch squeal occurs when the brakes are applied. Most brake squeal is produced by vibration (resonance instability) of the brake components, especially the pads and discs (known as force-coupled excitation.) This type of squeal should not negatively affect brake stopping performance. Simple techniques like adding chamfers to linings, greasing or gluing the contact between caliper and the pads (finger to backplate, piston to backplate), bonding insulators (damping material) to pad backplate, inclusion of a brake shim between the brake pad and back plate etc, may help to reduce squeal. Cold weather combined with high early morning humidity (dew) often makes brake-squeal worse, although the squeal stops when the lining reaches regular operating temperatures. However, some lining wear indicators are also designed to squeal when the lining is due for replacement. Overall brake squeal can be annoying to the vehicle passengers,

passerby, pedestrians, etc especially as vehicles are designed to be more comfortable and quieter. Hence vehicle NVH (Noise, Vibration and Harshness) is one of the important priorities for today's vehicle manufacturers. An age-old trick is to put a small amount of copper slip (copper grease) onto the back of the pads where they contact the brake caliper piston and on the pad shims, if present. While this will normally stop the squeal, getting grease on the pads or disks will affect braking performance. Dust on the brakes may also cause squeal; there are many commercial brake cleaning products that can be used to remove dust and contaminants from the brakes. Some mid-performance brake pads, such as PFC pads (which have many debond issues), will always squeal during operation, and this does not indicate a problem] Apart from noise generated from squeal, brakes may also develop a phenomenon called brake judder or shudder.

Brake judder
Brake judder is usually perceived by the driver as minor to severe vibrations transferred through the chassis during braking. The judder phenomenon can be classified into two distinct subgroups; they are Hot (Thermal) or Cold Judder. Hot judder is usually produced as a result of longer more moderate braking from high speed where the vehicle does not come to a complete stop. It commonly occurs when a motorist decelerates from speeds of around 120 km/h to about 60 km/h, which results in severe vibrations being transmitted to the driver. These vibrations are the result of uneven thermal distributions believed to be the result of phenomena called Hot Spots. Hot Spots are classified as concentrated thermal regions that alternate between both sides of a disc that distort it in such a way that produces a sinusoidal waviness around its edges. Once the brake pads (friction material / brake lining) comes in contact with the sinusoidal surface during braking severe vibrations are induced as a result and can produce hazardous conditions for the person driving the vehicle. Cold judder on the other hand is the result of uneven disc wear patterns or DTV. These variations in the disc surface are usually the result of extensive vehicle road usage. DTV is usually attributed to the following causes: waviness of rotor surface, misalignment of axis (Runout), elastic deflection, thermal distortion, wear and friction material transfers.

Brake dust
When braking force is applied, small amounts of material are gradually ground off the brake pads. This material is known as "brake dust" and a fair amount of it usually deposits itself on the braking system and the surrounding wheel. Brake dust can badly damage the finish of most wheels if not washed off. Different brake pad formulations create different amounts of dust, and some formulations are much more damaging than others. This applies to the use of metallic brake pads. Ceramic brake pads contain significantly fewer metal particles in them, and therefore produce less corrosion of surrounding metal parts.

Use on trains
Some form of disc brakes are also mounted on the trucks of modern passenger trains

Double wishbone suspension

In automobiles, a double wishbone (or "upper and lower A-arm") suspension is an independent suspension design using two (occasionally parallel) wishbone-shaped arms to locate the wheel. Each wishbone or arm has two mounting points to the chassis and one joint at the knuckle. The shock absorber and coil spring mount to the wishbones to control vertical movement. Double wishbone designs allow the engineer to carefully control the motion of the wheel throughout suspension travel, controlling such parameters as camber angle, caster angle, toe pattern, roll center height, scrub radius, scuff and more.

