The deslgn ls the structure of uny sclentlflc work.

It glves dlrectlon und systemutlzes

the reseurch.
The method you choose wlll uffect your results und how you conclude the flndlngs. Most
sclentlsts ure lnterested ln gettlng relluble observutlons thut cun help the understundlng of u
phenomenon.
There ure two muln upprouches to u reseurch problem:
4uuntltutlve Reseurch
4uulltutlve Reseurch
Whut ure the dlfference between 4uulltutlve und 4uuntltutlve Reseurch?
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4uuntltutlve reseurch deslgn ls the stundurd experlmentul method of most sclentlflc dlsclpllnes.
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deslgn.html#lxzz1uGz6NuoD
4uulltutlve reseurch deslgn ls u reseurch method used extenslvely by sclentlsts und reseurchers
studylng humun behuvlor und hublts.
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DIFFERENT RESEARCH METHODS
There ure vurlous deslgns whlch ure used ln reseurch, ull wlth speclflc udvuntuges und
dlsudvuntuges. Whlch one the sclentlst uses, depends on the ulms of the study und the
nuture of the phenomenon:
Descriptive Designs
Alm: Observe und Descrlbe
Descrlptlve Reseurch
&use Study
Nuturullstlc Observutlon
Survey (The 4uestlonnulre ls ulso u technlque used ln muny types of reseurch deslgns)
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Descrlptlve reseurch deslgn ls u sclentlflc method whlch lnvolves observlng und descrlblng the
behuvlor of u sub|ect wlthout lnfluenclng lt ln uny wuy.
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deslgn.html#lxzz1uGyO2NlT
Muny sclentlflc dlsclpllnes, especlully soclul sclence und psychology, use thls method to
obtuln u generul overvlew of the sub|ect.
Some sub|ects cunnot be observed ln uny other wuy; for exumple, u soclul cuse study of un
lndlvlduul sub|ect ls u descrlptlve reseurch deslgn und ullows observutlon wlthout uffectlng
normul behuvlor.
It ls ulso useful where lt ls not posslble to test und meusure the lurge number of sumples
needed for more quuntltutlve types of experlmentutlon.
These types of experlments ure often used by unthropologlsts, psychologlsts und soclul
sclentlsts to observe nuturul behuvlors wlthout uffectlng them ln uny wuy. It ls ulso used by
murket reseurchers to |udge the hublts of customers, or by compunles wlshlng to |udge the
morule of stuff.
The results from u descrlptlve reseurch cun ln no wuy be used us u deflnltlve unswer or to
dlsprove u hypothesls but, lf the llmltutlons ure understood, they cun stlll be u useful tool ln
muny ureus of sclentlflc reseurch.
ADVANTAGES
The sub|ect ls belng observed ln u completely nuturul und unchunged nuturul envlronment.
A good exumple of thls would be un unthropologlst who wunted to study u trlbe wlthout
uffectlng thelr normul behuvlor ln uny wuy. True experlments, whllst glvlng unulyzuble dutu,
often udversely lnfluence the normul behuvlor of the sub|ect.
Descrlptlve reseurch ls often used us u pre-cursor to quuntltutlve reseurch deslgns, the
generul overvlew glvlng some vuluuble polnters us to whut vurlubles ure worth testlng
quuntltutlvely. 4uuntltutlve experlments ure often expenslve und tlme-consumlng so lt ls
often good sense to get un ldeu of whut hypotheses ure worth testlng.
DISADVANTAGES
%ecuuse there ure no vurlubles munlpuluted, there ls no wuy to stutlstlcully unulyze the
results. Muny sclentlsts regurd thls type of study us very unrelluble und unsclentlflc.
In uddltlon, the results of observutlonul studles ure not repeutuble, und so there cun be no
repllcutlon of the experlment und revlewlng of the results.
SUMMARY
Descrlptlve reseurch deslgn ls u vulld method for reseurchlng speclflc sub|ects und us u
precursor to more quuntltutlve studles. Whllst there ure some vulld concerns ubout
the stutlstlcul vulldlty, us long us the llmltutlons ure understood by the reseurcher, thls type
of study ls un lnvuluuble sclentlflc tool.
Whllst the results ure ulwuys open to questlon und to dlfferent lnterpretutlons, there ls no
doubt thut they ure preferuble to performlng no reseurch ut ull.
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deslgn.html#lxzz1uGxfhKdE
The cuse study reseurch deslgn huve evolved over the pust few yeurs us u useful tool for
lnvestlgutlng trends und speclflc sltuutlons ln muny sclentlflc dlsclpllnes.
