Endocrine: Hormonal control: 1. Endocrine target tissues through blood 2.

. Paracrine: acts on adjacent cells or diffuse to nearby target cell 3. autocrine acts on self, regulates own cell activity 3 compounds of hormones 1. steroids 2. small peptides, polypeptides, and proteins. Small peptides dissolve readily in blood and donot require a special transport protein. Polypeptides and proteins require a special transport protein 3. amino acids and arachidonic acid analogs norepinepherine, epinephrine, tryrosine derivatives 2 groups of hormone receptors: 1. Cell Surface Receptors 2. intracellular receptors Pituitary Gland/Hypophysis - pea sized compound that weighs .5g in males and 1.5 g in women who have given multiple births - base of brain, lies in a saddle-shaped depression of the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica - Infundibulum a short stalk that connects the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) the glandular epithelial tissue Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) neural secretory tissue Blood Supply of pituitary gland Superior hypophysial arteries supply the pars tuberalis, median eminence and infundibulum Inferior hypophysial arteries supply the pars nervosa (on the posterior side) Hypothalamohypophyseal portal system provides the crucial link between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. hypophyseal portal veins run along the pars tuberalis and give rise to a second fenestrated sinusoidal capillary network. This system of vessels carries the neuroendocrine secretions of hypothalamic nerves from their sites of release in the median eminence and infudibulum directly to the cells of the pars distalis Nerve Supply The nerves that enter the infundibulum and pars nervosa from the hypothalamic nuclei are components of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Nerves that enter the anterior lone of the pituitary gland are postsynaptic fibers of the autonomic nervous system and have vasomotor

function Structure and Function of the Pituitary Gland (Adenohypophhysis) - Cells are organized in clumps and cords, separated by fenestrated sinusoidal capillaries of relatively large diameter - Respond to signals from the hypothalamus and synthesize and secrete hormones (4) o ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH. These are all Tropic hormones, the regulate the activity of cells in other endocrine glands throughout the body. o Growth Hormone and Prolactin are the non-tropic hormones Pars Distalis Basophiles (10%), Acidophils (40%), Chromophobes (50%) In Pars Distalis: - Somotaotropes (GH cells) produce growth hormone (acidophils). GH is regulated by Growth hormone releaseing hormone (GHRH) from the hypothalamus and Somatostatin which inhibits GH release from the somatotropes - Lactotropes Produce Prolactin (acidophil). Under inhibnitory control by dopamine produced by the hypothalamus. Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) and Vasoactive inhibitory peptide (VIP) are known to stimulate sythensis and secretion of PRL - Corticotropes (ACTH) Basophils. Maintains structure and stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids and gonadocorticoids by the zona fasciculate and zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex. Regulated by corticostropin releasing hormone (CRH) made in the buypothalamus - Gonadotropes (FSH & LH) Basophil Cell. Release is regulated by gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) made by the hypothalamus. Are involved in male and female reproduction - Thyrotropes (TSH) Produce Thyroid Stimulating Hormone, which acts on follicular cells of the thyroid to stimulate production of thyroglobulin and thyroid hormones. (Basophils). Is under the hypothalamus conrol of thyrotropin releasing hormone Pars Tuberalis highly vascular region containing veins of the hypothalamohypophyseal system. Releases gonadotropins (FSH and LH) Posterior Lobe of the pituitary Gland (Neurohypophysis) - extension of the CNS that stores and releases secretory products from the hypothalamus - consists of the pars nervosa and the infundibulum that connects it to the hypothalamus. Contains nonmyelinated axons and their nerve endings of 100,000 neuroscretory neurons whose bodies lie in the supraoptic nuclei and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus. - Axons form the hypothalamohypophyseal tract - Herring bodies accumulations that dilate portions of the axon near the terminals, called herring bodies in pars nervosa - The membrane bound neurosecretory vesicles that aggregate to form herring bodies contain either oxytocin or antidiuretic hormone ADH aka vasopressin. - ADH regulation of water homeostasis and osmolarity of body fluids. Increases permeability for water - Oxytocin contracts smooth muscle of the uterus and myoepithelial cells of the breast,

