Networks

13
The river Pregel runs through the university town of Knigsberg (now Kaliningrad in Russia). In the middle of the river are two islands connected to each other and to the rest of the city by 7 bridges. Many years ago, a tradition developed among the university students where they challenged one another to make a round trip over all 7 bridges, walking over each bridge once, and only once, before returning to the starting point. Can it be done? Try different trips and record your results. In this chapter you will work with a number of networks and look at a rule to determine whether a network can or cannot be travelled.

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What is a network?
People, places and events are all connected. Networks help us to understand connections and in this chapter we will look at the properties and applications of networks. Eulers formula that has been previously discussed, will be investigated in relation to networks. The last three sections of the chapter are devoted to studies of paths, circuits and trees. In those sections we will investigate methods of nding Euler and Hamiltonian paths and circuits, and minimal spanning trees for various networks. We will also learn how these techniques can be applied in practical situations and for problem solving. Note: Some material covered in this chapter can be treated as an extension, or advanced material, which is beyond the scope of a typical Year 8 class. What does the Internet have in common with the roads in a suburb? They both can be considered as networks. What is a network?

A network is a collection of objects, connected to each other in some specic way. The objects are called vertices (or nodes) and the connections are called edges.

The Internet is a collection of computers, connected to each other, while the roads in a suburb connect all the houses, parks and other features of a suburb. Even the structure of your family (your family tree) can be considered as a network.

A simple network
Consider the case of Adam and Betty who are married. We can rep- A resent this family as a network, as shown in the gure on the right. The circles (vertices) represent the people, while the line (the edge) indicates that there is a connection by marriage. Later on they decide to have children, and have a boy, Cecil, and a A girl, Daphne. The network now looks like the gure on the right. The additional lines joining A to C and D, and B to C and D indicate a C connection between parents and children. Later on, Daphne decides to get married to a man named A Eric; so now the network would look like the gure on the right. The line joining D to E indicates their marriage. C
B

B D B D E

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We could continue this process indenitely, creating a family tree structure. Although it does not look like the traditional family tree diagram, (as shown below), it is equivalent to it.
A C D B E

In this case the objects in our network are the people and the lines indicate some relationship between them.

WORKED Example 1
Draw the network which represents the family tree showing Alice, her two parents Bill and Carla, and her grandparents, David and Eunice (paternal), and Frank and Gemma (maternal).

THINK
1

WRITE/DRAW A for Alice, B for Bill, C for Carla, D for David, E for Eunice, F for Frank, G for Gemma.
D E B A C F G

List the objects (people) in the network.

Draw them using the vertical direction to indicate the generations.

Join the various people with lines, representing parents and marriage. D is married to E. F is married to G. D and E are the parents of B. F and G are the parents of C. B is married to C. B and C are the parents of A.

E B A C

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Representing a network
As we have seen, a network is completely determined by the vertices and the edges which connect the vertices, and can be represented by the diagram. It can also be described using what is known as the labelling method. A network can be represented by a list of pairs of vertices. The vertices in every pair are connected by an edge. This is called the labelling method.

WORKED Example 2
Represent the network shown at right, using the labelling method.
D E F G B C

THINK
1

WRITE Vertex A: (A, B), (A, C)

Start with any vertex, say, A. Vertex A is connected to B and to C. List each connection as a pair. Vertex B is connected to A, C, D and E. List each connection as a pair, but do not repeat any connection that has already been listed. Since the connection between A and B was listed as (A, B) in step 1, do not list (B, A). Continue for each remaining vertex: Vertex C is connected to A, B, F, G but do not repeat (C, A), (C, B). Vertex D is connected to B and E but do not repeat (D, B). Vertex E is connected to B and D, but these were already listed as (B, E) and (D, E). So do not list any pairs for E. Vertex F is connected to C and G but do not repeat (F, C). Finally, vertex G is connected to F and C, but these were listed as (C, G) and (F, G). So do not list any pairs for G. Put all the pairs into a single list.

Vertex B: (B, C), (B, D), (B, E)

Vertex C: (C, F), (C, G)

Vertex D: (D, E) Vertex E: has no other connection.

Vertex F: (F, G) Vertex G: has no other connection.

{(A, B), (A, C), (B, C), (B, D), (B, E), (C, F), (C, G), (D, E), (F, G)}

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There should be exactly one pair for each edge in the network. For worked example 2 there are 9 edges and 9 pairs. How many edges were there in worked example 1? It is often more practical to go from the labelled network to a network drawing, as shown in the next worked example.

WORKED Example 3
Draw the network represented by the following set of labels. {(A, B), (A, C), (B, C), (B, D), (C, D), (C, E), (D, E)} THINK
1

DRAW
A B

Draw vertex A. By studying the set, observe that A is contained in the labels (A, B) and (A, C), which tells us it is connected to B and C. So draw vertices B and C and connect them to A. Cross off the labels that have been used. (Once we have used the label, there is no need to go back to it.) Vertex B is included in (B, C), so add the connections from B to C. It is also included in (B, D). So add the vertex D, and the connections from B to D. Cross off the labels (B, C) and (B, D). Vertex C is included in (C, D), so add the connection from C to D. It is also included in (C, E). So add vertex E, and the connection from C to E. Cross off the labels (C, D) and (C, E). Vertex D is included in (D, E) and hence is connected to E. So add the appropriate connection.

B D

C A B D C E

B D

C E

Of course, it is possible to get many different shapes for your drawing, but the connections (edges) must still be correct.

remember remember
1. A network is a collection of objects connected to each other in some specic way. The objects are called vertices (or nodes) and the connections are called edges. 2. A network can be represented by a list of pairs of connected vertices. This is called the labelling method.

