Recycling codes are used to identify the material from which an item is made, to facilitate easier recycling or other

reprocessing. Such symbols have been defined for batteries, biomatter/organic material, glass, metals, paper, and plastics.[citation needed]

General Types And Costs. Types Of House Construction

All small houses may be classified into four types, according to their construction. The first type is the commonest and is the wooden-frame structure. This has exterior walls and interior partitions built of light wooden studs, and the floors and ceilings framed with wooden joists. The exterior walls may be covered with clapboard, shingles, stucco, brick veneer, or stone veneer. The roof is generally covered with wooden shingles, although slate, tile, asbestos, and asphalt shingles are often used. These houses are the most numerous, because the cost of wood in the past has been so much less than other materials that they appealed to the average builder's financial sense. However, the cost of such dwellings to the country as a whole has been very high, for they are extremely dangerous when attacked by fire. More than twenty-two millions of dollars are wasted by fire each year in these houses. They also cost us a great deal in up-keep. It would be interesting to see what was the total cost per year to repaint them and keep the roofs in order. It certainly would run into the millions. Although wood increased from about $30.00 per thousand board feet to about $85.00 in the Eastern markets from pre-war days, and is now dropping below $55.00, yet the wooden house is still listed as the cheapest, for the cost of other materials has also increased, as brick from $10.00 per thousand to $23.00 until very recently, and cement from $2.00 to $3.25 per barrel. In any comparison of cost the wooden-frame building is taken as the base or cheapest type of construction, although it is the most expensive in up-keep and fire-hazard of all. Until the price of wood increases in excessive proportion to other materials, there is no doubt that this type of house will be the commonest. However, there is much that can be done to make them more fire-resisting, and, although we cannot look to the speculative builders to use such methods, since they increase the costs slightly, yet the architect should not overlook them. Type I Wooden Frame. Type II The second type of dwelling which is next in vogue has exterior walls of stone, brick, concrete, or terracotta, and interior floors, partitions, and roof of wooden-frame construction. These are very slightly more fireproof than the wooden-frame structure, and as a class they are more costly in the beginning, but require less expense in up-keep. They resist attack from external fires better than the wooden-frame building, but if the fire starts within, they will burn just as readily. Although the fire loss per year of this class is not nearly as great as for the first type, yet it must be appreciated that there are not so many of them. The chief advantage of the masonry house of this second type lies in the lowered cost of up-keep, longer life, and saving of heating-fuel in the winter. A great deal of literature has been circulated by brick, cement, and hollow terra-cotta tile manufacturers by which the public has been educated to believe that this type of structure is much more fire-resisting than it is. Of course this campaign of education was intended to stimulate interest in their product, and it had no unselfish motive back of it. The result of this propaganda is evident in the public belief that such houses are fireproof houses, while as a matter of fact they are not. Type II Masonry and Wood. Type III The third class of dwelling is quite rare, and very few small houses are built that could be classified under it. Some builders call them fireproof houses, although this is erroneous. These buildings have walls, roofs, floors, and partitions built of incombustible materials, but the finished floors, the trim,windows, and doors are of wood. The exterior walls are of masonry construction, and the construction of the floors and roofs consists of steel beams with terra-cotta arches or concrete floor slabs, spanning in between them, and the partitions are of terracotta, gypsum, metal lath and plaster, or other similar materials. They may also be built of reinforced concrete throughout, or any other combination of these materials. There have been very few examples of this kind of construction used in the small house. It is an unfortunate condition that it is more adaptable to the costly mansion than to the average house of the middle-class