Double Wishbone Suspension The double wishbone suspension can also be referred to as double 'A' arms, and short long arm (SLA) suspension if the upper and lower arms are of unequal length. SLAs are very common on front suspensions for medium to large cars such as the Honda Accord or Chrysler 300, pickups, SUVs, and are very common on sports cars and racing cars. A single wishbone or A-arm can also be used in various other suspension types, such as MacPherson strut and Chapman strut. The suspension consists of a pair of upper and lower lateral arms. The upper arm is usually shorter to induce negative camber as the suspension jounces (rises). When the vehicle is in a turn, body roll results in positive camber gain on the outside wheel. The outside wheel also jounces and gains negative camber due to the shorter upper arm. The suspension designer attempts to balance these two effects to cancel out and keep the tire perpendicular to the ground. This is especially important for the outer tire because of the weight transfer to this tire during a turn.

Between the outboard end of the arms is a knuckle with a spindle (the kingpin), hub, or upright which carries the wheel bearing and wheel. Knuckles with an integral spindle usually do not allow the wheel to be driven. A bolt on hub design is commonly used if the wheel is to be driven. In order to resist fore-aft loads such as acceleration and braking, the arms need two bushings or ball joints at the body. At the knuckle end, single ball joints are typically used, in which case the steering loads have to be taken via a steering arm, and the wishbones look A- or L-shaped. An L-shaped arm is generally preferred on passenger vehicles because it allows a better compromise of handling and comfort to be tuned in. The bushing in line with the wheel can be kept relatively stiff to effectively handle cornering loads while the off-line joint can be softer to allow the wheel to recess under fore aft impact loads. For a rear suspension, a pair of joints can be used at both ends of the arm, making them more H-shaped in plan view. In elevation view, the suspension is a 4-bar link, and it is easy to work out the camber gain (see camber angle) and other parameters for a given set of bushing or ball joint locations. The various bushings or ball joints do not have to be on horizontal axes, parallel to the vehicle centre line. If they are set at an angle, then antidive and antisquat can be dialed in. The advantage of a double wishbone suspension is that it is fairly easy to work out the effect of moving each joint, so you can tune the kinematics of the suspension easily and optimize wheel motion. It is also easy to work out the loads that different parts will be subjected to which allows more optimized lightweight parts to be designed. They also provide increasing negative camber gain all the way to full jounce travel unlike the MacPherson strut which provides negative camber gain only at the beginning of jounce travel and then reverses into positive camber gain at high jounce amounts. The disadvantage is that it is slightly more complex than other systems like a MacPherson strut. Prior to the dominance of front wheel drive in the 1980s, many everyday cars used double wishbone front suspension systems, or a variation on it. Since that time, the MacPherson strut has become almost ubiquitous, as it is simpler and cheaper to manufacture. Double wishbones are usually considered to have superior dynamic characteristics, load handling capability and are still found on higher performance vehicles. Robert (Bob) Sweat of MetalCraft Products, formerly in Romulus, Michigan, developed the Double Wishbone design as an independent contractor for Chrysler Automotive in the 1950's. Prior to this, only Ford had any that came close to independent.

Electronic stabilization program (ESP)

The electronic stabilisation program (ESP) makes the vehicle easier to control in handling situations close to the limit It reduces the danger of swerving and thus improves directional stability. The electronic stability program (ESP) is a further enhancement to the anti-lock braking system (ABS) and traction control system (TCS). The ESP is designed to detect a difference between the driver's control inputs and the actual response of the vehicle. When differences are detected, the system intervenes by providing braking forces to the appropriate wheels to correct the path of the vehicle. This automatic reaction is engineered for improved vehicle stability, particularly during severe cornering and on low-friction road surfaces, by helping to reduce over-steering and under-steering. To implement ESP functionality, additional sensors must be added to the ABS system. A steering wheel angle sensor is used to detect driver input with a yaw rate sensor and a low-G sensor that measure the vehicle response. Some ESP systems include a connection to the powertrain controller of the vehicle to enable reductions in engine torque when required. ESP identifies the car's intended direction and response. It applies the brakes on individual wheels, thereby generating one-sided forces that help to keep the car moving in the desired direction. The program uses the anti-lock brake system (ABS), electronic brake-force distribution (EBD), electronic differential lock (EDL) and anti-slip regulation (ASR) systems and is permanently active. The latest version, ESP 8.0 also offers a dry brake function: in adverse weather conditions, the system wipes water off the brake discs at regular intervals by applying the brake pads. This process goes unnoticed by the driver and reduces the stopping distance in wet weather compared with conventional brake systems.