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13A
WORKED

What is a network?

Example

1 Draw the network, which represents the following family tree. Henry and Ida marry and have a single child, Jane. Jane marries Kenneth and they have a single child, Louise. Louise marries Mark and they have two children, Neil and Otis. 2 Four towns, Joplin, Amarillo, Flagstaff and Bairstow are connected to each other as follows: Joplin to Amarillo; Joplin to Flagstaff; Amarillo to Bairstow; Amarillo to Flagstaff; Flagstaff to Bairstow. Draw the network represented by these connections. 3 A fth town, Kingman, is added to the network of question 2, with roads connecting it to Amarillo, Flagstaff and Bairstow. Modify your drawing, adding the new vertex and its connections. 4 Represent the network shown, using the labelling method.
A B

WORKED

Example

5 Represent the network shown in the following diagrams, using the labelling method. a E b A c R C A B C V
D B Q

P
WORKED

Example

6 Draw the network represented by the following set of labels. {(A, B), (A, C), (B, D), (C, D), (C, E), (D, E)} 7 Draw the network represented by the following. {(A, B), (A, C), (A, D), (B, E), (C, E), (C, F), (C, G), (D, G)}. 8 Draw the network represented by the following list. {(A, B), (A, C), (B, C), (B, E), (C, D), (C, E), (C, F), (D, E), (E, G), (F, G)}. 9 multiple choice A network consists of vertices and: A letters B edges C nodes 10 multiple choice Which of the following is not a network? A The telephone system of Brisbane B The railway system of Sydney C The family tree of the Queen of England D The history books in a library E The trails in a national park leading to tourist attractions

D lists

E none of the above

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Basic properties of networks

Up until now we have seen networks only as a collection of vertices (or nodes) and the edges connecting them. What are some of the mathematical properties of such networks? In this section we will build up a set of rules and properties leading to a very special formula for networks: Eulers rule.

The degree of a vertex

The degree of a vertex is the total number of edges to which the vertex is connected. The degree of each vertex can be obtained by simple counting.

WORKED Example 4
State the degree of each vertex in the network shown.
A B D C E

THINK
1

WRITE Vertex A is connected to B and C, so the degree = 2.

Starting with any vertex, count its number of edges (connections). The number of edges is equal to the degree of that vertex. Repeat step 1 for all remaining vertices.

Vertex B is connected to A, C and D, so the degree = 3. Vertex C is connected to A, B, D and E, so the degree = 4. Vertex D is connected to B, C and E, so the degree = 3. Vertex E is connected to C and D, so the degree = 2.

There is another interesting property of the degrees in a network. The sum of all the degrees in a network is exactly twice the number of edges. So, for the last worked example there are 7 edges, which is half of 14, the total of all the degrees in that network.

Planar networks
A special kind of network is called a planar network, or planar graph. A planar network is a network where the edges do not cross each other. Most networks can be xed so that there are no crossing edges. An example of such a network is shown in the gure on the right.
A C B D

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If we realise that the edges do not have to be straight lines but can be curved, we can redraw the network so that it becomes a planar graph. One possible way this can be done is shown in the gure below. Can you think of any other way?
A C B D

For the rest of this section we will work with planar graphs.

Edges, faces and vertices

If you look carefully at any planar graph you will see that the lines (edges) divide the surrounding space into regions, also known as faces. Consider the network on the right. There are three regions (labelled I, II and III). The vertices (A, B, C and D) are not part of any region. Note: The space outside the entire network is counted as a region. (In this case it is the region labelled III.)
A III I C II D B

WORKED Example 5
Find the number of vertices, edges and regions in the network shown.

THINK
1

WRITE/DRAW
C B A D G F E

Label the vertices and count them.

Count the edges. The easiest way to do this is to cross off every edge that has been counted with a small mark. (This will guarantee that no edge is missed and no edge is counted twice.) Count the regions by colouring them in. Do not forget the region outside the network.

Number of vertices = 7 Number of edges = 10

C B

D G

E F

Number of regions = 5

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Eulers formula
The famous mathematician Leonhard Euler (pronounced oi-ler or uh-ler) discovered (among other things) the relationship between the number of faces, edges and vertices for all planar networks. This relationship is given by the following formula. For any planar network, V=EF+2 where E is the number of edges, F is the number of faces (regions) and V is the number of vertices of the network.

WORKED Example 6
Conrm Eulers formula for the network shown at right.

THINK
1

WRITE/DRAW
D C B E F A

Count the number of vertices by labelling them.

2 3

Count the number of edges, crossing out each edge that has been counted as you go. Count the number of faces (regions) by colouring them in.

V=6 E = 10

C B

F A

4 5 6 7

Write Eulers formula. Substitute the values of the pronumerals into the right-hand side (RHS) of the formula. Simplify the right-hand side. Compare the RHS with the LHS and draw your conclusion.

F=6 V=EF+2 RHS = 10 6 + 2 =4+2 =6 = LHS Therefore, Eulers formula is conrmed.

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History of mathematics
L E O N H A R D E U L E R ( 1 5 Ap r i l 1 7 0 7 1 8 S e p t e m b e r 1 7 8 3)
mathematics at the Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg. When he was 31, Euler lost the sight of one eye, possibly due to overwork. He left Russia in 1741 to become professor of mathematics at the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1766 he returned to St Petersburg. Shortly afterwards he lost the sight of his other eye because of cataracts. Eulers abilities were exceptional. It was said that Euler calculated without effort, as men breathe. He could work in a noisy environment and often wrote at home while his children played around him. Euler had thirteen children, although only ve lived to adulthood. He was able to go on working even after he became blind because his memory was so good that he could do complex calculations in his head. Euler made signicant contributions to almost every area of mathematics including geometry, calculus, mechanics, and number theory. He was one of the rst to make use of standard symbols including for Pi, for summation (adding), f (x) for functions, e x for the natural logarithms, and i for complex numbers. He also worked on a proof of Fermats last theorem and was able to solve it for powers of 3 and 4. Like most mathematicians, he worked on nding formulas for the value of . He probably wrote more books than any other mathematician in history. In his lifetime he published more than 500 books and papers, and another 400 were published after his death. Apparently, his last words were simply I die.