The cuse study hus been especlully used ln soclul sclence, psychology, unthropology und
ecology.
Thls method of study ls especlully useful for trylng to test theoretlcul models by uslng them
ln reul world sltuutlons. For exumple, lf un unthropologlst were to llve umongst u remote
trlbe, whllst thelr observutlons mlght produce no quuntltutlve dutu, they ure stlll useful to
sclence.
WHAT IS A CASE STUDY?
%uslcully, u cuse study ls un ln depth study of u purtlculur sltuutlon ruther thun u sweeplng
stutlstlcul survey. It ls u method used to nurrow down u very broud fleld of reseurch lnto one
euslly reseurchuble toplc.

Whllst lt wlll not unswer u questlon completely, lt wlll glve some lndlcutlons und ullow
further eluborutlon und hypothesls creutlon on u sub|ect.
The cuse study reseurch deslgn ls ulso useful for testlng whether sclentlflc theorles und
models uctuully work ln the reul world. You muy come out wlth u greut computer model for
descrlblng how the ecosystem of u rock pool works but lt ls only by trylng lt out on u reul llfe
pool thut you cun see lf lt ls u reullstlc slmulutlon.
For psychologlsts, unthropologlsts und soclul sclentlsts they huve been regurded us
u vulld method of reseurch for muny yeurs. Sclentlsts ure sometlmes gullty of becomlng
bogged down ln the generul plcture und lt ls sometlmes lmportunt to understund speclflc
cuses und ensure u more hollstlc upprouch to reseurch.
H.M.: An exumple of u study uslng the cuse study reseurch deslgn.
THE ARGUMENT FOR AND AGAINST THE CASE STUDY
RESEARCH DESIGN
Some urgue thut becuuse u cuse study ls such u nurrow fleld thut lts results cunnot be
extrupoluted to flt un entlre questlon und thut they show only one nurrow exumple. On the
other hund, lt ls urgued thut u cuse study provldes more reullstlc responses thun u purely
stutlstlcul survey.
The truth probubly lles between the two und lt ls probubly best to try und synerglze the two
upprouches. It ls vulld to conduct cuse studles but they should be tled ln wlth more generul
stutlstlcul processes.
For exumple, u stutlstlcul survey mlght show how much tlme people spend tulklng on moblle
phones, but lt ls cuse studles of u nurrow group thut wlll determlne why thls ls so.
The other muln thlng to remember durlng cuse studles ls thelr flexlblllty. Whllst u pure
sclentlst ls trylng to prove or dlsprove u hypothesls, u cuse study mlght lntroduce new und
unexpected results durlng lts course, und leud to reseurch tuklng new dlrectlons.
The urgument between cuse study und stutlstlcul method ulso uppeurs to be one of scule.
Whllst muny physlcul sclentlsts uvold cuse studles, for psychology, unthropology und
ecology they ure un essentlul tool. It ls lmportunt to ensure thut you reullze thut u cuse study
cunnot be generullzed to flt u whole populutlon or ecosystem.
Flnully, one perlpherul polnt ls thut, when lnformlng others of your results, cuse studles
muke more lnterestlng toplcs thun purely stutlstlcul surveys, somethlng thut hus been
reullzed by teuchers und muguzlne edltors for muny yeurs. The generul publlc hus llttle
lnterest ln puges of stutlstlcul culculutlons but some well pluced cuse studles cun huve u
strong lmpuct.
HOW TO DESIGN AND CONDUCT A CASE STUDY
The udvuntuge of the cuse study reseurch deslgn ls thut you cun focus on speclflc und
lnterestlng cuses. Thls muy be un uttempt to test u theory wlth u typlcul cuse or lt cun be u
speclflc toplc thut ls of lnterest. Reseurch should be thorough und note tuklng should be
metlculous und systemutlc.
The flrst foundutlon of the cuse study ls the sub|ect und relevunce. In u cuse study, you ure
dellberutely trylng to lsolute u smull study group, one lndlvlduul cuse or one purtlculur
populutlon.
For exumple, stutlstlcul unulysls muy huve shown thut blrthrutes ln Afrlcun countrles ure
lncreuslng. A cuse study on one or two speclflc countrles becomes u powerful und focused
tool for determlnlng the soclul und economlc pressures drlvlng thls.
In the deslgn of u cuse study, lt ls lmportunt to plun und deslgn how you ure golng to
uddress the study und muke sure thut ull collected dutu ls relevunt. Unllke u sclentlflc report,
there ls no strlct set of rules so the most lmportunt purt ls muklng sure thut the study ls
focused und conclse; otherwlse you wlll end up huvlng to wude through u lot of lrrelevunt
lnformutlon.