Recycling codes are used to identify the material from which an item is made, to facilitate easier recycling or other reprocessing. Such symbols have been defined for batteries, biomatter/organic material, glass, metals, paper, and plastics.[citation needed]
citizen, for the high cost of construction of this character, in most cases, permits it to be used only by the wealthy man. Examples where such houses have been built generally show an investment of $30,000 or more, or, if they were built to-day, $50,000 or more. Those attempts to use this form of construction in the small house have been made by large building corporations, and have been chiefly represented by concrete houses of very ugly design. Type II Masonry walls Interior-Wood. Type III. Walls, floors, partitions fire-proof, but windows, doors and trim of wood. Type IV The fourth and last type of dwelling is the ideal fireproof house, but it is so costly that very few examples exist. This type can be termed fireproof with accuracy, for all structural parts, including doors, windows, and trim, are of incombustible materials. Metal trim is used or wood that has been treated to make it fireresisting. This latter class of construction is so out of the reach of the average home-builder, on account of its cost, that its value cannot be thoroughly appreciated. Practically the only examples in existence are large mansions, built by wealthy clients. Cost Does Not Indicate Fire-Resistance. - In this classification of buildings it would almost seem that the cost of a building indicated its fireproof qualities. This is not true, however. There are many expensive dwellings which are just as great fire-traps as the less expensive ones. In both cases the fire hazards are the same, if they are built of the same type of construction. In fact, we could build a $60,000 dwelling according to Type II, and also a $10,000 one according to Type II, and make the latter more fire-resisting than the former by using certain precautions of construction in which the spread of fire is retarded. Except in unusual cases, the construction of the ordinary dwelling will be either according to the first or second type, and any fire precautions that are desirable must be applicable to them. Most comparisons of relative costs are made between the dwellings included under these two types, and the difference will be mostly a difference in the kind of exterior walls used in the construction. In fact, if any comparisons are made between different kinds of buildings, as to their relative costs, it is essential that only one feature be made variable and that all others be kept the same

A landfill compaction vehicle in action. Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, and this remains a common practice in most countries. Landfills were often established in abandoned or unused quarries, mining voids or borrow pits. A properly designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials. Older, poorly designed or poorly managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction ofvermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Another common byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down anaerobically. This gas can create odour problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas. Spittelau incineration plant inVienna Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as clay or plastic lining material. Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered to prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also have landfill gas extraction systems installed to

Recycling codes are used to identify the material from which an item is made, to facilitate easier recycling or other reprocessing. Such symbols have been defined for batteries, biomatter/organic material, glass, metals, paper, and plastics.[citation needed]

extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity.
[edit] Incineration

Main article: Incineration Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful for disposal of residue of both solid waste management and solid residue from waste water management.This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to 30 percent of the original volume. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash. Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants. Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is more scarce, as these facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy(WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not a

Recycling consumer waste

Recycling codes are used to identify the material from which an item is made, to facilitate easier recycling or other reprocessing. Such symbols have been defined for batteries, biomatter/organic material, glass, metals, paper, and plastics.[citation needed]
Collection

Recycling and rubbish bin in a German railway station.

A number of different systems have been implemented to collect recyclates from the general waste stream. These systems lie along the spectrum of trade-off between public convenience and government ease and expense. The three main categories of collection are "drop-off centres", "buy-back centres" and "curbside collection".[2]
Drop-off centres

Drop off centres require the waste producer to carry the recyclates to a central location, either an installed or mobile collection station or the reprocessing plant itself. They are the easiest type of collection to establish, but suffer from low and unpredictable throughput.
Buy-back centres

Buy-back centres differ in that the cleaned recyclates are purchased, thus providing a clear incentive for use and creating a stable supply. The post-processed material can then be sold on, hopefully creating a profit. Unfortunately government subsidies are necessary to make buy-back centres a viable enterprise, as according to the United States National Solid Wastes Management Association it costs on average US$50 to process a ton of material, which can only be resold for US$30.[2]
Curbside collection Main article: Curbside collection

Curbside collection encompasses many subtly different systems, which differ mostly on where in the process the recyclates are sorted and cleaned. The main categories are mixed waste collection, commingled recyclables and source separation.[2] A waste collection vehicle generally picks up the waste.

