Party Transformation

In West and Eastern Europe

Andr Krouwel SSEES UCL, London 02-01-2010

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Too many party types!

Many party types exist in the literature, but no general theory of party transformation. Most parties in the West are older than the majority of the electorate! Thus: political scientists observed the same parties for decades, re-naming them each time they transform. Each author focuses on specific stage of characteristic: proliferation of models. Basically 5 models + sequentially linked
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Clusters of party models

Elite, caucus and cadre parties
Patronage and charismatic parties (Weber) Parties of personage (Neumann) Caucus (Ostrogorski) Parties of parliamentary origin (Duverger) Parties of individual representation (Neumann, Kirchheimer) Party of notables (Weber, Neumann, Seiler) Elite parties (Beyme) Clientelistic parties (Rueschemeyer et al.) Modern cadre party (Koole) Local cadre party (Epstein) Governing caucus (Pomper)

Mass-parties
Mass party (Michels, Duverger, Beer) Class-mass and denominational mass parties (Kirchheimer) Weltanschauung and Glaubens party (Weber) Parties of external origin, branch-based mass parties, cell-based devotee parties (Duverger) Parties of democratic or total integration, party of principle (Neumann) Amateur and party democracy model (Wright) Militants party (Seiler) Mass-bureaucratic party (Panebianco) Programmatic party (Neumann, Wolinetz) Fundamentalist parties (Gunther and Diamond) Cause advocate party (Pomper)

Catch-all, electoralist parties

Cartel parties

Business-firm parties

Catch-all parties (Kirchheimer) Professional-electoral parties (Panebianco) Stratarchy (Eldersveld) Rational- efficient, professional machine model (Wright, Schumpeter, Downs, Pomper) Party machine (Seiler) Multi-policy party (Downs, Mintzel)

Party-cartel (Kirchheimer) Cartel-party (Katz and Mair)

Business-firm (Hopkin and Paolucci) Franchise Organisations (Carty) Parties of professional politicians (Beyme) Entrepreneurial parties (Krouwel)

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What is wrong with party models?

Too uni-dimensional: one aspect is seen as characteristic without justification. Most models focus on ideology and social background of membership (or elite). Others focus on the organisational structure or functions of political parties. Low level of conceptual and terminological clarity and precision. No empirical indicators to assess whether parties have transformed into another type.
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4 dimensions of party transformation

1. Genetic origin 2. Electoral dimension Electoral appeal and social support Social basis and type of elite recruitment 3. Ideology (goals and programmes) Basis for political competition Extent of competition 4. Organisation Relation between PoG + PCO + PPO (PPG/PIG) Resources Campaigning
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Genetic origin

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Electoral dimension

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Ideological dimension

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Organisational dimension

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Genetic origin
Elite caucus or cadre party
1860-1920

Mass party

Catch-all, electoralist party

1950-present

Cartel party

Business-firm

1880-1950 Extraparliamentary origin:

1950-present

1990-present

Parliamentary origin

Social groups (class, religion, ethnicity)

Originates from mass parties, linking or merging themselves with interest groups

Fusion of parliamentary parties and the state apparatus (and interest groups)

Originates from the privateinitiative of political entrepreneurs

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Origin in West: social cleavages

Lipset and Rokkan: the historicity of party alternatives is of crucial importance () in the study of differences and similarities across nations. Politics of European states are the products of three revolutions: Reformation and Counter-Reformation French Revolution Industrial Revolution Revolutions struck countries at different times and different conditions
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Revolutions and social cleavages

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Revolutions, issues and cleavages

Critical juncture Reformation: the 1648 settlement National revolution Industrial revolution Critical issue
Consolidation of territorial state

Resultant cleavage
1. Periphery versus statebuilding centre

Control over mass education Protection versus modernisation and free enterprise versus workers rights

2.Church versus secular state 3. Rural/agricultural versus urban/industrial interests 4. Workers versus capital owners 13