promoter of smooth muscle contraction Pars Intermedia (pituitary gland) -cystic cavities -basophils -chromophobes Hypothalamus located at middle base of the brain, third ventricle Pineal Gland regulates daily body rhythm. - 2 tuypes of parenchymal cells o Pinealocytes o Intesrstitial Glial Cells like astroctyes Also contains calcified concretsions called corpora arenacea aka: brain sand - excrete melatonin. Pineal activity increases during darkness and decreases during light, this is because during the day light impulses inhibit the production of melatonin. Thyroid Gland located in the anteriror neck region - 2 lateral lobes connected by an isthmus which is a thin band of thyroid tissue - thyroid follicles constitute the functional units of the gland. Follicle walls are formed by simple cuboildal or low columnar epithelium - Colloid is in the follicles, it is a gell like mass - Follicular epithelium contain 2 types of cells o Folicular cells (principal cells) responsible for production of the thyroid hormones T4 & T3 o Parafollicular Cells (C Cells) located in the periphery of the follicular epithelium and lie within the follicle basal lamina. Thhey secretee calcitonin, which regulates calcium metabolism Thyroid Gland produces 3 hormones, each of which is essential for metabolism and homeostasis 1. T4 & T3 synthesized and secreted by follicular cells. These regulate basal metabolism and heat production, also influence body growth and development. Secretion of thes e hormones is regulated by TSH released from the anterior lobe of the pitutitary gland 2. Calcitonin sysnthesized by parafollicular cells (C-Cells) is an antagonist to parathyroid hormone (PTH). Calcitonin lowers blood calcium levels by suppressing resorptive action of osteoclast. The principal component of colloid is thyroglobulin, an inactive storage form of thyroid hormones. This is not a hormone, it is an inactive storage from of thyroid hormones Parathyroid small endocrine glands closely associated with the thyroid. - Arranged in 2 pairs the superior and inferior parathyroid glands. Located in the connective tissue on the posterior surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland. - Receive blood from inferior thyroid arteries or from anastomoses between the superior and inferior thyroid arteries

2 types of cells: 1. Principle Chief Cells responsible for regulating the synthesis, storage, and secretion of large amounts of PTH 2. Oxyphil Cells Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) regulation of calcium and phosphate levels. Urinary phosphate excretion is increased. Calcium to the blood is increased. PTH is slow while Calcitonin is rapid Adrenal Glands secrete steroids hormones as well as catecholamines - covered with a thick connective tissue capsule - cortex is the steroid secreting portion, likes beneath the capsule 90% of gland by weight - Medulla is the catecholamine secreting portion, it lies deep to the cortex and froms the center of the gland Blood Supply Adrenal glands supplied by the superior, middle, and inferior suprarenal arteries - capsulary capillaries supply the capsule - fenestrated cortical sinusoidal capillaries supply the cortex and then drain into the fenestrated meduallary capillary sinusoids - medullary arterioles traverse the cortex, tand bring arterial blood to the medularry capiallary sinusoids The medualla has dual blood supply from the arterial blood from the medulalary areterioles and venous blood from the cortical sinusoidal capillaries. The venules that arise from the cortical and medullary sinusoids drain into the small adrenomedullary collecting veins that join to from the large cengtral adrenomedullary vein, which then drains directly into the inferior vena cava on the right side and into the left renal vein on the left side. Cells of Adrenal Medulla: Cromaffin cells, located in adrenal medulla are innervated by presynaptic sympathetic neurons - medulla composed of a parenchyma of large, pale staining epitheloid cells called chromaffin cells (medullary cells) - these are modified neurons, when impulses carried by sympathetic fibers reach the catecholamine secreting chromaffin cells, they release their secretory product - lack axonal process - 2 populatipons o 1. Contain only large dense core vesicles, these cells secrete norepinepherine o 2. Contains vesicles that are smaller, more homogenous and less dense these cells secrete epinephrine o also contain chomogranis in vesicles to add weight and density in turn helping to bind low molecular weight catecholamines Glucocortecoids secreted in the adrenal cortex induce the conversion of norep to epi in chromaffin cells

Zones of Adrenal Cortex (3) 1. zona glomerulosa outer narrow zone abundant smooth ER, multiple golgi complexes, large mitochondria , free ribosomes, some RER. Secretes Aldosterone (mineralocorticoids). Renin Angiotensin system provides feedback for the zona glomerulosa 2. zona fasciculate thick middle zone large polyhedral cells. Straight long cords. Highly developed SER and mitochondria. Secretes Gluoccorticoid, regulate glucogenesis. Cortisol release, which increases metabolic availability of glucose and fatty acids for immediate energy. ACTH regulates secretion of the zona fasciulata, which is necessary for cell growth and maintenance and also stimulates steroid synthesis and increases blood flow thorugh the adrenal gland. CRH from hypothal. regulates ACTH, androgen 3. zona reticularis innermost zone. Light and Dark Cells are seen. Secrete weak androgens DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) neurophysin carrier protein of oxytocin and vasopressin pituicytes supporting cells, associated to fenestrated capillaries