During his life . . . Captain Cook lands in Australia. The sextant is invented by sea captain John Campbell. James Watt develops a more efcient steam engine. The rst real restaurant opens in Paris. Leonhard Euler was born in Switzerland and was the son of a Lutheran minister. His father wanted him to study theology but Euler was far more interested in mathematics. He attended the University of Basel from the age of 13 and received his masters degree at the age of 17. Three years later he entered the Paris Academy Prize for the rst time. His entry, involving difcult calculations for the masts of ships in the Swiss Navy, received an honourable mention for its excellent mathematical methods. However, the judges were surprised that he did not seem to understand that Switzerland, being surrounded by land, did not actually have a navy! He went on to win the prize on 12 other occasions during his life. Euler moved to Russia in 1727 where he became professor of physics and of

Questions 1. What did Euler lose when he was 31 years old? 2. What ability did Euler have that allowed him to go on working when he became blind? 3. Name four areas of mathematics in which Euler made signicant contributions. 4. How many books and papers did Euler publish during his life?

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remember remember
1. The degree of a vertex is the total number of edges to which that vertex is connected. 2. The total of all the degrees of a network is exactly twice the total number of edges. 3. A planar network is a network where edges do not cross each other. 4. A planar network has faces (or regions). 5. In any planar network, if E = the number of edges, F = the number of faces or regions and V = the number of vertices, then: V = E F + 2. This is called Eulers formula.

13B
WORKED

Basic properties of networks

D C B E F A D E G

Example

1 State the degree of each vertex in the network shown at right.

2 State the degree of each vertex for the networks shown below. a b A
R Q B C T F S V

P R

d
E F D B

S U

T W

3 Find the number of regions, edges and vertices for each of the networks in question 2.
WORKED

Example

4 a Find the number of vertices, edges and regions in the network shown at right. 5 b Conrm Eulers formula for the network shown at right.

C B
Math
cad

WORKED

Example

F Eulers rule A

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5 Conrm Eulers formula for each of the networks in question 2. 6 Consider the network dened by the following list of edges. {(A, B), (A, C), (B, E), (B, F), (C, D), (C, E), (D, E), (E, F)} a Construct a drawing of the network (make sure it is planar). b Determine the degree of each vertex. c Conrm Eulers formula for this network. 7 multiple choice A planar network consists of: A regions, faces and edges B regions, vertices and nodes C faces, edges and vertices D edges which cross E none of the above
GAM
me E ti

Networks 001
ET SHE

Work

13.1

8 multiple choice The sum of the degrees of all the vertices of a network equals: A an odd number B half the number of vertices C twice the number of vertices D half the number of edges E twice the number of edges

M AT H

GE

QUEST
1 This cube is made of wire. Each edge of the cube is 1 metre long. An ant starts at corner A and walks along as many edges as possible without going along the same edge twice. How far does the ant walk?

CH

AL

EN

2 The cube shown in part 1 is made from a length of wire by bending, cutting and soldering joints only when necessary. There must be no loose end of wire. What is the least number of joints to be soldered?

Chapter 13 Networks

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1
1 Draw a network, which represents the following family tree. Ann and Charlie marry and they have 2 children, Bob and Karen. Bob marries Delia and they have a single child, Peter. Peter marries Mary and they have 2 children, Ben and Emily. 2 Four streets are connected to each other as follows. Draw a network represented by these connections. Princess StreetBird Avenue Princess StreetCharlie Street Charlie StreetDundas Street Princess StreetDundas Street 3 multiple choice A network consists of edges and: A letters B sides C pictures

D shapes

E vertices.

4 Draw the network represented by the following list. {(A, B), (A, C), (A, D), (B, G), (C, D), (C, E), (C, F), (D, E), (E, F), (F, G)} Use the network shown to answer questions 5 and 6. 5 Represent the network shown at right using the labelling method. 6 Find the number of vertices, edges and regions in the network at right.
D A C E B

Use the following network for questions 7 and 8. 7 What is the degree of vertex B? 8 Find the number of vertices (V), edges (E) and faces (F) in the network shown and conrm Eulers formula.
A B D E F C

The following list of words are to be used to ll in the missing words for questions 9 and 10. Planar, vertices, edges, degrees, objects, network, twice 9 A 10 The sum of the the number of network consists of faces, edges and .

of all the vertices of the network equals .

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Application of networks to problem-solving

The handshake problem
Problems involving contact between people, for example how many handshakes or greetings are needed to include everyone, can be solved using networks, by following the steps outlined in the next worked example.

WORKED Example 7
Consider a group of 6 people sitting at a round table. How many handshakes are required so that each person shakes hands with everyone exactly once? THINK
1

WRITE/DRAW
A F E D B C

Draw a circle representing the table and the 6 vertices, AF, representing the 6 people at the table.

Start with person A. This person must shake hands with 5 other people B, C, D, E and F. Show this by adding the appropriate connections to the diagram (red lines).

A F E D B C

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545

THINK
3

WRITE/DRAW
A F E D B C

Now, consider person B. This person has already shaken hands with A (see step 2 ) and still needs to shake hands with the remaining 4 people C, D, E and F. Add 4 connections to the diagram to show the handshakes of person B (blue lines). For person C, the three people remaining to shake hands with are D, E and F. Add appropriate edges to the diagram (black lines).