Recycling codes are used to identify the material from which an item is made, to facilitate easier recycling or other reprocessing. Such symbols have been defined for batteries, biomatter/organic material, glass, metals, paper, and plastics.[citation needed]

A recycling truck collecting the contents of a recycling bin in Canberra, Australia

At one end of the spectrum is mixed waste collection, in which all recyclates are collected mixed in with the rest of the waste, and the desired material is then sorted out and cleaned at a central sorting facility. This results in a large amount of recyclable waste, paper especially, being too soiled to reprocess, but has advantages as well: the city need not pay for a separate collection of recyclates and no public education is needed. Any changes to which materials are recyclable is easy to accommodate as all sorting happens in a central location.[2] In a Commingled or single-stream system, all recyclables for collection are mixed but kept separate from other waste. This greatly reduces the need for post-collection cleaning but does require public education on what materials are recyclable.[2][4] Source separation is the other extreme, where each material is cleaned and sorted prior to collection. This method requires the least post-collection sorting and produces the purest recyclates, but incurs additional operating costs for collection of each separate material. An extensive public education program is also required, which must be successful if recyclate contamination is to be avoided.[2] Source separation used to be the preferred method due to the high sorting costs incurred by commingled collection. Advances in sorting technology (see sorting below), however, have lowered this overhead substantiallymany areas which had developed source separation programs have since switched to comingled collection.[4]
Sorting

Recycling codes are used to identify the material from which an item is made, to facilitate easier recycling or other reprocessing. Such symbols have been defined for batteries, biomatter/organic material, glass, metals, paper, and plastics.[citation needed]

Early sorting of recyclable materials: glass and plastic bottles in Poland.

Once commingled recyclates are collected and delivered to a central collection facility, the different types of materials must be sorted. This is done in a series of stages, many of which involve automated processes such that a truck-load of material can be fully sorted in less than an hour.[4] Some plants can now sort the materials automatically, known as single-stream recycling. A 30 percent increase in recycling rates has been seen in the areas where these plants exist.[9] Initially, the commingled recyclates are removed from the collection vehicle and placed on a conveyor belt spread out in a single layer. Large pieces of corrugated fiberboard and plastic bags are removed by hand at this stage, as they can cause later machinery to jam.[4] Next, automated machinery separates the recyclates by weight, splitting lighter paper and plastic from heavier glass and metal. Cardboard is removed from the mixed paper, and the most common types of plastic, PET (#1) and HDPE (#2), are collected. This separation is usually done by hand, but has become automated in some sorting centers: a spectroscopic scanner is used to differentiate between different types of paper and plastic based on the absorbed wavelengths, and subsequently divert each material into the proper collection channel.[4] Strong magnets are used to separate out ferrous metals, such as iron, steel, and tin-plated steel cans ("tin cans"). Non-ferrous metals are ejected by magnetic eddy currents in which a rotating magnetic field induces an electric current around the aluminium cans, which in turn creates a magnetic eddy current inside the cans. This magnetic eddy current is repulsed by a large magnetic field, and the cans are ejected from the rest of the recyclate stream.[4] Finally, glass must be sorted by hand based on its color: brown, amber, green or clear.[4] For a recycling program to work, having a large, stable supply of recyclable material is crucial. Three legislative options have been used to create such a supply: mandatory recycling collection, container deposit legislation, and refuse bans. Mandatory collection laws set recycling targets for cities to aim for, usually in the form that a certain percentage of a material must be diverted from the city's waste stream by a target date. The city is then responsible for working to meet this target.[2] Container deposit legislation involves offering a refund for the return of certain containers, typically glass, plastic, and metal. When a product in such a container is purchased, a small surcharge is added to the price. This surcharge can be reclaimed by the consumer if the container is returned to a collection point. These programs have been very successful, often resulting in an 80 percent recycling rate. Despite such good results, the shift in collection costs from local government to industry and consumers has created strong opposition to the creation of such programs in some areas.[2] A third method of increase supply of recyclates is to ban the disposal of certain materials as waste, often including used oil, old batteries, tires and garden waste. One aim of this method is to create a viable economy for proper disposal of banned products. Care must be taken that enough of these recycling services exist, or such bans simply lead to increased illegal dumping.[2]

