PSYCH LONG TEST REVIEWERS LONG TEST 1 Chapter 1: Introducing the Science of Psychology PSYCHOLOGY Scientific study of behavior

r and mental processes BEHAVIOR Includes all of our outward or overt actions and reactions such as talking, facial expressions and movement MENTAL PROCESSES Refers to all the internal, covert activity of our minds such as thinking, feeling and remembering PSYCHOLOGYS GOALS: 1. DESCRIPTION WHAT IS HAPPENING? It involves observing a behavior and noting everything about it (what is happening, where it happens, to whom it happens, etc.). 2. EXPLANATION WHY IS IT HAPPENING? Finding explanations for behavior is a very important step in the process of forming theories of behavior. A THEORY is a general explanation of a set of observations or facts. The goal of description provides the observations and the goal of explanation helps to build the theory. 3. PREDICTION WHEN WILL IT HAPPEN AGAIN? Determining what will happen in the future is a prediction. 4. CONTROL HOW CAN IT BE CHANGED? Control is the modification of some behavior. Its focus is to change the behavior from an undesirable one to a desirable one. Wilhelm Wundt - Father of Psychology - First who attempted to apply scientific principles to the study of the human mind in his laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879 - Believed that the mind is composed of thoughts, experiences, emotions and other basic elements - OBJECTIVE INTROSPECTION the process of objectively examining and measuring ones own thoughts and mental activities

Edward Titchener - Student of Wundt; Englishman who took Wundts ideas to Cornell University - Believed that every experience could be broken down to individual emotions and sensations o CONCSIOUSNESS the state of being aware of external events - Believed that OBJECIVE INTROSPECTION could be used on thoughts as well as on physical sensations Margaret F. Washburn Titcheners student; first woman to receive a Ph.D. in Psychology; published a book entitled The Animal Mind in 1908 - Coined the term STRUCTURALISM since the focus of study is the structure of the mind William James - Author of Principles of Psychology - More interested in the importance of consciousness to everyday life - Focused on howthe mind allows people to function in the real world howpeople work, play and adapt to their surroundings FUNCTIONALISM Mary Whiton Calkins Student of James but did not receive her Ph.D. from Harvard because she was a woman; established a psychology lab in Wellesley College; her study focused on human memory and the psychology of the self; first female to be he president of the American Psychological Society Francis Cecil Sumner first African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology at Clark University; became the chair of the psychology department at Howard University; assumed by many as the father of African American psychology Max Wertheimer - Believed that perception can only be understood as a whole entire event The whole is greater than the sum of its parts - GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY focuses on the study of whole patterns rather than small pieces of them o Gestalt an organized whole; configuration Sigmund Freud - Austrian neurologist who specialized in disorders of the nervous system

Proposed there was an UNCONSCIOUS MIND into where we push or repress all our threatening urges and desires - Stressed the importance of early childhood experiences, believing that personality was formed in the first six years of life His daughter, ANNA FREUD was one of his followers and she began what became known as EGO MOVEMENT in psychology that produced one of the most famous psychologists in the study of personality development, ERIK ERIKSON - PSYCHOANALYSIS the theory and therapy based on Freuds ideas; basis of psychotherapy Ivan Pavlov - Russian physiologist who had shown that a reflex could be caused to occur in response to a totally newand formerly unrelated stimulus CONDITIONING John B. Watson - BEHAVIORISM - Wanted to focus only on observable behavior - Believed that all behavior is learned - FREUD: Stated that a PHOBIA (an irrational fear) is a symptom of an underlying, repressed conflict and cannot be cured without years of psychoanalysis to uncover and understand the repressed material - WATSON: Believed that phobias are learned through the process of conditioning (did an experiment with Little Albert) - Wanted to prove that all behavior was a result of a stimulus response relationship such as that described by Pavlov Mary Cover Jones began a process called COUNTERCONDITIONING in which the old conditioning would be replaced or countered by new conditioning (did an experiment with Little Peter) Modern Perspectives: PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE - The focus is still on the unconscious but with less of an emphasis on sex and sexual motivations and more emphasis on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of other motivations behind a persons behavior

BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE - B.F. Skinner developed a theory of howvoluntary behavior is learned and called it OPERANT CONDITIONING - In his theory, behavioral responses that are followed by pleasurable consequences are strengthened or reinforced HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE - Called the third-force in psychology which was a reaction to both psychodynamic theory and behaviorism (BEHAVIORISM = MECHANICAL THEORY) - Founded by Abraham Maslowand Carl Rogers - Both of them emphasized the human potential, the ability of each person to become the best he/she could be - SELF-ACTUALIZATION Achieving ones full potential or ideal self COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE - Focuses on howpeople think, remember, store, and use information o COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE includes the study of physical workings of the brain and nervous system when engaged in memory, thinking, and other cognitive processes SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE - Combined two areas of study: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (study of groups, social roles and rules of social actions and relationships) and CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY (study of cultural norms, values and expectations). They are related for they are both about the effect that people have on one another - Is important for it reminds people that howthey and others behave is influenced not only by whether they are alone, with friends, in a crowd, etc., but also by social norms, fads, class differences and ethnic identity BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE - Study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes - In this perspective, human and animal behavior is seen as a direct result of events in the body. EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE - Focuses on the biological bases for universal mental characteristics that all humans share. It seeks to explain general mental strategies and traits

Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization 1. A PSYCHIATRIST has a medical degree and is a medical doctor who has specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. They can prescribe medicine in addition to providing therapy and counseling. 2. A PSYCHOANALYST is either a psychiatrist or a psychologist who has special training in the theories of Sigmund Freud and his method of psychoanalysis. 3. A PSYCHIATRIC SOCIAL WORKER is trained in the area of social work and usually possesses a Master of Social Work (MSW) degree and often has obtained a professional license such as a Licensed Clinical Social Worker. They focus more on the environmental conditions that can have an impact on mental disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding, stress and drug abuse. 4. A PSYCHOLOGIST has no medical training but has a doctorate degree and has specialized training in one or more areas of psychology. Work Settings of Psychologists: University and four-year colleges 35% Self-employed 21% Private for profit 18% Private not for profit 9% Schools and other educational settings 7% State and Local Government 6% Federal Government 4% Subfields of Psychology (recently received doctorates): Clinical 34% Counseling 13% Developmental 12% Experimental and other research areas 8% Social and personality 6% General 6% Cognitive 6% Industrial/Organizational 5% School 4% Others 4% Educational 2%

SCIENTIFIC METHOD A system for reducing bias and error in the measurement of data 1. PERCEIVING A QUESTION Derived from the goal of description: What is happening here? Through observation 2. FORMING A HYPOTHESIS A HYPOTHESIS is a tentative answer or explanation for the observation/question Must be put into the form of a statement 3. TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS CONFIRMATION BIAS Peoples tendency to notice only things that agree with their viewof the world, a kind of selective perception 4. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS 5. REPORT YOUR RESULTS You should write what you did, why you did it, howyou did it, and what you found so that others can learn from what you have already accomplished or failed to accomplish If others can replicate your research, it gives much more support to your findings Empirical questions are those that can be tested through direct observation or experience. One does not need proof to believe, but scientists need proof to know. DESCRIPTIVE METHODS: 1. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION - Advantages: o It allows researchers to get a realistic picture of howbehavior occurs because they are actually watching that behavior o OBSERVER EFFECT When the animals or people knowthat they are being watched o PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION When the researchers become actual participants in the group - Disadvantages:

o OBSERVER BIAS Happens when the researcher has a particular opinion of what he is going to see or expect to see A way around observer bias: BLIND OBSERVERS people who do not knowwhat the research question is and therefore, have no preconceived notions about what they should see. o The setting is unique and unlike any other. Observations that are made at one time may not be exactly the same during another even if the setting is similar. 2. LABORATORY OBSERVATION 3. CASE STUDY - Advantage: o Tremendous amount of detail - Disadvantage: o What researchers find in one case wont necessarily apply or generalize to others o It is a form of detailed observation and is vulnerable to bias on the part of the researcher 4. SURVEYS - The only way to find out about very private behavior is to ask questions. - They can be conducted in the form of interviews, or on the telephone, the Internet or with a questionnaire - Researchers can get a tremendous amount of data on a very large group of people. - Disadvantages: o Researchers have to be very careful about the group of people they survey REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE Randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects POPULATION The entire group of people or animals in which the researcher is interested o People arent always going to give accurate answers COURTESY BIAS Happens when some people deliberately give the answer they think is more socially correct rather than their true opinion FINDING RELATIONSHIPS

There are really only two methods that allowresearchers to know more than just the description of what has happened: CORRELATIONS and EXPERIMENTS CORRELATIONS A CORRELATION is a measure of the relationship between two or more variables. A VARIABLE is anything that can change or vary. A CORRELATION COEFFICIENT (r) represents two things the direction of the relationship and its strength. Correlation does not prove causation. A correlation will tell researchers if there is a relationship between the variables, howstrong he relationship is and in what direction he relationship goes. EXPERIMENTS It is the only research method that will allowresearchers to determine the cause of a behavior. In an experiment, researchers will deliberately manipulate the variable the think is causing some behavior while holding all the other variables that might interfere with the experiments results constant and unchanging OPERATIONAL DEFINITION Definition of the variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured INDEPENDENT VARIABLE Variable that is manipulated DEPENDENT VARIABLE Represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment CONFOUNDING VARIABLES Variables that interfere with each other and their possible effects on some other variable of interest The best way to control for confounding variables is to have two groups of participants EXPERIMENTAL GROUP Subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable CONTROL GROUP Subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT Process of assigning subjects to the experimental or control groups randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of being in either group e EXPERIMENTAL HAZARDS: o PLACEBO EFFECT The expectations and biases of the participants in the study can influence their behavior o EXPERIMENTER EFFECT Tendency of the experimenters expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study luence o Ways to control the experimental hazards: SINGLE BLIND STUDY Study in which the subjects do not knowif they are in the experimental or control group DOUBLE BLIND STUDY Study in which neither the experimenter nor the subjects know if the subjects are in the experimental or control group QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS Alternative designs that are not considered experiments because of the inability to randomly assign participants to the experimental and control groups

3. Just because someone is considered to be an authority or to have a lot of expertise does not make everything that person claims automatically true 4. Critical thinking requires an open mind PSEUDOPSYCHOLOGIES Systems of explaining human behavior that are not based on scientific evidence and that hav no real value other have than being entertaining PALMISTRY The reading of palms GRAPHOLOGY The analysis of personality through handwriting ASTROLOGY Attempts to predict the future and explain personality by using the positions of the stars and planets at the moment of birth CHAPTER 2: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM A network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body.