A F E D B C

Person D still needs to shake hands with two people E and F. Show this with edges DE and DF (green lines).

A F E D B C

The last handshake is between E and F (orange line).

A F E D B C

We now count the total number of handshakes.

The total number of handshakes =5+4+3+2+1 = 15

A network where every vertex is connected to each other vertex is called a complete network. The nal network in the handshake problem above is an example of a complete network.

Tournaments
The set of steps used to nd the number of handshakes considered in the previous worked example can also be used to work out games or teams in a round-robin tournament, where each player or team gets to play all the others exactly once. The worked example which follows shows a different approach to the problem for 6 teams.

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WORKED Example 8
Six waterpolo teams (A to F) are playing in a knockout tournament. Use networks to organise the games so that each team plays every other team once.

THINK
1

WRITE/DRAW
A F E D A F E D A F E D B C B C B C

Begin by making a ring joining each vertex to its nearest neighbour. Round 1 Starting at A and, going clockwise, each team plays the team on its left as shown with red lines. Round 2 Starting at A and, going counterclockwise, each team plays the team on its right as shown with blue lines.

Games played Round 1: A plays B C plays D E plays F Round 2: A plays F E plays D C plays B Round 3: A plays D B plays F C plays E

Round 3 Join A to the opposite vertex and then make connections at right angles to this connection (blue lines).

Round 4 Join B to the opposite vertex and then make connections at right angles to this connection (black lines).

A F E D B C

Round 4: A plays C B plays E D plays F

Round 5 Join C to the opposite vertex and then make connections at right angles to this connection (green lines).

A F E D B C

Round 5: A plays E B plays D C plays F

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By observing the listed games in each round, you can conrm that each team does indeed play each other team exactly once. Note: The number of games played by the 6 teams is equal to the total number of handshakes between 6 people.

Odd numbers of teams

A further difculty arises when an odd number of teams play. One very elegant solution is to add a dummy team, so that if there are originally 5 teams, then the dummy is the sixth team. Whoever is scheduled to play the dummy actually gets a bye for that round. Thus, you could use the method in worked example 8 for a tournament of 5 teams, with F as the dummy and therefore there would be byes for teams E, A, B, D and C in the 5 rounds.

remember remember
1. A network where every vertex is connected to each other vertex is called a complete network. 2. We aim to construct a complete network when solving problems where each person (or team) needs to contact (or play) every other person (or team). 3. If the number of teams in a tournament problem is odd, add a dummy team and proceed as you would with an even number of teams.

13C
WORKED

Application of networks to problem-solving

E
L Spread XCE

Example

1 Solve the handshake problem for 5, 7, 8, 9 and 10 people and hence, complete the following 7 table.

sheet

Handshake counter

Number of people Number of handshakes

WORKED

6 15

8 9

10

Example

2 Use networks to determine the schedule for a tournament in 8 which the following numbers of soccer teams play. a 4 b 7 c 8 d 9 e 10

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Paths and circuits part I

As we have seen, a network can represent many physical situations, such as roads and towns, computers and cables, people and handshakes or even classrooms and doorways. There are certainly situations where each edge and each vertex is equally important. With planar graphs we can dene a sequence of edges and vertices and we can look at various sequences through the network. Sometimes you may wish to have a sequence that goes through all vertices only once; for example a travelling salesperson who wishes to visit each town or shop once. Sometimes you may wish to use all edges only once, such as a road repair gang repairing all the roads in a shire. Both these cases are known as traversable networks.

Paths and circuits

A path is a sequence of edges and vertices that begins at one vertex and ends at another. A circuit is a sequence which begins and ends at the same vertex. Consider the network shown on the right. One path, going E through each vertex is EDCBA. The vertices might represent 5 different tourist attractions you would like to visit in D A one day during your holidays, and the edges might show the roads connecting those attractions. C B One circuit would be EDCBAE. In this case, E might represent your starting and ending point (say, your hotel) and the other 4 vertices may be the 4 tourist attractions you would like to visit.

Euler paths and circuits

An Euler path (and circuit) uses each edge exactly once. Euler paths and circuits are useful when the edges are the really important objects, such as a network of roads connecting towns. This would be the case if you were designing a bus route which travels along each road, picking up and dropping off passengers. Unfortunately, not all networks have Euler paths or circuits. What determines whether or not there is an Euler path or circuit? The answer lies in determining the degree of each vertex and whether each degree is even or odd.

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The following table shows the presence or absence of Euler paths and circuits for networks with different numbers of odd degree vertices. Degree of vertices Euler path All the vertices Yes have even degrees. There are exactly Yes two odd degree vertices and the rest are even. There are any other number of odd degree vertices (1, 3, 5, and so on). No How? Euler circuit How? This depends upon the actual network.

Start and nish Yes at any vertex. Start and nish No at the two odd degree vertices. No

The following worked example provides more guidance in locating an Euler path.

WORKED Example 9
Determine if there is an Euler path through the network shown at right and, if so, give an example.
D C

E A B

THINK
1

WRITE/DRAW Vertex A has a degree = 2. Vertex B has a degree = 2. Vertex C has a degree = 3. Vertex D has a degree = 2. Vertex E has a degree = 3. Number of odd vertices = 2 Therefore, the Euler path exists.
6 D 5 C 1 B E 4 2 3 A

Determine the degree of each vertex by counting the number of edges connected to it.

Count the number of odd degree vertices and hence state whether there is an Euler path through the network. Since there are exactly 2 vertices with odd degrees (C and E), an Euler path has to start and nish with these; say, begin at C and end at E. Attempt to nd a path which uses each edge. Note: While each edge must be used exactly once, vertices may be used more than once. To ensure that each edge has been used, label them as you go. List the sequence of vertices along the path.