Recycling codes are used to identify the material from which an item is made, to facilitate easier recycling or other reprocessing. Such symbols have been defined for batteries, biomatter/organic material, glass, metals, paper, and plastics.[citation needed]
Government-mandated demand

Legislation has also been used to increase and maintain a demand for recycled materials. Four methods of such legislation exist: minimum recycled content mandates, utilization rates, procurement policies, recycled product labeling.[2] Both minimum recycled content mandates and utilization rates increase demand directly by forcing manufacturers to include recycling in their operations. Content mandates specify that a certain percentage of a new product must consist of recycled material. Utilization rates are a more flexible option: industries are permitted to meet the recycling targets at any point of their operation or even contract recycling out in exchange for [trade]able credits. Opponents to both of these methods point to the large increase in reporting requirements they impose, and claim that they rob industry of necessary flexibility.[2][8] Governments have used their own purchasing power to increase recycling demand through what are called "procurement policies." These policies are either "set-asides," which earmark a certain amount of spending solely towards recycled products, or "price preference" programs which provide a larger budget when recycled items are purchased. Additional regulations can target specific cases: in the United States, for example, the Environmental Protection Agency mandates the purchase of oil, paper, tires and building insulation from recycled or re-refined sources whenever possible.[2] The final government regulation towards increased demand is recycled product labeling. When producers are required to label their packaging with amount of recycled material in the product (including the packaging), consumers are better able to make educated choices. Consumers with sufficient buying power can then choose more environmentally conscious options, prompt producers to increase the amount of recycled material in their products, and indirectly increase demand. Standardized recycling labeling can also have a positive effect on supply of recyclates if the labeling includes information on how and where the product can be recycled.[2] Recycling codes are used to identify the material from which an item is made, to facilitate easier recycling or other reprocessing. Such symbols have been defined for batteries, biomatter/organic material, glass, metals, paper, and plastics.[citation needed]
vii. Group G - Storage and Hazardous Groups G Occupancies shall include: Division 1 - Storage and handling of hazardous and highly flammable material. Division 2 - Storage and handling of flammable materials, dry cleaning plants using flammable liquids; paint stores with bulk handling, paint shops and spray painting rooms. Division 3 - Wood working establishments, planning mills and box factories, shops, factories where loose combustible fibers or dust are manufactured, processed or generated; warehouses where highly combustible materials is stored.

Recycling codes are used to identify the material from which an item is made, to facilitate easier recycling or other reprocessing. Such symbols have been defined for batteries, biomatter/organic material, glass, metals, paper, and plastics.[citation needed]
f. Initially determine building bulk by computing for the maximum allowable Gross Floor Area (GFA) for the building/structure using the formula: Gross Floor Area (GFA) of the building/structure (in square meters) = Total Lot Area (TLA) X Recommended Floor to Lot Area Ratio (FLAR)* NOTE: * Refer to Table VII.G.1. of this Guideline (Recommended FLAR Designations/Rights) and/or consult existing/applicable and duly-approved zoning ordinances. i. GROSS FLOOR AREA (GFA) - the total floor space within the perimeter of the permanent external building walls (inclusive of main and auxiliary buildings) such as office areas, residential areas, corridors, lobbies and mezzanine level/s. The GFA shall also include building projections which may serve as floors or platforms that are directly connected to/integrated with areas within the building/structure, e.g., balconies (Refer to Section 1004 of Rule X of this IRR) and the GFA excludes the following: (a) Covered areas used for parking and driveways, services and utilities; (b) Vertical penetrations in parking floors where no residential or office units are present; and (c) Uncovered areas for helipads, air-conditioning cooling towers or air-conditioning condensing unit (ACCU) balconies, overhead water tanks, roof decks, laundry areas and cages, wading or swimming pools, whirlpools or jacuzzis, terraces, gardens, courts or plazas, balconies exceeding 10.00 sq. meters, fire escape