Guidelines for Doing Research on People: being 1. Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed against the studys value to Science. People first, research second. 2. Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation. 3. Deception must be justified. 4. Participants may withdrawfrom the study at any time. 5. Participants must be protected from risks or told explicitly of risks. 6. Investigators must debrief participants, telling the true nature of the study and expectations of results. 7. Data must remain confidential. CRITICAL THINKING Means making reasoned judgments Criteria for Critical Thinking: 1. There are a fewtruths that do not need o be subjected into testing 2. All evidence is not equal in quality

Nervous System

Central Nervous System Composed of the brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System Transmits information to and from the central nervous system

BRAIN - Interprets and stores infromation and sends orders to muscles, glands and organs

SPINAL CORD - Pathway connecting the brain and the peripheral nervous system

AUTONOMIC N.S. Automatically regulates glands, internal organs and blood vessels, pupil dilation, digestion and blood pressure

SOMATIC N.S. - Carries sensory information and controls movement of the skeletal muscles

PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION - Maintains body functions under ordinary conditions; Saves energy

SYPATHETIC DIVISION Prepares the body to react and expend energy in times of stress

NEUROSCIENCE Deals with the structure and functioning of the brain and the neurons, nerves and nervous tissue that form the nervous system. It focuses on their relationship to behavior and learning. Santiago Ramon y Cajal First to theorize that the nervous system is made up of individual cells in 1887 NEURON Specialized cell in the nervous system that receives and sends messages within that system. Parts of the Neuron: 1. DENDRITES (branch) Part of the neuron that receives messages from other cells Attached to the cell body 2. SOMA The cell body of the neuron Part of the neuron that contains the nucleus Keeps the entire cell alive and functioning 3. AXON (axis) Fiber that is attached to the soma Carries messages out to other cells Neurons only make up 10 % of the brain The other 90 % of the brain are composed of glial cells GLIAL CELLS Serves as a sort of structure on which the neurons develop and work Holds the neurons in place Acts as insulation Produces myelin to coat axons Clean up waste products and dead neurons Influence information processing During prenatal development, influence the generation of new neurons OLIGODENDROCYTES and SCHWANN CELLS are special types of glial cells that generate a layer of fatty substances called MYELIN. OLIGODENDROCYTES Produce myelin in the brain and spinal cord

SCHWANN CELLS Produce myelin in the neurons of the body MYELIN Wraps around the shafts of the axons, forming a protective sheath Fatty substances produced to insulate, protect and speed up the neural impulse NODES Spaces on the axon that are not covered in myelin NERVES Bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through the body NEURILEMMA / SCHWANN S MEMBRANE Thin membrane that surrounds the axon and myelin sheath Serves as a tunnel through which damaged nerve fibers can repair themselves Are not present in the neurons in the brain and spinal cord AXON TERMINALS Branches at the end of each axon SYNAPTIC KNOB / TERMINAL BUTTON Rounded areas at the end of the axon terminals SYNAPTIC VESICLES Saclike structures found inside the synaptic knob containing chemicals NEUROTRANSMITTERS Chemical found in the synaptic vesicles that, when released, has an effect on the next cell SYNAPSE / SYNAPTIC GAP Microscopic fluid-filled space between the synaptic knob of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell RECEPTOR SITES Holes in the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and gland, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters The end of the axon containing neurotransmitters is also called the PRESYNAPTIC MEMBRANE The surface of the receiving neuron is also called POSTSYNAPTIC MEMBRANE EXCITORY SYNAPSE Synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire INHIBITORY SYNAPSE Synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing

AGONISTS Chemical substances that can mimic or enhance the effects of neurotransmitters on receptor sites of the next cell, which can result in an increase or decrease in the activity of the receiving cell, depending on what the effect of the original neurotransmitter was going to be ANTAGONISTS Chemical substances that block or reduce a cells response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters BETA BLOCKERS Drugs that are used to control high blood pressure and serve as antagonists by blocking the effect of the neurotransmitters that stimulate the hearts contractions Examples of Neurotransmitters: ACETYLCHOLINE o First neurotransmitter to be identified o Found at the synapse between neurons and muscle cells o Serves to stimulate the skeletal muscles to contract but actually slows contraction of the heart muscles o Found in the hippocampus and lowlevels of Acetylcholine has been associated with Alzheimers disease o CURARE A drug used by South American Indians on their blowdarts An ANTAGONIST for Acetylcholine o Black WidowSpider Venom Causes convulsions and possible death An AGONIST for Acetylcholine GLUTAMATE o The nervous systems major excitory neurotransmitter GABA (GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID) o Most common neurotransmitter producing inhibition in the brain o Can help to calm anxiety o Alcohol AGONIST for GABA SEROTONIN o Neurotransmitter found in the lower part of the brain o Has an excitory or inhibitory effect depending on the particular synapse o Associated with sleep, mood and appetite

o Lowlevels of serotonin activity has been linked to depression DOPAMINE o If too little dopamine is released in a certain area of the brain, the result is Parkinsons disease o If too much dopamine is released in another area, the result is a serious mental disorder schizophrenia NEURAL REGULATORS / NEURAL PEPTIDES o Neurotransmitters that directly control the release of other neurotransmitters o ENDORPHIN Pain controlling chemicals in the body Comes from the term endogenous morphine Reason why heroin and other drugs derived from opium are so addictive when people take heroin, their bodies neglect to produce endorphins

REUPTAKE Process by which neurotransmitters are taken back to the synaptic vesicles Cocaine affects the nervous system by blocking the reuptake process CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM BRAIN True core of the nervous system Part that makes sense of information received from the senses Makes decisions and sends commands out to the muscles and the rest of the body SPINAL CORD Long bundle of neurons that serves two vital functions Responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexes Outer Section o Composed mainly of axons and nerves o Appears White o Carries messages from the body up to the brain and from the brain down to the body o Pipeline Inner Section o Composed of cell bodies of neurons

o Appears gray o A primitive sort of brain o Responsible for certain reflexes Three types of Neurons: 1. AFFERENT (Sensory) Carry messages from the senses to the spinal cord 2. EFFERENT (Motor) Carry messages from the spinal cord to the muscles and glands 3. INTERNEURON Connects the afferent and motor neurons Make up the inside of the spinal cord and the brain Having a kind of REFLEX ARC controlled by the spinal cord allows for very fast response times. It is the connection of the afferent neurons to the interneuron to the efferent neurons, resulting to reflex action. NEUROPLASTICITY The ability of the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma; the lifelong ability of the brain to reorganize neural pathways; in case of brain injury, the brain compensates for lost functions by forming newsynapses Through out adulthood, newsynapses are formed whenever something newis learned. When you become an expert in a specific domain, the structure in your brain that deals with that skill becomes more developed. SYNAPTIC PRUNING eliminates weaker synaptic contacts while stronger connections are kept and strengthened. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Made up of all the nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and the spinal cord System that allows the brain and spinal cord to communicate with the sensory systems of the eyes, ears, skin, and mouth and allows the brain and spinal cord to control the muscles and glands of the body Divided in to the somatic and autonomic nervous systems

SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM o Made up of the sensory pathway (nerves coming from the sensory organs to the CNS consisting of afferent neurons) and motor pathway (nerves coming from the CNS to the voluntary muscles consisting of efferent neurons) AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM o Divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system o SYMAPTHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Primarily located on the middle of the spinal column Usually called fight-or-flight system Allows animals and people to deal with all kinds of stressful events and bodily arousal o PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION Located at the top and bottom of the spinal column Restores the body to normal functioning after a stressful event Allows the body to put back all the energy it burned Responsible for most of the ordinary, day-to-day functioning

Peeking Inside the Brain Clinical Studies o DEEP LESIONING insertion of a thin, insulated wire into the brain which an electric current is sent that destroys the brain cells at the tip of the wire EEG (Electrocephalograph) Machine designed to record the brain wave patterns produced by electrical activity of the surface of the brain CT SCAN (Computed Tomography) Brain imaging method using computer-controlled x-rays of the brain; structural anatomy of the brain; can be used to detect tumors MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Brain imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of he brain; more detailed than the CT scan PET (Positron Emission Tomograpgy) Brain imaging method in which a radio-active sugar is injected into the subject and a computer compiles a color-coded image of the activity of the brain with lighter colors indicating more activity

fMRI (Functional MRI) Technique in which the computer tracks changes in oxygen level of the blood

The Structures of the Brain THE HINDBRAIN sustains bodily functions o MEDULLA Means marrow or inner substance Located at the top of the spinal column Controls life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing and swallowing Part where nerves cross-over from one side of the body to the opposite side of the brain o PONS The larger swelling just above the medulla Means bridge; bridge between the lower parts of the brain and the upper sections Cross-over of motor nerves carrying messages from the brain to the body Coordinates movements to the left and right sides of the body Influences sleep, dreaming and arousal Relays messages from the cerebellum to the cortex o RETICULAR FORMATION (RF) Area of neurons running through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond Responsible for peoples ability to selectively attend to certain kinds of information in their surroundings Allows people to ignore constant, unchanging information and become alert to changes in information Controls arousal and attention RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (RAS) Stimulates the upper part of the brain, keeping people awake and alert o CEREBELLUM Located at the base of the skull, behind the pons Means little brain Controls all involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement

Coordinates voluntary movement that have to happen in rapid succession such as walking, dancing, movements of speech Stores learned reflexes, skills and habits Controls balance and maintains muscle coordination CEREBRAL CORTEX Controls complex thought processes STRUCTURES UNDER THE CORTEX LIMBIC SYSTEM - Limbic means marginal; found in the inner margin of the upper brain - Includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala - Generally involved in memory, emotion, motivation and learning - Under the cortex o THALAMUS Means inner chamber Round structure in the center of the brain Acts as a relay station for incoming sensory information Processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area Deals with hearing, sight, touch and taste Smell is the only sense that cannot be affected by damage to the thalamus for the neurons in the sinus cavity go directly to olfactory bulbs o HYPOTHALAMUS Located belowand in front of the thalamus Regulates body temperature, thirst, hunger, sleeping, sexual activity, amount of fear, aggression and emotions Sits right in front of the pituitary gland; controls the pituitary gland, therefore it also controls the regulation of hormones o HIPPOCAMPUS (seahorse)

Instrumental in forming long-term memories that are then elsewhere stored in the brain Located within the temporal lobes on each side of the brain and electrical stimulation of the temporal lobe may produce memory like or dream like experiences Very close to the area of the brain where the memories for locations of objects are stored as well Plays a role in our learning, memory and the ability to compare sensory information to expectations o AMYGDALA (almond) Located near the hippocampus Responsible for fear responses and memory of fear Influences our motivation, emotional control fear response, and interpretations of nonverbal emotional expressions KLUVER-BUCY SYNDROME When the amygdala is removed/damaged, people/animals fear less MAMILLARY BODY Neurons that act as relay station, transmitting information between fornix and thalamus FORNIX Pathway of nerve fibers that transmits information from hippocampus to the mamillary bodies CORTEX (rind or outer covering) o Outermost part of the brain o Made up of tightly-packed neurons and actually is only about one-tenth of an inch think on average o The wrinkling cortex allows much larger area of cortical cells to exist in the small space inside the skull o CORTICALIZATION the increase in wrinkling; real measure of human intelligence LOBES The cortex is divided into two sections called the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES, connected by the CORPUS CALLOSUM.

CORPUS CALLOSUM (hard bodies) - Thick, tough band of neural fibers that allows the left and right hemispheres to communicate with each other

RIGHT HEMISPHERE Holistic thought Intuition Creativity Art and Music

LEFT HEMISPHERE Analytical thought Logic Language Science and Math 1. OCCIPITAL LOBES (rear of the head) Located at the back of the brain Processes visual information from the eyes in the PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX Also located in this lobe, the VISUAL ASSOCIATION CORTEX, is the part of the brain that helps identify and make sense of the visual information of the eyes 2. PARIETAL LOBES (wall) Located at the top and back of the brain Contains the SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX which processes information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature and body position Contains the centers for touch, taste and temperature sensations 3. TEMPORAL LOBES Found just behind the temples of the head Contains the PRIMARY AUDITORY CORTEX and AUDITORY ASSOCIATION AREA Contains the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech

4. FRONTAL LOBE Located at the front of the brain Here are found all the higher mental functions of the brain planning, personality, memory storage, complex decision making and areas devoted to language Helps in controlling emotions by means of its connection to the limbic system Contains the MOTOR CORTEX, a band of neurons located at the back of each lobe o The MOTOR CORTEX controls the movements of the voluntary muscles by sending commands out to the somatic division of the peripheral nervous system

o Brocas Aphasia causes the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words and to speak haltingly WERNICKE S AREA o Located in the left temporal lobe o Involved in the understanding of the meaning of words o Wernickes Aphasia causes the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language

LEFT HEMISPHERE Controls the right hand Spoken language Written language Mathematical calculations Logical thought processes Analysis of detail Reading

RIGHT HEMISPHERE Controls the left hand Nonverbal Visual-Spatial Perception Music and artistic processing Emotional thought and recognition Processes the whole Pattern recognition Facial recognition

ASSOCIATION AREAS - Made up of neurons in the cortex that are devoted in making connections between the sensory information coming into the brain and stored memories, images and knowledge - Help people make sense of the incoming sensory input - Areas within each lobe (especially the frontal lobe) responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing BROCA S AREA o Located in the left frontal lobe o Allows a person to speak smoothly and fluently

GLANDS Organs in the body that secrete chemicals ENDOCRINE GLANDS Glands that secret chemicals called HORMONES directly to the blood stream PITUITARY GLAND Located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences all other hormonesecreting glands; Known as the MASTER GLAND PINEAL GLLAND Located near the base of the cerebrum; Secretes MELATONIN which regulates the sleep-wake cycle THYROID GLAND Located in the neck; Secretes THYROXIN which regulates metabolism PANCREAS Controls the levels of sugar in the blood by releasing INSULIN and GLUCAGONS o Diabetes Happens when too little insulin is released o Hypoglycemia Occurs if too much insulin is released GONADS Sex glands; Secrete hormones that regulate sexual development and behavior as well as reproduction ADRENAL GLANDS Located on top of each kidney o ADRENAL MEDULLA Releases ephinephrine and norephinephrine when people are under stress and that aids in sympathetic arousal o ADRENAL CORTEX Produces over 30 different hormones called CORTICOINDS (steroids) that regulate salt intake, help initiate and control stress reactions and also provides a source of sex hormones in addition to those provided by the gonads CORTISOL Released when the body experiences stress, both physical and psychological; Important in the release of glucose into the bloodstream during stress, providing energy for the brain itself and the release of fatty

acids from the fat cells that provide the muscles with energy SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION SEQUENCE 1. Inside of neuron is negatively charged, outside is positively charged 2. Dendrites are activated 3. Sodium-potassium gates open 4. Action potential travels down the axon 5. Neurotransmitters are released in the synaptic gap 6. Neurotransmitters bind with receptor sites of dendrites of next neuron 7. A newaction potential is generated

LONG TEST 2 CHAPTER 5: LEARNING LEARNING any relatively permanent change in ones capacity of behavior brought about by experience or practice Without the ability to remember what happens, people cannot learn anything Any kind of change in the way an organism behaves is learning Maturation change controlled by a genetic blueprint Types of Learning - Classical Conditioning - Operant Conditioning - Observational Conditioning CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Ivan Pavlov Learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces it Elements of Classical Conditioning:

o Unconditioned Stimulus unlearned, naturally occurring stimulus that ordinarily leads to the involuntary reflex response o Unconditioned Response o Conditioned Stimulus Primarily referred to as neutral stimulus, but after learning has occurred, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus o Conditioned Response usually not as strong as the original unconditioned response, but it is essentially the same response Principles of Classical Conditioning 1. The NS must come before the UCS 2. The NS and UCS must come very close together in time. Ideally not more than 5 seconds Interstimulus Interval (ISI) time between the NS and the UCS 3. The NS must be paired with the UCS several times 4. The NS is usually some stimulus that is distinctive or stands out from other competing stimulus Stimulus Generalization tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus Stimulus Discrimination o Occurs when an organism learns to respond to different stimuli in different ways o The tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus Extinction o Disappearance of a learned response when the UCS is not presented after the CS o The disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus or the removal of a reinforcer Reinforcer any event or object that, when following a response, increases the likelihood of the response to occur again Spontaneous Recovery

o The conditioned response can briefly reappear when the original CS returns, although the response is usually weak and short-lived o Reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred Higher-Order Conditioning occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus Classical Conditioning among humans: o Conditioned Emotional Response (CER) emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli, such as fear of dogs o Vicarious Conditioning classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person o Phobias o Consumer Psychology o Comfort food o Classroom behavior o Conditioned Taste Aversion development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction, occurring only after one association Biological Preparedness tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning Stimulus Substitution original theory which states that classical conditioning occurs because the conditioned stimulus became a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus by being paired closely together Cognitive Perspective modern theory in which classical conditioning is seen to occur because the conditioned stimulus provides information or an expectancy about the coming of the unconditioned stimulus Classical Conditioning is the kind of learning that occurs with reflexive, involuntary behavior. The kind of learning that applies to voluntary behavior is called operant conditioning. OPERANT CONDITIONING BF Skinner Operant any behavior that is voluntary

Learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses Learning that happens by associating a voluntary behavior with its consequences Thorndike s Law of Effect o Lawstating that if an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated The heart of operant conditioning is the effect of consequences on behavior. Learning depends on what happens after the response the consequence Reinforcement anything that causes the response to be more likely to happen again o Primary Reinforcer any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need such as hunger, thirst, or touch o Secondary Reinforcer any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens or gold stars o Types of Reinforcement: Positive Reinforcement addiction of a pleasurable stimulus Negative Reinforcement removal of something unpleasant Punishment any event or stimulus that, when following a response, causes that response to be less likely to happen again; weakens responses o Types of Punishment: Punishment by Application addition of an unpleasant stimulus Punishment by Removal removal of a pleasurable stimulus PUNISHMENT - Effective in stopping undesirable behavior - Can lead to learning other undesirable behaviors Howto make punishment more effective:

REINFORCEMENT - Promotes learning of desired behavior

o Punishment should immediately followthe behavior it is meant to punish o Punishment should be consistent Followthrough warnings Intensity should not decrease o Punishment of the wrong behavior should be paired, whenever possible, with reinforcement of the right behavior Other concepts in operant conditioning: o Shaping The reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to desired, more complex behavior Successive Approximation small steps in behavior, one after the other, that leads to a particular goal behavior o Extinction in operant conditioning involves the removal of the reinforcement Discriminative Stimulus any stimulus such as a stop sign or a door knob that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement: o Continuous Reinforcement Each and every correct response is reinforced Response is learned faster o Partial Reinforcement Some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced More resistant to extinction

o Behavior Modification the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior o Token Economy type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens (secondary reinforcers) o Time-out form of mild punishment by removal in which a misbehaving animal, child or adult is placed in a special area away from the attention of others o Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) modern term for a form of behavior modification that uses the shaping process to mold a desired behavior or response o Biofeedback using feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses, such as blood pressure and relaxation, under voluntary control o Neurofeedback uses brain-scanning devices to provide feedback about brain activity in an effort to modify behavior OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Learning newbehavior by watching a model perform that behavior Four steps of Observational Learning: o Attention o Memory o Imitation o Motivation Cognitive Learning Theory behavior is influenced by mental events that take part in ones mind Latent Learning o Tolman o Leaning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful o Motivation is influential in learning Insight Learning o Kohler o Insight sudden perception of relationships among various parts of the problem, allowing the solution to the problem come quickly o Cannot be gained through trial and error alone o Aha moments

RATIO SCHEDULE INTERVAL SCHEDULE - Based on the number of - Based on a certain time correct responses interval - Fixed ratio schedule - Fixed interval schedule (Factory worker) (dismissal time) - Variable ratio schedule - Variable interval (slot machine) schedule (looking for shooting stars)

Applying Operant Conditioning

Learned Helplessness o Seligman o Tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past Learning/Performance Distinction o Bandura o Refers to the observation that learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior

o Getting information into memory 2. Storage o Process of holding onto information for some period of time 3. Retrieval o Getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used Information Processing Model The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory o The very first stage of memory o The point at which information enters the nervous system through sensory systems o External stimuli perceived by the senses are encoded into sensory memory as neural messages o Two kinds of Sensory Memory: Iconic Sensory Memory Capacity everything that can be seen at one time Duration 0.20 seconds Masking Eidetic Imagery ability to access a visual memory over a long period of time Iconic Memory helps the visual system to viewsurroundings as continuous and stable It allows enough time for the brain stem to decide if information is important enough to be brought into consciousness Echoic Sensory Memory Capacity what can be heard at one time Duration 4 seconds Short-Term Memory (STM) o The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used o Selective Attention the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input o Tends to be encoded in auditory form

CHAPTER 6: MEMORY MEMORY An active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, and organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage A place and process Limited, Selective and Reconstructive Three Models of Memory: 1. Information Processing Model a. Approach that focuses on the way information is processed, or handled, through 3 different stages of memory b. Information is processed in different stages and in different memory systems c. Information processed in higher memory systems will be remembered better 2. Levels-of-Processing Model a. Information is processed in different levels or depths b. Information processed with more depth (based on meaning) will be remembered better 3. Parallel Distributed Processing Model a. Different processes happen simultaneously b. The brain performs different processes at the same time over a large network of neural connections Three Processes of Memory: 1. Encoding o Set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information to a form that is usable in the brains storage system

o Working Memory active system that processes the information present in STM Phonological Loop Encodes in auditory from Internal dialogue/auditory recorder Visual Sketchpad Contains images Memory for maps and faces Central Executive Interprets and coordinates the information from the phonological loop and visual sketchpad o Capacity of STM George Miller used the digit span test to know howmuch information humans can hold in STM Magic number 7 (+/-2) Chunking Process of recoding or reorganizing information If bits of information are combined into meaningful units, or chunks, more information can be held in STM o Duration 12 to 30 seconds without rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal Rote Learning Rote is like rotating the information in ones head Practice of saying some information to be remembered over and over in ones head in order to maintain it in short-term memory Long-Term Memory (LTM) o The system into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently o Capacity Unlimited o The LTM is encoded in meaningful form, a kind of mental storehouse of meanings of words, concepts and all the events that people want to keep in mind,

o Elaborative Rehearsal Way of transferring information from STM to LTM by making the information meaningful in some way Easiest way to do this is to connect mew information with something that is already wellknown Levels-of-Processing Model Information processed with more depth (meaningfully) will be remembered better o Types of Long-Term Information: Declarative Memory About the things people can know Memory of facts Contains information that is conscious and known o Semantic Memory general facts/knowledge; awareness of the meanings of words, concepts and terms as well as names of objects, math skills, etc. o Episodic Memory personal facts; tend to be updated and revised more or less constantly Episodic and Semantic Memories are forms of Explicit Memory (memories that are easily made conscious and brought from long-term storage into short-term memory) Procedural (Non-declarative) Memory Memory for skills that people knowhow to do Also include emotional associations, habits, and simple conditioned reflexes Often called Implicit Memory because memories for these skills, habits and learned reflexes are not easily retrieved into conscious awareness o Long-Term Memory Organization organized in terms of related meanings and concepts Semantic Network Model