Design Challenges
Electronic stability programs are based on existing ABS systems with the addition of several enhancements. The inclusion of analog electro hydraulic valves requires closed-loop, current-controlled pulse width modulation (PWM) outputs from the electronic control unit (ECU). The yaw and low-G sensors are typically located in a separate cluster near the vehicles center of gravity. Additional communication interfaces are required to enable data transfer to the power train ECU and sensor cluster. An ESP system is required to operate as fail-safe during the event of a fault. The system relies on the electronic components to provide a high level of operational fault coverage to correctly initiate the fail-safe state. Note: ESP cannot override a cars physical limits. If a driver pushes the possibilities of the cars chassis and ESP too far, ESP cannot prevent an acc

ABSTRACT

The air-conditioning system can significantly impact the fuel economy and tailpipe emissions of automobiles. If the peak soak temperature of the passenger compartment can be reduced, the air-conditioner compressor can potentially be downsized while maintaining human thermal comfort. Solar reflective film is one way to reduce the peak soak temperature by reducing the solar heat gain into the passenger compartment. A 3M non-metallic solar reflective film (SRF) was tested in two minivans and two sport utility vehicles (SUV). The peak soak temperature was reduced resulting in a quicker cool down. Using these data, a reduction in air-conditioner size was estimated and the fuel economy and tailpipe emissions were predicted.

INTRODUCTION
When operating, the air-conditioning compressor is the largest auxiliary load on todays automobile engines and significantly impacts fuel economy and tailpipe emissions. In addition to providing passenger comfort, the air-conditioning system performs a vital safety function in the form of dehumidifying the passenger compartment air to minimize condensation on the glazing surfaces. It is estimated that air-conditioning in light duty vehicles in the United States increases annual gasoline consumption by 11 billion gallons1 or nearly $16 billion each year. Also, the automotive industry is facing the implementation of the new Supplemental Federal Test Procedure2 (SFTP). The SFTP consists of the three tests shown in Table 1: the current Federal Test Procedure (FTP), an air-conditioning test (SC03), and a high-speed test (US06).

The SC03 test will measure the tailpipe emissions of vehicles with the air conditioner operating at maximum fan speed, 100% recirculation, 100 grains of moisture/lb. of dry air, and 850 W/m2 of solar radiation over a drive cycle of approximately 10 minutes. Use of the air conditioner increases NOx by about 80%, CO by about 70%, and reduces fuel economy by about 20%The air-conditioning system is sized to provide adequate cooling in a specified time period from a hot soak condition. Hence, one way to reduce air-conditioning fuel use is to reduce the peak soak temperatures in a vehicle. Solar reflective glazing ranks high among the various technologies to reduce the peak soak temperature.4 This paper discusses the testing and modeling results of a polymeric-based solar reflective film (SRF) developed for use in automotive glazing.

DESCRIPTION OF SOLAR REFLECTIVE FILM

The 3M SRF is a non-metallic and colorless film, which reflects infrared energy with a high visible light transmission. The 100% polymeric film does not corrode and attenuate electromagnetic transmission/reception from cell phones and other communication devices. These features enable design flexibility in the overall glazing construction.

VEHICLE TEST PROCEDURE

A vehicle test procedure has been developed to characterize the vehicle level thermal impact of solar reflective glazings. The U.S. Department of Energys National Renewable Energy laboratory (NREL) uses outdoor testing to determine the behavior of SRF under actual solar environmental conditions. Two vehicles are used in a test program; one vehicle is left with the production glazings and the other vehicles glazings are modified. The advantage of using two vehicles is that the impact of day to day environmental differences are minimized. Additionally, comparing a temperature difference between the baseline and test vehicles using the same data system reduces the impact of systematic errors. Theoretically, the same systematic error is incurred by both measurements and cancels out when the temperatures are subtracted. A two day test sequence is utilized for each glazing configuration. As shown in Figure 1, Day 1 consists of a soak test where the peak soak temperatures of the baseline and test vehicle are measured. After the peak temperatures are attained, a cool down test is performed. The vehicles are operated at idle with the air conditioner operating at maximum fan speed and 100% recirculation air. On Day 2, a coheat test is performed. We measured the power of a ceramic heater required to maintain the cabin interior air temperature at a constant level, eliminating the effect of the thermal capacitance of the vehicle interior. As the solar gain increases, the heater power decreases. The difference in heater power between the baseline vehicle and the test vehicle is the solar power reflected by the SRF.