It ls best lf you muke yourself u short llst of 4 or 5 bullet polnts thut you ure golng to try und
uddress durlng the study. If you muke sure thut ull reseurch refers buck to these then you
wlll not be fur wrong.
Wlth u cuse study, even more thun u questlonnulre or survey, lt ls lmportunt to be pusslve ln
your reseurch. You ure much more of un observer thun un experlmenter und you must
remember thut, even ln u multl-sub|ect cuse, euch cuse must be treuted lndlvlduully und then
cross cuse concluslons cun be druwn.
HOW TO ANALYZE THE RESULTS
Anulyzlng results for u cuse study tends to be more oplnlon bused thun stutlstlcul methods.
The usuul ldeu ls to try und collute your dutu lnto u munugeuble form und construct u
nurrutlve uround lt.
Use exumples ln your nurrutlve whllst keeplng thlngs conclse und lnterestlng. It ls useful to
show some numerlcul dutu but remember thut you ure only trylng to |udge trends und not
unulyze every lust plece of dutu. &onstuntly refer buck to your bullet polnts so thut you do
not lose focus.
It ls ulwuys u good ldeu to ussume thut u person reudlng your reseurch muy not possess u lot
of knowledge of the sub|ect so try to wrlte uccordlngly.
In uddltlon, unllke u sclentlflc study whlch deuls wlth fucts, u cuse study ls bused on oplnlon
und ls very much deslgned to provoke reusoned debute. There reully ls no rlght or wrong
unswer ln u cuse study.
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deslgn.html#lxzz1uGxvu9OV
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
In muny sclentlflc dlsclpllnes, nuturullstlc observutlon ls u useful tool for expundlng
knowledge ubout u speclflc phenomenon or specles.
In flelds such us unthropology, behuvlorul blology und ecology, wutchlng u person or
orgunlsm ln u nuturul envlronment ls essentlul.
Most nuturullstlc observutlon ls unobtruslve, such us u reseurcher settlng up u cumeru to fllm
the behuvlor of u budger underground. Most nuture documenturles ure exumples of
nuturullstlc observutlonul study, where duys, weeks or even yeurs of fllm ure unulyzed und
edlted, to glve un overvlew of the llfe cycle of the orgunlsm.
There ls often llttle uttempt ut unulysls, quuntltutlve or quulltutlve, but the observutlonul
study does uncover unknown phenomenu und behuvlors.
Obtruslve nuturullstlc observutlonul study ls often used ln unthropology, where u reseurcher
llves wlth u remote trlbe for u perlod of tlme und records thelr behuvlor. %y llvlng there, she
ls lnfluenclng thelr soclul lnteructlons und hublts, but cun stlll muke some excellent
observutlons.
Often, unthropologlsts wlll udopt the llfestyle of u purtlculur group of people, ln un uttempt to
understund why they huve certuln customs und bellefs.
In technlcul terms, lt would be dlfflcult to follow people wlthout dlscovery, und lt would ulso
be unethlcul to observe wlthout consent, so obtruslve nuturullstlc observutlon ls the only
method thut cun be used wlth humun sub|ects.
Muny of the producers of the recent glut of reullty shows try to clulm thut thelr shows ure
psychologlcul experlments, bused uround observutlonul study. Thls ls stretchlng the ldeu too
fur, us there ure very few people who would not chunge thelr behuvlor when they ure uwure
thut u cumeru ls wutchlng.
In these cuses, lt ls dlfflcult to muke uny reullstlc und vulld observutlons ubout thelr llfestyle.
Most crltlclsms of nuturullstlc observutlon ure bused uround thls prlnclple, und un
unthropologlst or soclul sclentlst hus to ensure thut they lntervene us llttle us posslble
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observutlon.html#lxzz1uGx%yYME
SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN
The survey reseurch deslgn ls often used becuuse of the low cost und eusy uccesslble
lnformutlon.
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reseurch-deslgn.html#lxzz1uGx0TPPt

INTRODUCTION
&onductlng uccurute und meunlngful surveys ls one of the most lmportunt fucets of murket
reseurch ln the consumer drlven 21st century.

%uslnesses, governments und medlu spend bllllons of dollurs on flndlng out whut people
thlnk und feel.
Accurute reseurch cun generute vust umounts of revenue; bud or lnuccurute reseurch cun
cost mllllons, or even brlng down governments.