An Euler path is CBAECDE.

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Note: The number of vertices in the path is one more than the number of edges in the network. For instance, in worked example 9 there were 6 edges in the network and the path contained 7 vertices; that is, one more vertex than the total number of edges. Can you nd a different sequence for the network in the previous worked example, which is also an Euler path? Does this network have an Euler circuit? Why (or why not)?

Hamiltonian paths and circuits

A path which goes though each vertex exactly once is known as Hamiltonian. If a Hamiltonian path begins and ends at the same vertex, it is then a Hamiltonian circuit. Unfortunately, there is no set method of nding these routes, except by inspection or trial and error. Most networks have both Hamiltonian paths and circuits. Finding a circuit may require a clever choice of the starting (and ending) vertex.

WORKED Example 10
For the network shown nd: a a Hamiltonian path b a Hamiltonian circuit.
B C A F E

THINK a Choose any starting vertex and attempt to visit all the other vertices. (Not all the edges need to be used.) b Attempt to close the path by returning to the starting vertex.

WRITE a A possible Hamiltonian path is ABFEDC. b A possible Hamiltonian circuit is ABFEDCA.

Hamiltonian paths and circuits are most useful in travelling salesperson types of problems where the vertices might represent places that the salesperson must visit each week.

remember remember
1. A path is a specic set of edges and connecting vertices. 2. An Euler path is a set of edges connecting all the vertices such that each edge is used exactly once. For such a path to exist, there must be exactly two vertices of odd degree (and the rest of even degree) or all the vertices must be of even degree. 3. An Euler circuit is an Euler path that also has the same starting and ending vertex. For such a circuit to exist, all the vertices must be of even degree. 4. A Hamiltonian path travels through each vertex exactly once. 5. A Hamiltonian circuit is a Hamiltonian path that also has the same starting and ending vertex.

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B

13D
WORKED

Paths and circuits part I

A C E

Example

1 Determine if there is an Euler path through the network shown at right and, if so, give an example. 9 2 Determine an Euler path through the networks shown below. aA b c B Q S Q S
C E D P R T U P R T U

Q P R
Alhambra Buford Hapless

S U T

3 Starting at vertex R, determine an Euler path for this planar graph. (Hint: What vertex should the path end at?) 4 A road inspection crew must travel along each road, shown on the map at right, exactly once. a From either of which two cities must the crew begin its tour? b Determine a path using each road once. c Which cities are visited most often and why?
WORKED

Chesterton

Grunge City

Example

5 For each of the networks shown, nd: i a Hamiltonian path 10 ii a Hamiltonian circuit. a b
A B A B E C D C F G D E

Dullsville

French Twist Eulersburg

A G C F

B E D

d
B C D

6 Which of the networks in the four parts of question 5 have Euler paths? 7 multiple choice An Euler path: A uses every vertex exactly once B uses every edge exactly once C always exists D is the same as a Hamiltonian path E always starts on a vertex whose degree is an even number 8 multiple choice A Hamiltonian path: A does not exist if there are any vertices B does not exist if there are exactly of odd degree 2 vertices of odd degree C does not have to use every vertex in D does not have to use every edge in the the network network E is the same as a Euler path

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Paths and circuits part II

As was mentioned in the previous section, nding a path which starts and ends at the same vertex and uses all the edges exactly once (an Euler circuit) can be difcult. In this section we will explore techniques to help us nd Euler circuits.

Finding an Euler circuit

Remember that an Euler circuit exists only if all the vertices are of even degree.

WORKED Example 11
Starting with vertex A, nd, if possible, an Euler circuit for the network shown.
A C E B D

THINK
1

WRITE/DRAW Vertex A has a degree = 4. Vertex B has a degree = 2. Vertex C has a degree = 2. Vertex D has a degree = 2. Vertex E has a degree = 2. All vertices are of even degree, therefore an Euler circuit is possible.
A 1

Conrm that all of the vertices are of even degree.

Start with vertex A and nd the shortest path back to vertex A. (If there is more than one such path, select any one of them.) A possible shortest path is ACEA. Complete the circuit by going around the remaining vertices (along path ADBA).

C 3

2 E

B A 6 B 5 4 1

C 3 D

2 E

Conrm that each edge is used once, and list the path.

The Euler circuit is ACEADBA.

Which method we use to nd an Euler circuit depends upon the starting vertex we choose. For instance, if the starting vertex in the above example was B, it would be pointless to select the shortest path (BADB) back to it, as it would be a dead end. An Euler circuit from B is BACEADB. Generally, if the starting point has the degree of 2, the rst and the last connections of the circuit must be to that point. This means that the shortest path back to the starting point is no use, as there are no more edges from it and it would be a dead end. Instead we can rst connect the starting vertex with the vertex of larger degree, as shown in the following example.

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WORKED Example 12
Find an Euler circuit for the network shown.
A D B E C

THINK
1

WRITE/DRAW Vertex A has a degree = 4. Vertex B has a degree = 2. Vertex C has a degree = 4. Vertex D has a degree = 2. Vertex E has a degree = 2. All vertices are of even degree, therefore an Euler circuit is possible.
A 1 D E

Conrm that all of the vertices are of even degree.

Choose a starting vertex, say D. Since D is of degree 2, the rst and last connections must be to D. Therefore, we can not look for the shortest path back to D, as it would create a dead end. Instead, we need to rst connect D to the vertex of larger degree. There are 2 such vertices, A and C (both of a degree 4). So, connect D to one of them, say, A. Find a shortest path back to A (select any, if there is more than one such path).