Prior to testing the SRF, both vehicles are tested with their production glazings to characterize any differences between the vehicles. In addition to the soak, cooldown, and coheat tests as described above, a tracer gas decay test to determine the air leakage is also performed.

VEHICLE TEST RESULTS

Two separate vehicle test programs were performed to determine the impact of SRF. From September to November 1999, two minivans were tested in Golden, CO. and Phoenix, AZ. A pair of SUVs were tested from June to October 2000. MINIVAN Although both minivans had a champagne pearl exterior and camel interior, one was a model year 1998 and the other was a 1999. The vehicles were oriented facing south in a front-back configuration. The baseline vehicle was the more southward vehicle and defined as Vehicle A. Correspondingly, the SRF test vehicle was the more northward vehicle and defined as Vehicle B. Thermocouples were located at the passenger breath, rear left breath, and driver foot.Surface thermocouples were located on the instrument panel (IP), windshield interior, driver sidelite, and left rear privacy sidelite. During the soak test, the vehicles were in the 100% recirculation mode. The baseline soak test revealed that, despite the different model years, the vehicles were approximately thermally equivalent with the IP, breath, and windshield thermocouples within 0.5 (1 C F).

Figure 2 shows the rear head temperature for the two vehicles were very similar.
The baseline cool down test revealed that Vehicle B took a longer time to cool to 25 (77 The baseline co heat test identified a difference in heater power C F). required to maintain the vehicles at the same constant temperature. With these biases identified, comparative data during the SRF tests were adjusted accordingly to eliminate generic vehicle-to-vehicle differences.

Two glazing configurations were tested in Vehicle B. All glazings with 3M SRF = = Windshield only with 3M SRF The 3M SRF applied to all glazings reduced the average breath temperature by 4.6C (8.3F) while the SRF windshield reduced the average breath temperature by 2.5C (4.5F). Table 2 shows the IP and windshield were also cooler when SRF was applied to the vehicle glazings.

The co heat test determined the 3M SRF on all glazings reflected an average of 486 W of solar power between 10:00 and 14:00 and the SRF windshield alone reflected 348 W. Analysis predicted that the highest solar gain for a minivan in Phoenix in November was predicted to occur when the vehicles were oriented in the southwest direction. With the test vehicle configured with SRF on all glazings, the vehicles were rotated to the southwest and the coheat test measured the average reflected power increase to 534 W. The SRF resulted in lower initial temperatures and lower solar loads during the stationary cool down test. For the vehicle with SRF installed on all glazings, the time to 25C (77F) was reduced by 3.75 minutes. This means the airconditioning system could operate at a reduced energy level with SRF installed and provide the same comfort level. Since the average time to 25C (77F) was approximately 20 minutes, the air-conditioning

compressor would require roughly 19% less power to reach 25C (77F) with SRF applied to all the windows. Since the ambient temperature of the test day impacts the time to 25C, the predicted reduction in air conditioning compressor power is an estimate. SUV Two SUVs were tested to determine the impact of SRF. The testing was conducted primarily at DSET Laboratories in Phoenix, AZ. The vehicles, which had sequential VINs, black exteriors, graphite interiors, leather seats, and were oriented facing south in a frontback configuration. The vehicles were fully instrumented including heat flux gauges between the headliner and roof. During the soak test, the HVAC systems were in 0% recirculation mode which allowed the passenger compartments to breath through the HVAC systems. The testing methods described in the vehicle test procedure section of this paper were applied to the SUVs. A series of baseline tests were performed to understand and characterize the difference between the vehicles. Vehicle B was hotter at most locations in all of the baseline tests. Figure 3 shows the average breath (four locations) temperature for two of the baseline tests. Reviewing the data from the four baseline tests, the maximum breath temperature for Vehicle B was 0.7C (1.5F) hotter than Vehicle A. Therefore, the maximum breath temperatures in Vehicle B in all subsequent tests were reduced by this amount to account for the vehicle differences.