The survey reseurch deslgn ls u very vuluuble tool for ussesslng oplnlons und trends. Even
on u smull scule, such us locul government or smull buslnesses, |udglng oplnlon wlth
curefully deslgned surveys cun drumutlcully chunge strutegles.
Televlslon chut-shows und newspupers ure usuully full of fucts und flgures gleuned from
surveys but often no lnformutlon ls glven us to where thls lnformutlon comes from or whut
klnd of people were usked.
A cursory exumlnutlon of these flgures usuully shows thut the results of these surveys ure
often munlpuluted or curefully slfted to try und reflect dlstort the results to mutch the whlms
of the owners.
%uslnesses ure often gullty of curefully selectlng certuln results to try und portruy
themselves us the unswer to ull needs.
When you declde to enter thls mlnefleld und deslgn u survey, how do you uvold fulllng lnto
the trup of lnuccurucy und blus? How do you ensure thut your survey reseurch deslgn
reflects the vlews of u genulne cross-sectlon of the populutlon?
The slmple unswer ls thut you cunnot; even wlth unllmlted budget, tlme und resources, there
ls no wuy of uchlevlng 100% uccurucy. Oplnlons, on ull levels, ure very fluld und cun
chunge on u dully or even hourly busls.
Desplte thls, surveys ure stlll u powerful tool und cun be un extremely powerful reseurch
tool. As long us you deslgn your survey well und ure prepured to be self-crltlcul, you cun stlll
obtuln un uccurute representutlon of oplnlon.
ESTABLISHING THE AIMS OF YOUR RESEARCH
Thls ls the slngle most lmportunt step of your survey reseurch deslgn und cun muke or breuk
your reseurch; every slngle element of your survey must refer buck to thls deslgn or lt wlll be
futully fluwed.
If your reseurch ls too broud, you wlll huve to usk too muny questlons; too nurrow und you
wlll not be reseurchlng the toplc thoroughly enough.
RESEARCHING AND DETERMINING YOUR SAMPLE
GROUP
Thls ls the next cruclul step ln determlnlng your survey und depends upon muny fuctors.
The flrst ls uccurucy; you wunt to try und lntervlew us broud u buse of people us posslble.
4uuntlty ls not ulwuys the unswer; lf you were reseurchlng u detergent, for exumple, you
would wunt to turget your questlons ut those who uctuully use such products.
For u polltlcul or ethlcul survey, ubout whlch unybody cun huve u vulld oplnlon, you wunt to
try und represent u well bulunced cross sectlon of soclety.
It ls ulwuys worth checklng beforehund whut quuntlty und breudth of response you need to
provlde slgnlflcunt results or your hurd work muy be ln vuln.
%efore you sturt the plunnlng, lt ls lmportunt thut you consult somebody ubout
the stutlstlcul slde of your survey reseurch deslgn. Thls wuy, you know whut number und
type of responses you need to muke lt u vulld survey und prevent lnuccurute results.
METHODOLOGY
How do you muke sure thut your questlonnulre reuches the turget group? There ure muny
methods of reuchlng people but ull huve udvuntuges und dlsudvuntuges.
For u college or unlverslty study lt ls unllkely thut you wlll huve the fucllltles to use lnternet,
e-mull or phone surveylng so we wlll concentrute on only the llkely methods you wlll use.
FACE TO FACE
Thls ls probubly the most trudltlonul method of the survey reseurch deslgn. It cun be very
uccurute. It ullows you to be selectlve ubout to whom you usk questlons und you cun expluln
unythlng thut they do not understund.
In uddltlon, you cun muke u |udgment ubout who you thlnk ls wustlng your tlme or glvlng
stupld unswers.
There ure u few thlngs to be cureful of wlth thls upprouch; flrstly, people cun be reluctunt to
glve up thelr tlme wlthout some form of lncentlve.
Another fuctor to beur ln mlnd ls thut ls dlfflcult to usk personul questlons fuce to fuce
wlthout emburrusslng people. It ls ulso very tlme consumlng und dlfflcult to obtuln u
representutlve sumple.
Flnully, lf you ure golng to be usklng questlons door-to-door, lt ls essentlul to ensure thut
you huve some offlclul ldentlflcutlon to prove who you ure.
MAIL
Thls does not necessurlly meun uslng the postul servlce; puttlng ln the legwork und
dellverlng questlonnulres uround u cumpus or workpluce ls unother method.
Thls ls u good wuy of turgetlng u certuln sectlon of people und ls excellent lf you need to usk
personul or potentlully emburrusslng questlons.
The problems wlth thls method ure thut you cunnot be sure of how muny responses you wlll
recelve untll u long tlme perlod hus pussed.