4 A 2 B 3 1 D E 4 A 2 1 5 D B 7 3 C 6 E C

Complete the circuit by moving from A back to D, using the remaining edges.

List the path.

The Euler circuit is: DABCAECD.

Note: We had to have the path CD as the last one, since we chose DA as the rst.

remember remember
1. For an Euler circuit to exist, all the vertices must be of even degree. 2. Complete a circuit by nding the shortest path to the starting vertex, adding new vertices one at a time until all vertices are part of the circuit. 3. If the starting vertex has the degree of 2, connect it to a vertex of larger degree rst.

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13E
WORKED

Paths and circuits part II

A D E C B

Example

1 Starting with vertex A, nd, if possible, an Euler circuit for the network shown. 11

2 Starting with vertex D, nd an Euler circuit for the network in question 1. 3 Starting with vertex A, nd an Euler circuit for the following networks. a A b B B C C D
F E
WORKED

E D A F

Example

4 Find an Euler circuit for the networks shown. a b 12 F F G

A D B E C A B E C D

c
A

B E F G

C D

5 In a computer network, the main computer, or le server (F), is connected to all the other computers as shown at right. Matsuko, the technician, wishes to test that each connecting cable is functioning properly. She wishes to route a signal, starting at F, so that it travels down each cable exactly once and then returns to the le server. Find such a circuit for the network conguration shown at right.

R F T V W U P S Q

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6 multiple choice If a travelling salesman wished to visit each town connected by a network of roads exactly once and then return home, he would be looking for: A an Euler path B an Euler circuit C a Hamiltonian path D a Hamiltonian circuit E none of the above 7 multiple choice A group of towns are connected by railroad, as shown in the simplied network at right. The shire wishes to be able to have a path so that each rail link can be used exactly once. Where should it add a new link? A Between J and M B Between L and N C Between P and M D Between K and M E Between P and L

P J N M K L

Sprouts
Sprouts is a simple pencil and paper game for two players. Here are the rules: 1 Players take turns at being the rst to start play. 2 The rst player marks 3 separate dots on a piece of paper.

3 The second player draws a line joining two of the dots and adds a dot somewhere on the line just drawn.

4 The two players continue to take turns at drawing a line joining two of the dots and adding a new dot somewhere on this line.

However, there are some conditions! No dot is allowed to have more than three lines leaving it. (A dot is dead when three lines are leaving it and can be circled to indicate this.)

No new line may touch or cross any line already drawn. 5 The winner is the last person able to play. Keep a record of your games and try to develop a winning strategy. You can also play this game with a different number of starting dots.

Work

ET SHE

13.2

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The bridges of Knigsberg

Do you remember the problem posed at the start of the chapter (see page 531)? Can it be done? Can you travel across all 7 bridges of Knigsberg once, and only once, before returning to the starting point? 1 Try this problem again. (The university students of Knigsberg actually called in Leonhard Euler in 1735 to help them with this problem.) 2 Explain your answer in terms of networks and odd and even vertices. 3 Draw a diagram and add an eighth bridge so that you could travel over all the bridges once only if you started and nished at different points. 4 Draw another diagram. Can you add an eighth bridge so that you could travel over all the bridges once only if you started and nished at the same point? Hint: Each bridge can be represented by an edge and the islands and riverbanks represented by vertices, as shown at left.

2
1 Represent the network shown at right by using the labelling method. B 2 Draw the network represented by the following list. {(A, B), (A, C), (A, D), (A, E), (B, C), (C, D), (C, E)} Use the network shown at right for questions 3 and 4. 3 Find the number of vertices (V), edges (E) and regions (R) in the network shown. 4 Conrm Eulers formula for the network shown.
C E D F A E B A C A C D E F

5 Determine an Euler path through the network shown at right.

B D 6 multiple choice For an Euler path to exist there must be exactly 2 vertices of odd degree or: A all vertices must be of odd degree B one vertex is of odd degree C one vertex is of even degree D there is an equal number of odd and even degree vertices E all vertices must be of even degree.

Use this network for questions 7 and 8. 7 Find a Hamiltonian path. 8 Find a Hamiltonian circuit. Answer true or false for questions 9 and 10. 9 An Euler path uses every edge only once. 10 A Hamiltonian circuit is a Hamiltonian path that does not have to have the same starting and ending vertex.
D E A B F G

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Trees and networks

A special kind of network is called a tree. Like woody trees network trees have branches. In network trees, the branches, called edges, come together at points, called vertices.

A tree consists of a number of vertices and the smallest number of edges necessary, so that each vertex is connected to at least one other vertex. This ensures that each vertex can communicate to all the other vertices either directly, or indirectly.

Identifying trees
The diagrams on the right show trees for 2 and A 3 vertices respectively. For the 3-vertex case, there are 2 other possible trees. Can you draw them? The next two diagrams show trees for 4 and 5 A vertices respectively. Observe that for 4 vertices there are 3 edges and for 5 vertices there are 4 edges. Generally, a tree has one less edge than the number of vertices.
B A B

C B A B

D B

The last gure at right is an example of a network, which is not A a tree. Note that it has one too many edges. Can you identify the extra edge (that is, the edge that has to be removed in order for the network to become a tree)?

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WORKED Example 13
Identify which of the following networks are trees. a A b A F B F B
C D E C D G F E D E

c A
B C

F E

d A
B C

e R
Q P

S T U V

THINK a
1

WRITE a Number of vertices = 6 Number of edges = 5 A is connected to B. B is connected to F. C is connected to D. D is connected to E. F is connected to B. Therefore, the network shown is a tree. b Number of vertices = 6 Number of edges = 6 Therefore, the network shown is not a tree. c Number of vertices = 7 Number of edges = 6 A is not connected to any vertex. Therefore, the network shown is not a tree. d Number of vertices = 7 Number of edges = 6 Each vertex is connected. Therefore, the network shown is a tree. e Number of vertices = 7 Number of edges = 6 Each vertex is connected. Therefore, the network shown is a tree.