Figure 4 shows the driver sidelite interior temperature peaks early in the day with the morning solar load. The left rear privacy glass interior temperature also peaks early, but at a significantly higher temperature due to the higher absorptivity. The higher glazing temperature would add to the thermal discomfort of a person sitting in the rear seats at startup. As the vehicle speed increases, the increased heat transfer to the exterior will reduce the privacy glass temperature. The windshield, with a lower absorptivity than the privacy glass, peaks at a lower temperature and later in the day when the solar load favors the front of the south facing vehicle. The maximum breath temperature recorded was 65.5C (150F) and the maximum ambient temperature was 46.1C (115F). At the IP and exterior vehicle skin, the maximum temperatures were 88.9C (192F) and 87.8C (190F), respectively. Repeatability problems were experienced during the baseline coheat testing; therefore, the test was not run on all the glazing configurations. The coheat data were used to calculate some of the heat transfer parameters in the passenger compartment thermal model. The cooldown performance of Vehicle A was erratic,

which resulted in a slower cooldown compared to Vehicle B. Using the time for the breath temperature to attain 30C as a comparison parameter, there was no clear bias identified. This was due to day to day ambient temperature variations. In tests with high ambient temperatures, the average breath temperature did not attain 30C. A passenger compartment thermal model was developed to assess the impact of the SRF on airconditioning compressor size. In the comparative phase of the testing, four glazing configurations were tested in Vehicle B. = All glazings with 3M SRF = 3M SRF windshield and four sidelites = 3M SRF windshield and two sidelites = 3M SRF windshield Figure 5 shows the reduction in breath and IP temperatures due to the SRF. The configuration with SRF on all glazings had the best thermal performance with a 1.8C (3.2F) reduction in maximum breath temperature. The maximum IP temperature was reduced by 3.4C (6.1F) in this case. The reduction in breath temperature for the other configurations is shown in Figure 6. Possible explanations for the smaller thermal impact of the SRF compared to what was measured during the minivan testing include reduced window area, different windshield angles, and time of the year the testing was performed.

Figure 6. Reduction in Maximum Breath Temperature

Two additional tests were performed to gather data to compare with the performance of the SRF. In the first

test, all of the glazings in Vehicle B were covered with foil simulating a high performance heat rejecting glazing system. As expected, there was a significant reduction in all temperatures. Figure 7 shows the breath temperatures and ambient temperature. The breath temperature was still 10C (18F) above ambient when all the transmitted solar energy was blocked. The heat gain from other surfaces demonstrate that reducing the peak soak temperature is not just a glazing issue, it is a vehicle system issue.

In a second test, foil was applied to the roof of Vehicle B to simulate a light colored exterior. The glazings in both vehicles were production glass. The maximum breath temperature was reduced by 2.1C (3.8F). This was similar to the thermal impact of SRF on all glazings. Figure 8 shows the heat flux through the roof. Vehicle A experiences heat gain through the roof throughout the day while the foil roof vehicle had heat loss through the roof. With a light colored vehicle and production glass, the roof is a heat loss mechanism and increasing roof insulation would actually cause the passenger compartment to be hotter. Again these data illustrated reducing the peak soak temperature is a system challenge that requires a system solution
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VEHICLE MODELING
PASSENGER COMPARTMENT THERMAL MODEL Since the SUV cooldown tests did not yield consistent results, a first order cooldown model of the passenger compartment was developed to allow an assessment of the air-conditioner compressor size with and without

SRF. The interior mass of the passenger compartment was defined as a single node with a heat loss path to ambient. Figure 9 shows the solar heat gain from all surfaces (Qsolar) and heat loss due to the operation of the air conditioner (Qevap).
Equation 1 results from performing a heat balance calculation on the passenger compartment and integrating.