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Social cleavages
If only one cleavage is salient the normal or residual social class one then this acts as the fundamentally structuring element. Other cleavages might cut across class divisions: often this is religion, particularly where religious behaviour is closely associated with conservative orientations, whatever social class one belongs to. Lower-level cleavages can be nested in higher order cleavages: the centre-periphery cleavage where minority nations resist the construction of a state might strengthen divisions based on social class; especially if members of a minority community are also in an unfavourable socioeconomic position. Cleavages can be structuring, reinforcing or cross-cutting.
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Social cleavages Southern Europe

Experience of democratic government short-lived. Long tradition of mass exclusion (unions, peasant and student organisations and left wing parties banned) No real popular representation in parliament (no competitive elections + no real opposition parties). Authoritarian regimes established under conditions of economic and political crisis. Class domination in state (army, bureaucracy) and church. Not fascist, yet similar in rhetoric and outlook: extreme nationalism and conservatism. Anti-socialist/anti-communist: governed in the interests of industrialists, large landowners and bourgeoisie.
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Social cleavages Southern Europe

Prolonged state formation: Essentially longwave counter-revolutionary phenomenon (ODonnell). Weak social cleavage articulation due to conflict about regime formation: weak civil society and weak/fragmented institutions to resist regime. Regime associated with single charismatic figure, supported by the Church. Religious cleavage: large influence of Catholic church.
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Social cleavages Southern Europe

Relative international isolation as result of autarkic economic policies: missing out on European economic miracle in 1960s. Weak agricultural economies (large primary, small secondary sector): mass mobilisation of workers problematic. Dualist socio-economics: many modern features alongside traditional elements (religion, emancipation) Weak articulation on new cleavages: postmaterialism
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Party formation Southern Europe

Rapid transition movement. Newly established liberal-democratic order imposed from above. Resistance by upper-class to include lower class into the political system. Party formation from above.

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Social cleavages in ECE

Weak social cleavage articulation: national revolution not completed and economic development problematic (oligarchs/moguls &
corruption).

Nationalism remains overriding social cleavage. State-formation and economic cleavages have become interconnected:
Pro-market libertarians versus anti-market authoritarians (Kitschelt 1992). GAL (Green-Alternative-Libertarian) versus TAN (Traditionalist-Authoritarian-Nationalist)
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On the origin of parties in ECE

Parties emerge within parliamentary system, rather than from society (Innes, 2001). Parties of winners and losers (black & white divide in revolution) (Kitschelt, 1999): From communist nomenclature:
Successor parties (cadre or mass?) Parties of power (business-firms!)

From society: (formerly) politically excluded:

Oppositional blocks/forums (catch-all?) Discontent/radical nationalist parties Intellectuals/dissidents (cadre parties)

From business (and state):

Business moguls/ex-nomenclature Populist entrepreneurs
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Origin new parties WE

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Ideological dimension
Elite caucus or cadre party Period
Basis for party competition

Mass party

Catch-all, electoralist party 1950-present

Cartel party

Businessfirm 1990-present Issues and personalities (as a political product)

1860-1920 Traditional status of individual candidates

1880-1950 Ideology and representation of a social group

1950-present

Maintenance of The quality of accrued power management of by sharing the public sectors executive office Diffusion of political disagreement. 'Conflicts' become symbolic: artificial competition on issues.

Extent of party competition

Very limited on the basis of personal status and wealth

Polarised and ideological competition (centrifugal competition)

Centripetal competition on technicalities

Permanent struggle for mediaattention

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10

green

8
radical-left social democratic
social democratic liberal

6
Tan/Gal

regionalist/ethnic

liberal
centrist

regionalist/ethnic

agrarian
christian democratic conservative

4
radical-left

no family

conservative christian democratic

agrarian

no family

confessional

populist-right
populist-right confessional

East

West

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Left/Right

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Netherlands 2006

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Belgium 2007

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Portugal 2009

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Israel 2009

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Israel 2009

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Israel 2009

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Ideology party families in Europe

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Europarties divided

Left pro EU

Right pro EU

Right anti EU Left anti EU

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Electoral dimension
Elite caucus or cadre party Period 1860-1920 Mass party Catch-all, electoralist party 1950-present Cartel party Businessfirm 1990-present 1880-1950 Appeal to specific social, religious or ethnic group on the basis of social cleavages such as class and religion 1950-present regular clintle that provides support in exchange for favourable policies Recruitment mainly from within the state structures (civil servants)

Electoral appeal and social support

Limited electorate of upper social strata via personal contacts

Appeal to broad middle class, beyond core group of support

electoral market with a high level of volatility. Voters as consumers.