Recycling codes are used to identify the material from which an item is made, to facilitate easier recycling or other reprocessing. Such symbols have been defined for batteries, biomatter/organic material, glass, metals, paper, and plastics.[citation needed]
structures and the like. g. Determine the Allowable Maximum Total Gross Floor Area (TGFA) to approximate building volume using the formula hereafter. In particular, determine the minimum required off-street cum on-site parking provisions, driveways and related access systems, particularly for new developments and/or re-developments whereby provisions of this Guideline shall apply
Building materials used in the construction industry to create buildings and structures. These categories of materials and products are used by American architects and construction project managers to specify the materials and methods used for building projects. Catalogs distributed by architectural product suppliers are typically organized into these groups. Material (articles) refer to: Category

Compressed earth block, mud brick, rammed earth

Category:Appropriate technology

Concrete

Category:Concrete Category:Vertical transportation devices

Conveying systems

Elevator or "lift" Escalator Category:Composite materials Category:Thermal protection Category:Moisture protection Category:Doors Stile and rail, raised panel, wood clad Access, sliding glass doors, tambour Folding doors, garage door, storefront

Composites Thermal protection Moisture protection Doors

Recycling codes are used to identify the material from which an item is made, to facilitate easier recycling or other reprocessing. Such symbols have been defined for batteries, biomatter/organic material, glass, metals, paper, and plastics.[citation needed]

Door hardware Category:Electrical systems Category:Finishes also "gyp-board" or "drywall" Category:Tiles Category:Roofs Category:Ceilings Category:Floors Category:Walls House painting

Electrical systems and equipment Surface finishing

Plaster & gypsum board Cement render Ceramic tile, quarry tile, pavers, mosaic Dropped ceiling, coffered ceiling Flooring - wide plank, terrazzo, carpet Wall covering, wallpaper, acoustic Paint, wood stain, faux finishing Staff

Fire suppression equipment Furnishings HVAC (Heating, ventilation and air conditioning) Masonry, mortar (masonry), grout

Category:Fire suppression Category:Furniture Category:HVAC Category:Masonry

Metals

Adobe, brick, glass brick, terra cotta Artificial stone Cinder block or concrete block Stone dry stacked or mortar set Urbanite, broken-up concrete

Category:Bricks also: "Concrete Masonry Units" (CMU)

Category:Stone

Category:Metals Structural steel: I-beam & column Rebar Wire rope and cables Metal joist, decking, framing, trusses

Recycling codes are used to identify the material from which an item is made, to facilitate easier recycling or other reprocessing. Such symbols have been defined for batteries, biomatter/organic material, glass, metals, paper, and plastics.[citation needed]

Metal fabrications

Stairway, ladder, railing, grating, Strut channel

Decorative metal Category:Doors Category:Plastics Category:Plumbing Category:Building safety Category:Security Category:Architectural specialties Category:Telecommunications Category:Wood Category:woodworking see also: List of woods

"Openings" include Doors & Windows Plastics Plumbing fixtures and equipment Building safety Security systems Specialties Telecommunications equipment Wood, carpentry Rough carpentry (unfinished)

Heavy timbers, log home, post and beam Engineered wood, dimensional lumber

Stud, joist, rafter Treated lumber & wood decking

Sheathing, subflooring, panelling

Plywood, shiplap, tongue and groove

Oriented strand board

Parallel strand lumber or "para-lam" Glue-laminate or "glue-lam"

Finish carpentry or "architectural woodwork"

Veneer, plastic laminate, wood panel

Recycling codes are used to identify the material from which an item is made, to facilitate easier recycling or other reprocessing. Such symbols have been defined for batteries, biomatter/organic material, glass, metals, paper, and plastics.[citation needed]

"Case goods"

Millwork, bookcase, cabinets

Ornamental woodwork Trim, molding or "moulding"

Windows

Chair rail, baseboard, casing, sill Category:Windows

Casement, double hung, bay window Curtainwall, skylight, dormer

[edit]See

also

The Construction Specifications Institute maintains the following industry standards:

MasterFormat -- 50 standard divisions of building materials - 2004 edition (current in 2009) 16 Divisions -- Original 16 divisions of building materials List of commercially available roofing material