Count the number of vertices and edges. There should be one edge less than the number of vertices. Check whether each vertex is connected to at least one other and state your conclusion.

b Count the number of vertices and edges. The number of edges must be one less than the number of vertices for the network to be a tree. c
1

Count the number of vertices and edges. There should be one edge less than the number of vertices. Check whether each vertex is connected to at least one other and state your conclusion. Check whether the number of edges is one less than the number of vertices. Ensure that each vertex is connected to at least one other. Check if the number of vertices exceeds the number of edges by one. Ensure that each vertex is connected to at least one other.

1 2

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The minimal spanning tree

Consider a network of vertices and edges where the edges represent, say, the distance between the vertices. We wish to nd a tree within the network, so that the total distance along the tree is as small as possible. This is called the minimal spanning tree and is useful, for example, for a message system, where the total distance travelled between the vertices should be as small as possible. The method for nding the minimal spanning tree is particularly simple, and is demonstrated in the next worked example.

WORKED Example 14
In the network shown, numbers represent the distances (in km) between ten towns. Find the minimal spanning tree and determine its total length.
R 15 S 33 W 24 34 35 27 26 23 Q T 10 V X 20 31 25 18 21 38 P U Y

THINK
1

WRITE/DRAW
R 15 S 33 W 34 24 35 27 Q 23 T 10 V 26 X 20 31 25 P U 38 21 18 Y

Find the edge with the shortest distance. It is the start of the tree. The shortest edge is TV.

Total distance = 10
2

Find the edge connecting a new vertex to the existing tree (TV) by the shortest distance. Town T is connected to S (distance 27 km), Q (23 km) and U (31 km). Town V is connected to W (24 km), X (26 km) and U (25 km). Choose the smallest distance, TQ (23 km) and nd the total distance so far.

33 S W 34 27 24 35 23 10 26 Q T V X 20 31 25 18 21 38 P U Y R

15

Total distance = 10 + 23 = 33
Continued over page

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THINK
3

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WRITE/DRAW
33 S W 34 24 35 27 Q 23 T 10 V 26 X 20 31 25 18 21 38 P U Y R 15

Find the edge connecting a new vertex to the existing tree (QTV) by the shortest distance: Town Q is connected to R (35 km), P (21 km) and U (20 km). Town T is connected to S (27 km) and U (31 km). Town V is connected to W (24 km), X (26 km) and U (25 km). Choose QU (20 km) and nd the new total distance.

Total distance = 33 + 20 = 53

Find the edge connecting a new vertex to the existing tree (UQTV) by the shortest distance. Using the same method as in previous steps, select QP (21 km).

33 S W 34 24 35 27 Q 23 T 10 V 26 X 20 31 25 18 21 38 P U Y R

15

Calculate the new total.

Total distance = 53 + 21 = 74

The edge connecting a new vertex to the existing tree (UPQTV) by the shortest distance is VW (24 km).

33 S W 34 27 24 35 Q 23 T 10 V 26 X 20 31 25 18 21 38 P U Y R

15

Add 24 to the previous total.

Total distance = 74 + 24 = 98

The edge with the shortest distance connecting a new vertex to the existing tree (UPQTVW) is VX (26 km). Note: If UV was used the gure would no longer be a tree.

33 S W 34 27 24 35 Q 23 T 10 V 26 X 20 31 25 18 21 38 P U Y R

15

Calculate the new total.

Total distance = 98 + 26 = 124

Chapter 13 Networks

561

THINK
7

WRITE/DRAW
33 S W 34 24 35 27 Q 23 T 10 V 26 X 20 31 25 18 21 38 P U Y R 15

The next edge with the shortest distance connecting a new vertex to the existing tree (UPQTVWX) is XY (18 km).

Calculate the new total.

8

Total distance = 124 + 18 = 142

33 S W 34 27 24 35 Q 23 T 10 V 26 X 20 31 25 18 21 38 P U Y R 15

Select edge TS (27 km). It connects a new vertex (S) to the existing tree (UPQTVWXY) using the shortest distance.

Calculate the new total.

9

Total distance = 142 + 27 = 169

33 S W 34 27 24 35 Q 23 T 10 V 26 X 20 31 25 18 21 38 P U Y R 15

Finally, select the edge SR (15 km), which connects the last remaining vertex, R, to the existing tree (UPQTSVWXY) and has the shortest distance. The tree is now complete, as all vertices are connected. Calculate the total and answer the question.

Total distance = 169 + 15 = 184 Total length of the minimal spanning tree is 184 km.

It is now possible for each vertex in worked example 14 to communicate with all the others, with a minimum total distance of 184 km. Suppose there was a major re in town T. They would send messages directly to Q, S, and V. These towns would send a message to towns P, U (from Q), R (from S), W and X (from V) and so on, until every town had received the message. Although nding the minimal spanning tree may seem a long process, at each step the decisions are very simple: just add the shortest edge to a new vertex.

remember remember
1. A tree uses the smallest number of edges possible, so that each vertex is connected to at least one other vertex. 2. A tree of n vertices contains (n 1) edges. (That is, the number of edges is one less than the number of the vertices.) 3. The minimal spanning tree is the tree that has the shortest total overall length. 4. To nd the minimal spanning tree, start with the shortest overall edge. Add a new vertex by nding the shortest edge connecting it to the existing tree, until all vertices are connected.