You must ulso be wury of collectlng personul dutu; most countrles huve luws ubout how
much lnformutlon you cun keep ubout people so lt ls ulwuys wlse to check wlth somebody
more knowledgeuble.
STRUCTURING AND DESIGNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE
The deslgn of your questlonnulre depends very much upon the type of survey und the turget
uudlence.
If you ure usklng questlons fuce to fuce lt ls eusy to expluln lf people ure unsure of u
questlon. On the other hund, lf your questlonnulre ls golng to lnclude muny personul
questlons then mulllng methods ure preferuble (but muy vlolute locul leglslutlon).
You must keep your questlonnulre us short us posslble; people wlll elther refuse to flll ln u
long questlonnulre or get bored hulfwuy through.
If you do huve lots of lnformutlon then lt muy be preferuble to offer multlple-cholce or rutlng
questlons to muke llfe eusler.
COVER NOTE
It ls ulso pollte, especlully wlth mulled questlonnulres, to send u short cover note explulnlng
whut you ure dolng und how the sub|ect should return the surveys to you.
You should lntroduce yourself; expluln why you ure dolng the reseurch, whut wlll huppen
wlth the results und who to contuct lf the sub|ect hus uny querles.
TYPES OF QUESTION
Multlple cholce questlons ullow muny dlfferent unswers, lncludlng dont know, to be
ussessed. The muln strength of thls type of questlon ls thut the form ls eusy to flll ln und the
unswers cun be checked euslly und quuntltutlvely; thls ls useful for lurge sumple groups.
Rutlng, on some scule, ls u trled und tested form of questlon structure. Thls wuy ls very
useful when you ure seeklng to be u llttle more open-ended thun ls posslble wlth multlple
cholce questlons. It ls u llttle hurder to unulyze your responses. It ls lmportunt to muke sure
thut the scule ullows extreme vlews.
4uestlons usklng for oplnlons must be open-ended und ullow the sub|ect to glve thelr own
response; you should uvold entrupment und uppeur to be us neutrul us posslble durlng the
procedure. The mu|or problem ls thut you huve to devlse u numerlcul wuy of unulyzlng und
stutlstlcully evuluutlng the responses whlch cun leud to u blused vlew, lf cure ls not tuken.
These types of questlon should reully be reserved for experlenced reseurchers.
The order ln whlch you usk the questlons cun be lmportunt. Try to sturt off wlth the most
relevunt questlons flrst. Also frlendly und non-threutenlng questlons put the lntervlewee ut
euse. 4uestlons should be slmple und strulghtforwurd uslng everyduy lunguuge ruther thun
perfect grummur.
Try und group questlons ubout slmllur toplcs together; thls mukes lt u lot qulcker for people
to unswer questlons more qulckly und euslly.
Some reseurchers udvocute mlxlng up und rundomlzlng questlons for uccurucy but thls
upprouch tends to be more upproprlute for udvunced murket reseurch. For thls type of
survey the reseurcher ls trylng to dlsgulse the nuture of the reseurch und fllter out
preconceptlons.
It ls ulso u good ldeu to try out u test survey; usk u smull group to glve genulne und honest
feedbuck so thut you cun muke ud|ustments.
&ommon mlstukes when dolng the survey reseurch deslgn.
ANALYZING YOUR RESULTS
Thls ls where the fun sturts und lt wlll depend upon the type of questlons used.
For multlple cholce questlons lt ls u mutter of countlng up the unswers to euch questlon und
uslng stutlstlcs to crunch the numbers und test relevunce.
Rutlng type questlons requlre u llttle more work but they follow broudly the sume prlnclple.
For oplnlon questlons you huve to devlse some wuy of |udglng the responses numerlcully.
The next step ls to devlse whlch stutlstlcul test you ure golng to use und sturt to enter some
numbers to |udge the slgnlflcunce of your dutu.
CONCLUSIONS
Thls ls where you huve to unulyze the results. %e self crltlcul whether your results showed
whut you expected or not. Any survey hus fluws ln lts method so lt ls ulwuys u good ldeu to
show thut you ure uwure of these.
For exumple, u unlverslty represents only u nurrow cross sectlon of soclety; us long us you
ure uwure of thls then your results ure vulld. If your survey guve unexpected results expluln
the posslble reusons for why thls huppened und suggestlons for reflnlng the technlques und
structure of your survey next tlme.
As long us you huve |ustlfled yourself und polnted out your own shortcomlngs then your
results wlll be relevunt und you should recelve u good result.


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