Model of memory organization that assumes information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion, with concepts that are related stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related Concepts are connected serially and in a hierarchy (from general to specific) Parallel Distributed Processing Model Can be used to explain speed at which different points can be accessed Concepts are interrelated Different kinds of information can be processed at the same time o Howis Long-Term Information Stored in the Brain? Engram The physical changes that takes place in the brain when memory is formed Increase in neural connections and sensitivity of synapses through repeated stimulation (called long-term potentiation) Consolidation Process that takes place while an engram is forming Happens during deep stages of sleep o Different brain structures for specific types of information: Frontal lobe episodic memory Amygdala emotional memories Hippocampus explicit memory Cerebellum implicit memory of non-declarative memory Pre-frontal Cortex and Temporal Lobe shortterm memories o Retrieval taking information out of storage Retrieval Cues A stimulus for remembering The more cues stored with a piece of information, the easier the retrieval of that information will be

Recognition Task The ability to match a piece of information or stimulus to a stored image or fact External cues are matched with stored information Multiple-choice test Recall Task Type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be pulled from memory with very fewexternal cues Identification/ Enumeration type of tests Encoding Specificity tendency for memory to improve if related information (surroundings or physiological state) available when the memory is first formed is also available during retrieval Context-Dependent Learning - tendency for memory of any kind of information to be improved if the physical surroundings available when the memory is first formed are also available when the memory is being retrieved State-Dependent Learning memories formed during a particular physiological or psychological state will be easier to remember while in a similar state o Retrieval Failure Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon Inability to retrieve the sound or actual spelling of the word even if the meaning can be recalled Serial Position Effect Tendency of information at the beginning and end of a body of information to be remembered more accurately than information in the middle Primacy Effect tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows; encoded in LTM

Recency Effect tendency to remember information at the end better than the information before it; still in STM o False Positives error of recognition in which people think that they recognize some stimulus that is not actually in memory o Automatic Encoding tendency of certain kinds of information to enter LTM with little or no effortful encoding Flashbulb Memories type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it o Reconstructive Nature of LTM Constructive Processing refers to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised or influenced by newer information Memory Retrieval Problems Misinformation Effect - tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself Hindsight bias tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event False Memory Syndrome refers to the creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often while the person is under hypnosis o Forgetting Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve Curve of Forgetting graph showing that forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning then tapers of gradually Distributed Practice spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

Encoding Failure failure to process information into memory (divided attention) Memory Trace Decay Theory Memory Trace physical change in the brain that occurs when memory is formed Decay loss of memory due to passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used Disuse another name for decay, assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear Interference Theory Proactive Interference tendency for older or previously learned material to interfere with the retrieval of newer, more recently learned material Retroactive Interference tendency for newer information to interfere with the retrieval of older information Organic Amnesia Retrograde Amnesia loss of memory for the past Anterograde Amnesia inability to recall newly learned information Infantile Amnesia inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3 o Howto prevent forgetting? PAY ATTENTION Utilize Deeper Processing Elaborative Rehearsal (LTM) vs. Rote (STM) Associate it with something personal, funny or dramatic Summarize and Organize the Information Outlines and diagrams can serve as a super chunking and retrieval cues Mnemonics (Acronyms) can serve as retrieval cues Notes and Reviewers

Invest in distributed learning Cramming relies on STM Minimize Distractions Listening to loud music or watching TV while studying can interfere with your phonological loop SLEEP Necessary for consolidation LONG TEST 3 CHAPTER 8: Psychological Development Across the Life Span HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age, from conception until death The problem in developmental research is that the age of the people in the study should always be an independent variable, but people cannot be randomly assigned to different age groups. Developmental Research Designs: 1. Longitudinal Design o One group of people is followed and assessed at different times as the group ages o Research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time o The same participants are studied at various ages to determine age-related changes o Advantage: Looking at real age-related changes as those changes occur in the same individuals o Disadvantages: Lengthy amount of time, money and effort involved in following participants over the years, as well as the loss of participants when they move away, lose interest or dies 2. Cross-Sectional Design o Research design in which several different age-groups of participants are studied at one particular time o Different participants of various ages are compared at one point in time to determine age-related differences o Advantages: Quick, relatively inexpensive and easier to accomplish compared to longitudinal designs o Disadvantages: One is no longer comparing an individual to that same individual as he/she ages; individuals of different ages are being compared to one another

3. Cross-Sequential Design o Research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but are also followed and assessed for a period of no more than six years to determine both age-related differences and age-related changes Nature vs. Nurture NATURE refers to the influence of inherited characteristics on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions NURTURE refers to the influence of the environment on all of those same things and includes parenting styles, physical surroundings, economic factors, and anything that can have an influence on development that does not come from within a person All that people are and all that people can become is the product of the interaction between nature and nurture Behavioral Genetics relatively new field in the investigation of the origins of behavior in which researchers try to determine how much of behavior is the result of genetic inheritance and how much is due to a persons experiences

GENETICS science of heredity DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) special molecule that contains the genetic material of an organism; consists of two sugar/phosphate strands linked together by certain chemical elements called amines or bases GENE section of the DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements CHROMOSOME tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA Humans have a total of 46 chromosomes. The first 22 pairs are called autosomes which determine most characteristics; the last pair is called the sex chromosomes which determines the sex of the organism DOMINANT GENE genes that actively controls the expression of a trait; will always be expressed in the observable trait RECESSIVE GENE less active in influencing the trait and will only be expressed in the observable trait if they are paired with another less active gene

