1.

Draw the Structures for the following acids: Acetic (ethanoic)

Citric (2-hydroxypropane -1,2,3 tricarboxylic)

Hydrochloric Sulfuric

2. Compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic and hydrochloric acids and explain their relative strengths in terms of the degree of ionisation of their molecules The strength of an acid is measured by the concentration of H ions or more precisely [H O] ions in a solution. Out of citric, acetic and hydrochloric acid, the strength from strongest to weakest goes hydrochloric acid, acetic acid then citric acid. The strength of an acid depends on their ionisation, a strong acid will fully ionise in water while a weak acid will partly ionise in water to form hydrogen ions. The fraction of the molecules that has ionised is called the degree of ionisation. For example all the HCl molecules will all react with water to form hydrogen ions

While acetic acid is a weak acid and only some of the acid molecules will react with water to form hydrogen ions.

3. Describe the difference between a strong and a weak acid in terms of an equilibrium between the intact molecule and its ions using two of the acids from question 1. An acid is stronger than a second acid if its equilibrium lies further to the right than does the second acid. For example Sulfuric acids equilibrium lies further to the right than does ethanoic acid and is therefore stronger. This is because if the equilibrium lies further to the right, then more products are formed and this is because of the degree of ionisation. 4. Use available evidence to model the molecular nature of the two acids in question 3 and stimulate in your model the ionisation of these acids

5. Identify data, gather and process information from secondary sources to identify examples of naturally occurring acids and bases and their chemical composition Name Naturally occurs in Acids Formic Acid (methanoic acid) Ethanoic acid In Bull ants and Bee sting venom Vinegar Chemical composition

Citric Acid

Citrus fruits such as lemons and oranges

Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) Fruits and vegetables Bases Lime ( Calcium Oxide) Lime Stone

Caustic Soda (Sodium Hydroxide) Potassium Hydroxide

Lye- Mixing wood ash in water Lye

6. You have performed a first hand investigation to determine the concentration of a domestic acidic substance using computer based technologies a) outline the method you used to prepare a primary standard 1. Calculate the mass required to make up the primary solution 2. Weigh and dry the 3. Weigh the dry 4. Record mass 5. Quantitatively transfer water 6. Make up solution to graduation mark (bottom of meniscus) 7. Shake to uniform solution b) Identify 4 acids and bases (total) that can be used as a primary standard. Make sure your answer includes at least one acid. Identify the properties necessary for a substance to be used as a primary standard The properties needed for a substance to be used as a primary standard are: High level of purity, Accurately known composition, Free of moisture, Stable and unaffected by air during weighing, Readily soluble in distilled water, into a 500 mL volumetric flask with distilled in an oven at 100 c for 24 hours to 3dd

High molar weight solid to reduce the percentage error in weighing, Reacts instantaneously and completely. ), Potassium hydrogen ) and

Primary standards include benzoic acid ( phthalate ( sodium hydrogen carbonate (

), Sodium Carbonate ( ).

c) Write up the experiment performed when you determined the concentration of acid in vinegar. Include in your answer a aim, method and results including; i) ii) iii) iv) a graph a chemical equation for the reaction handwritten calculations to determine the concentration of vinegar and a conclusion

Aim: To determine the concentration of acid in vinegar via titrations Method: 1. Rinse 3 times and fill the burette with to the zero mark 2. Dilute the vinegar to ratio of 1:10 with distilled water 3. Rinse pipette with sample solution (vinegar) and pipette 10mLs of vinegar into beaker *NOTE a beaker was used instead of a conical flask in order for the data logger probe and magnetic mixer to operate. 4. Add 3 drops of Universal Indicator and magnetic stirrer 5. Make sure set up is like diagram seen below solution and adjust meniscus

6. Peform a rough titration by adding end point 7. Repeat titration 3 times Results: mL 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 5.03 5.09 5.35 5.69 6.00 6.30 6.51 6.66 6.90 7.36 9.3 Graph: 4.5 Rough 3.98 1st 3.98 4.30 4.45 4.76 4.93 5.21 5.4 5.7 5.85 6.17 6.44 6.81 7.5 7.98 8.45 2nd 3.9 4.13 4.38 4.6 4.8 5 5.15 5.34 5.6 5.8 5.91 6.12 6.8 7.6 8.4 3rd 3.94 4.23 4.42 4.65 4.85 5.1 5.25 5.47 5.7 5.95 6.25 6.52 6.95 7.55 8.4

and record pH every mL to find

Average 3.95 4.22 4.44 4.67 4.92 5.1 5.29 5.55 5.79 6.06 6.28 6.53 7.04 7.62 8.64

Calculations: Equation:

Concentration calculations:

Conclusion: through the titration we are able to find out the concentration of vinegar within solution which was 1.2 mol/L d) Recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy for data collection or gathering information that will assist efficient future analysis of domestic acidic substances Using a pH probe connected to a data logger is an efficient way in which analysis of acidic substances can be carried out. The data logger then can be connected to a computer and the results can be graphed automatically. Also a conductivity meter which is used to detect pH changes is another alternative way in recording and graphing results to determine acidity of substances. e) Discuss conductance titrations, titrations that use indicator solution and pH titrations distinguish the best method for conducting a titration. Determine the suitability and effectiveness for its potential role in the procedure When performing a titration experiment there is three main ways in which to find the equivalence point, they are using a pH probe and data logger or using an indicator to determine the pH and find equivalence point or undergoing a conductance titration in which the electrical conductivity of the solution can be used to find the equivalence point. When using an indicator to determine the end point of a titration it is quite unreliable. This is because you have to pick the right indicator which will change colour at the end point. Human error

is higher to occur in this type of titration as colour change is seen individually and isnt reliable. This type of titration isnt as suitable for accurate results as are the other methods. Both conductance and pH probe with the data logger can be used reliably as it gives an accurate reading and can be connected with a computer to create a graph and allow the equivalence point to be recognised. Conductance titrations are less convenient than using the pH probe, but I believe it would be the best method to use as it is easier to find equivalence point on the graph as seen in Fig 1.1. In a school practical a pH probe with data logger or an indicator are suitable to find the end point due to its availability and easiness to use. But at a higher level of conducting titrations, for factories or companies, a conductance titration is best used as it is more reliable and suitable for the job. Fig 1.1

f) how could the titration analysis be made more reliable Reliability could be improved by conducting the experiment multiply times then taking the average of the results and comparing them to published results. g) how could the accuracy of the analysis be ascertained Accuracy could be improved by measuring the pH every of an mL and making sure that all reactants including the indicator are of same volume during each titration. Also having a colour chart to compare the indicator colour change would improve accuracy.

7. When performing titrations care must be taken to wash the apparatus in the appropriate solutions. Identify what each of the following apparatus should be washed with: i) ii) iii) burette with small quantities of water then titre solution pipette with distilled water then unknown solution conical flask with distilled water

8. Identify what is meant by the terms: i) Titre: A standard measure of the strength or concentration of a component per volume of solution ii) iii) Aliquot: A measured portion of a sample taken for analysis End-point: the end point of a chemical reaction is the point at which the amounts of the two reactants are just sufficient to cause complete consumption of both reactants. This is also called the equivalence point. iv) Titrant: A solution of known concentration used for a titration reaction in order to determine the unknown quantity of a second substance v) Equivalence point: the equivalence point of a chemical reaction is the point at which the amounts of the two reactants are just sufficient to cause complete consumption of both reactants. This is also called the end point. 9. analyse information from secondary sources to assess the use of neutralisation reaction as a safety measure or to minimise damage in accidents or chemical spills Neutralisation reactions have both benefits and problems associated with them when using them as a safety measure in chemical spills or accidents. Benefits include that the reaction replaces corrosive acids and bases with neutral water and a less harmful salt and the neutraliser is sometimes a cheap alternative to clean up. Some problems or risks associated with neutralisation reactions include that considering all neutralisation reactions are exothermic it shouldnt be used on skin associated spills as it intensify burns. Also on spills on floors that are neutralised with strong acid or base can cause further damage. Mixing chemicals is always potentially dangerous for example a hazardous gas may be formed during the reaction. Many precautions must be taken into account like the concentration to be used, viewing of manufactures warning, amount of waste, pH extremes expected, storage issues, cost considerations and dangers in refilling the containers.

Neutralisation reactions are already used in factories and laboratories (where acids or bases are used) as a safety measure. This is because many acids or alkalis are very corrosive and need to be neutralised quickly when spilled. They can also be used to neutralise substances in order to meet sewage authorities limit by making them neither acidic nor basic. This ensures that the breakdown of bacteria in sewers can take place. NaOH is a common neutralising chemical as its preferred solubility and easiness to transport when in solid form (Lime or Limestone) allowing the spread of it easier. In cement pouring operations large amounts of alkaline wastewater is generated, and must be treated on site. Carbon Dioxide which converts to Carbonic Acid in water is used as the site is temporary, the gas is non hazardous, can be used in line assuming retention and is self buffering so will not lower the pH below 7.5 7.many other neutralising chemicals include Sulfuric Acid, Hydrochloric acid, Calcium Hydroxide and Ammonium Hydroxide. Neutralisation reactions are successfully used as a safety measure or to minimise damage in accidents or chemical spills. Problems with neutralizing chemicals are uncommon so is beneficial to society. 10. Complete a bibliography of resources used for this assignment. You must include a text reference, a digital technology, the internet and a journal reference Neutralization chemicalsInternet]. Available from http://www.wastechengineering.com/papers/neutralization_chemicals.htm [Accessed 19th May 2007] (2003) The Acidic Environment. Available from http://hsc.csu.edu.au/chemistry/core/acidic/ [Accessed 19th May 2007] Smith.R.(2000), Conquering Chemistry. Roseville: McGraw-Hill Thickett.G (2000), Chemistry Pathways 2. Australia: MacMillan Roebuck.C (2000), Excel HSC Chemistry, Glebe: Pascal Press Schell.M et al. (2007), Dot Point Chemistry, Marrickville: Science Press Notes from class including focus 4 work booklet and Volumetric Analysis