Vehicle B air-conditioning performance data were used to define the parameters because these data were more consistent than Vehicle A. The overall heat transfer coefficient (UA) was determined from night coheat test data. An assumption is that the overall heat transfer coefficient at night equals the overall heat transfer coefficient during the day. Steady state thermal conditions were assumed just prior to the start of cooldown to allow the calculation of Qsolar. It was also assumed that Qevap and Qsolar remained constant throughout the cooldown. Since test data were used to define the parameters, this model is specific for a blackSUV tested in Phoenix in the summer. Figure 10 illustrates the good correlation between the model and test breath temperature. After 30 minutes, the breath temperature is approximately 31C (88F). When the initial temperature is reduced by 1.8C (3.2F) and the Qsolar is reduced by 182 W simulating incorporation of SRF on all glazings, the breath temperature is reduced at every time point. By reducing the amount of thermal energy removed by the airconditioning system by 6.5%, the breath temperature at 30 minutes is increased back to 31C (88F). This means that incorporating SRF allows a reduction in airconditioning power without degrading the thermal cooldown performance of the passenger compartment.Figure 11 was generated by performing this analytical procedure with different initial temperatures. The perfect reflective window system (foil) resulted in a 40% reduction in A/C power. The curve does not extend to 100% because the vehicle can not be initially cooler than the ambient temperature which is warmer than the 31C (88F) at 30 minutes criteria; therefore, some air conditioning will be needed.

ADVISOR - After the reduction in airconditioning compressor size was estimated, the fuel use was modeled using the simulation tool ADVISOR. NRELs ADvanced VehIcle SimulatOR5,6 is designed for quick analysis of the performance and fuel economy of conventional, electric, and hybrid vehicles. ADVISOR can be used to model vehicle efficiencies, to assess impacts of applying innovative technologies to vehicle configurations, to develop novel energy management strategies, and to integrate simulated and reallife assessments. The impact of the reduced air-conditioning system was estimated for an

SUV driven over the SCO3 drive cycle. NREL was provided with details of the engine, transmission, and vehicle geometry and these data wereused to generate an ADVISOR model. Initial simulations over the UDDS and HWFET drive cycles showed the transmission and auxiliary losses were low and the fuel economy was high. After a small adjustment to the loss coefficients, the fuel economy for the city (UDDS) matched to within 0.05% and highway (HWFET) matched to within 0.5%. The air-conditioning load of 4000 W was then added to the baseline auxiliary load of 1000 W and the vehicle operation was simulated over the SCO3 drive cycle. This was defined as the baseline vehicle simulation from which the % differences were calculated. Then the airconditioning load was reduced incrementally and Figure12 was generated. Assuming a 6.5% decrease in airconditioning power due to SRF, the fuel economy is increased 1.3% or approximately 0.2 mpg. Figure 13 shows the reduction in NOx of 2.5%. Since Figures 12 and 13 are not directly related to SRF, they can be used to assess the impact of a reduction in the air-conditioning compressor regardless of the method used to reduce the peak soak temperature.

CONCLUSION
With the development of high fuel economy vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy consumed by the airconditioning system will become increasingly important. With the large number of vehicles in this country, the energy consumed by the air conditioning in all vehicles is significant. The goal at NRELs Center for Transportation Technologies and Systems is to work with industry to reduce the amount of fuel used for climate control. With the large number of vehicles sold each year, a small change in todays vehicles can make a large impact on national fuel consumption. Decreasing the peak soak temperature enables the air conditioner system size to be reduced, the fuel economy to be increased, and the tailpipe emissions to be reduced. SRF is one way to reduce the peak soak temperature. The tests on the minivans and SUVs demonstrated the thermal impact of SRF. The corresponding fuel economy and tailpipe emissions were predicted over the SCO3 drive cycle using ADVISOR. SRF is an important part of the system solution to minimize the peak soak temperature.