Social basis and type of elite recruitment

Selfrecruitment(p rivate initiative from upper class)

Cleavage based recruitment based on ideological commitment

External recruitment from various interest groups

Self recruitment, private initiative

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Electoral alignments ECE

Weak identities and socio-economic determination (widespread poverty), yet some structure discernible: Nationalists: country-side, elderly, statedependent and lower-educated. Opposition: urban, younger and middle-age generations, highly educated professionals and experts.

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Organisational dimension
Elite/cadre party
Period
Importance
membership organisation (party on the ground) Position of party in central office

Mass party
1880-1950
Voluntary membership organisation is the core of the party Symbiosis between party in central office and party on the ground

Catch-all party
1950-present
Marginalisation of members

Cartel party
1950-present
Members as a pool for recruitment of political personnel

Business-firm
1990-present

1860-1920
Non-existent or minimal Minimal. Party in central office subordinate to party in public office.

Minimal and irrelevant

Subordinate to party in public office

Symbiosis between party in central office and party in public office Concentration of power at the parliamentary party leadership and government (party in public office)

Minimal and irrelevant

Position of the party in public office

Core of the party organisation.

Subject to the extraparliamentary leadership

Concentration of power and resources at the parliamentary party group

High level of autonomy for individual political entrepreneurs in the party to 'promote' themselves Corporate and social interests and commercial activities

Resource structure

Personal wealth

Membership contributions, ancillary organisations and party press

Interest groups and state subsidies

State subsidies

Type of political campaigning

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Labour-intensive Personal contacts mass Universiteit amsterdammobilisation

Professionalisation and more capital intensive organisation

Professional permanent organisation

Spindocters, marketing36 techniques, 'contracting-out'.

Political Campaign and the Media

Mass-media = non-party channels of communication between people and representatives. Increasing influence of commercial media. More focus on leadership (+ horse-race) less on content/policies. More capital-intensive campaigns. More support of specific groups e.g. multinationals. Internal party competition next to inter-party competition. Spindoctors, media cycles and professional campaigning.
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Development of campaigning
Cadre/Mass (1850-1960) Campaign organization Preparation Feedback Local and decentralized Short-term + ad hoc Catch-all (1960-1990) National + more professional Long campaign Businessfirm (1990- ) National + decentralized operations Permanent campaign Constant polling of opinion, focus groups, etc. Media-cycle, mediated website, e-mail

Local canvassing & party Opinion polls, surveys meetings Party Media, Local Press Television strategy & direct Mail & radio broadcast Local meetings News management, press conferences

Media

Campaign events

Extension of news management, policy development via media High cost for consultants and commercial campaign Fragmented electorate as target groups 38

Costs Electorate

Low budget

Moderate Social and partisan dealignment

Stable social and partisan alignment vrije Universiteit amsterdam

Organisational structures ECE parties

Low membership-parties. Highly centralised decision-making Clientelistic clan structures & patronage. Party in public office (president and government) dominate party. Resources from the state and the state-controlled or state-regulated economic activities. Campaigning through state-controlled media. Party-states and state-parties!

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Are parties in East and West similar?

Parties are
unrepresentative and undemocratic not socially rooted (membership) personalist/clientlistic Volatile (constant changing party landscape) not institutionalised/dependent on the state Weak inter-party relations (party system)

Party models (implicit) in mind of party assistance similar to observers of advanced democracies. West is democratic (loser's consent) and facing different structural constraints than in post-authoritarian systems. Elections and parties do not automatically constitute democracy!
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