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13F
WORKED

Trees and networks

e
D N H

Example

1 Identify which of the following networks are trees. a b A c d C 13 F A C J

A D B E D C B F B C D K E L

F A G

B I E C

2 In the network at right, identify one (or more) edges which, A when removed, result in the remaining network becoming a tree. E
F

B D C

3 Identify one (or more) edges in the gure at right which, when added, result in the network becoming a tree.

X T U V Y W Z 67 51 34 41 37 W 68 R 70 55 Y 52 61 E 77 77 61 T 72 O E G 48 F 39

4 In the network shown at right, numbers represent the disExample tances (in km) between seven towns. Find the minimal 14 spanning tree and determine its total length.
WORKED

B 44 A 36 46 45 D 62 Q 67 I 81 45 C

5 The diagram on the right represents 8 cities and the roads connecting them. The distances along each road are also indicated. If the distances are in km, nd the minimal spanning tree for this network. Determine the total length of the tree.

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77 77 E

6 Two new towns (X and Z) and their road connections are added to the network in question 5, as shown. Find the new minimal spanning tree and its length.

62 Q

68 45 61 70 40 R T X 55 52 72 44 67 81 Y I 36 61 O 49 Z

7 A group of computers are connected as shown below. The numbers on the edges represent the cost (in cents) of sending a 1 MB mail message between the computers. Find the smallest possible cost to send a message to all the computers.
26 27 17 18 16 12 16 32 36 40 11 24 23 14 21 19

8 multiple choice A Hamiltonian circuit is not a tree because: A not all the vertices are connected in a Hamiltonian circuit B there are more vertices than edges in a Hamiltonian circuit C there are the same number of vertices and edges in a Hamiltonian circuit D there are more edges in a Hamiltonian circuit than are required for a tree E a Hamiltonian circuit does not necessarily connect all the vertices. 9 multiple choice The next edge that should be added to the tree shown by red lines in the gure at right, to form a minimal spanning tree, would be: A AD (length = 15) B CE (length = 16) C BC (length = 18) D AB (length = 19) E GF (length = 23)
B 19 A 15 D 20 11 9 12 13 G 23 18 C 16 E 22 F

GAME
time

Networks 002

Work

ET SHE

13.3

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summary
Copy the sentences below. Fill in the gaps by choosing the correct word or expression from the word list that follows. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A network consists of edges and . When using the labelling method to describe a network, the pair { . . . (C, F) . . . } means that C is to F. The degree of a vertex is the total number of nected to it. In a planar graph there are no edges. with it has con-

Eulers rule connects the number of edges, vertices and a formula V = E F + 2.

If there are 4 people in a room, the smallest number of handshakes, so that each person shakes hands with everyone else exactly once is . A is a sequence of edges and vertices that begins at one vertex and ends at another, while a is a sequence which begins and ends at the same vertex. An Euler path uses each exactly once.

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

An Euler path is possible, if either vertices in the network are of even degree, or vertices are of odd degree. A uses each vertex exactly once. in the network.

A Hamiltonian circuit does not necessarily use

A network with two vertices of degree equal to 3 cannot have an . A tree consists of a number of vertices and so that each vertex is connected to at least one other. A tree for a network with 12 vertices would have A minimal spanning tree has possible. edges necessary, edges.

WORD

LIST
regions every edge 2 circuit edge all Hamiltonian path vertex the smallest number of connected crossing 6 path

Euler circuit 11 vertices the smallest total length edges

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CHAPTER review
1 Draw the following network. {(A, B), (A, C), (A, D), (B, E), (C, E), (C, F), (D, F), (E, G), (F, G)} 2 Represent the network shown, using the labelling method.
Q R V A X T U Y S W B

13A 13A

3 State the degree of each vertex in the network in question 2. 4

A F E

13B 13B

B C

For the network shown above: a Count the number of vertices (V). b Count the number of edges (E). c Count the number of faces (F). d Conrm Eulers formula. 5 Eight beach volleyball teams (A to H) are playing in a knockout tournament. Use networks to organise the games so that each team plays every other team once.

13C

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6 How many handshakes will it take if there are 8 people and everyone shakes hands with everyone else exactly once? 7 For each of the following networks, state whether an Euler path and/or an Euler circuit are/is possible. a a network with 2 vertices with the degree = 2 and 2 vertices with the degree = 3 b a network with 3 vertices with the degree = 2 and 2 vertices with the degree = 3 c a network with 3 vertices with the degree = 2 and 3 vertices with the degree = 3 d a network with 2 vertices with the degree = 2 and 3 vertices with the degree = 3 e a network with 5 vertices with even degrees f a network with 4 vertices with odd degrees g a network with 1 vertex with the degree = 2, 2 vertices with the degree = 3 and 2 vertices with the degree = 4 8
A F E

13D

B C

a For the network shown above, nd: i an Euler path ii a Hamiltonian path b Explain why is there no Euler circuit.

iii a Hamiltonian circuit.

13E 13E

9 Modify the network in question 8 so that there is a possible Euler circuit. Draw a circuit, starting with vertex A. 10 a For the network shown at right, state two possible Euler paths, starting with different vertices. b Modify the network by adding a new vertex, F, so that an Euler circuit is possible. c For the modied version of the network, state an Euler circuit, beginning with: i vertex B ii vertex C. 11 How many edges are required for a tree, connecting: a 4 vertices? b 8 vertices? 12
V 27 P T 34 Z 18 30 8 Y 26 23 W 20 10 33 Q R 31 17 21 U 29 X 15 S 36 C B D

13F 13F

100 vertices?

20 25 32 11

CHAPTER

test yourself

13

Find the minimal spanning tree for the network shown and determine its total length.