POLYGENIC INHERITANCE process which exhibits that almost all traits are controlled by more that one pair of genes GENETIC PROBLEMS: Cystic Fibrosis disease of the respiratory and digestive tracts Sickle-Cell Anemia blood disorder Tay-Sachs disorder fatal neurological disorder PKU a problem with digesting a particular protein CHROMOSOME PROBLEMS: Down Syndrome disorder in which there is an extra chromosome in what would normally be the 21st pair; symptoms include almond-shaped, wide set eyes and mental retardation Klinefelters Syndrome 23rd set of chromosomes has an extra X chromosome producing a male with reduced masculine characteristics, enlarged breasts, obesity and excessive height Turners Syndrome 23rd pair is missing an X producing females that are very short, infertile and sexually underdeveloped PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTION the moment at which the female becomes pregnant o FERTILIZATION process in which the ovum and the sperm unite resulting to a single cell with 46 chromosomes called a ZYGOTE Kinds of Twins: 1. Monozygotic Twins identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo 2. Dizygotic Twins called fraternal twins, occurring when two eggs each get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time 3. Conjoined Twins occurs when the mass of cells does not completely split apart GERMINAL PERIOD first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the uterus lining

o The placenta begins to form during this period. The placenta is a specialized organ that provides nourishment and filters away waste products from the developing baby o The umbilical cord also begins to develop at this time, connecting the organism to the placenta EMBRYONIC PERIOD the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develops; the developing organism is now called an embryo o Critical Period times during which some environmental influence can have an impact on the development of the infant o Prenatal hazards/TERATOGENS any substance that can cause a birth defect Rubella blindness, deafness, heart defects, brain damage Marijuana irritability, nervousness, tremors, infant is easily disturbed or startled Cocaine decreased height, low birth weight, respiratory problems, seizures, learning difficulty, infant is difficult to soothe Alcohol fetal alcohol syndrome (metal retardation, delayed growth, facial malformation), learning difficulties, smaller than normal heads Nicotine miscarriage, low birth weight, stillbirth, short stature, mental retardation, learning disabilities Mercury mental retardation, blindness Syphilis mental retardation, deafness, meningitis Caffeine miscarriage, lowbirth weight Radiation higher incidence of cancers, physical deformities High Water Temperatures- increased chance of neural tube defects FETAL PERIOD the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child o The embryo is nowcalled a fetus o Babies born before 38 weeks are called preterm o Miscarriages/Spontaneous Abortion most likely to happen in the first three months of pregnancy

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT The respiratory system begins to function, filling the lungs with air and putting oxygen to the blood The blood now circulates only within the infants system because the umbilical cord has been cut Body temperature is now regulated by the infants own activity and body fat (the fat acts as insulation) rather than by amniotic fluid The digestive system probably takes the longest to adjust to life outside the womb, thus, the excess body fat provides fuel until the infant is able to take enough nourishment on its own Until an infant is capable of learning more complex means of interaction, reflexes help the infant to survive The sense of touch is the most well-developed while the least functional sense at birth is vision

Schemes a mental concept formed through experiences with concepts and events; pre-existing frameworks that organize and interpret information Assimilation fitting newinformation into pre-existing schema Accommodation adjusting the schema to fit newinformation

Reflexes: Infant Survival Kits 1. Rooting 2. Grasping 3. Sucking 4. Startle (Moro reflex) 5. Swiming 6. Tonic neck 7. Crawling Motor Milestones: 1. Raising Head 2. Rolling over 3. Propped up 4. Sitting up 5. Crawling 6. Standing 7. Walking COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT the development of thinking, problem solving and memory Jean Piaget

Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development 1. Sensorimotor Stage o Birth to two years old o Infants use their senses and motor abilities to learn about the world around them o Object Permanence the knowledge that an object exists even when it is no in sight o Symbolic thought, which is the ability to represent objects in ones thoughts with symbols such as words, becomes possible by the end of this stage 2. Preoperational Stage o Two to seven years old o Time for developing language and concepts o Not yet capable of logical thought o Animism belief that anything that moves is alive o Magical thinking and make-believe play o Egocentrism inability to see the world in anyone elses eyes except ones own o Centration focusing only on one feature of some object rather than taking all features into consideration o Irreversibility inability to mentally reverse an action 3. Concrete Operations o Seven to twelve years old o Capable of logical thought Conservation ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the objects nature Reversible thinking Able to take into consideration multi-features o Reality follows certain rules (e.g. gravity) o Concentration concepts and experiential learning 4. Formal Operations o 12 years old to adulthood o Abstract thinking becomes possible o Egocentrism: Personal Fable

o Imaginary Audience Lev Vygotsky: The Importance of Being There Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interactions with other people He believed that children develop cognitively when someone else helps them by asking leading questions and providing examples of concepts in a process called SCAFFOLDING. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD) difference between what a child can do alone versus what a child can do with the help of a teacher Stages of Language Development Noam Chomsky proposed a language acquisition device, an innate program that contained a schema for human language Child-Directed Speech the way adults and older children talk to infants and very young children, with higher pitched, repetitious sing-song speech patterns Receptive Productive Lag phenomenon wherein infants seem to understand more than they can produce Stages of language development that all children experience: o Cooing 2 months o Babbling 6 months o One-Word Speech holophrases; before age 1 o Telegraphic Speech 1 year and a half o Whole Sentences PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT PERSONALITY Long-lasting and unique characteristics in which each individual think, act, and feel through out life TEMPERAMENT the behavior characteristics that are fairly well established at birth; building blocks of personality o Easy regular sleep and waking cycles, regular feeding time, easily adapts to changes, always smiling o Difficult irregular sleeping and feeding cycles, takes a long time to soothe them, takes a log time to adapt to change o Slowto warm up

ATTACHMENT the emotional bond between an infant and a primary caregiver o Ainsworth (1985) and the Strange Situation o How will infants respond when a stranger enters the room, the mother leaves and then comes back? 1. Secure Attachment - Explores the room but keeps connection with mother - Gets upset when the mother leaves and welcomes her back - Loving, warm and responsive caregiver 2. Avoidant Attachment - Willing to explore but is not connected with the mother - Indifferent to the mothers and return - Unresponsive, insensitive and rejecting caregiver 3. Ambivalent Attachment - Unwilling to explore - Upset when the mother left but had mixed feelings when the mother returned - Inconsistent caregiver - Tendency to produce players 4. Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment - Unable to decide howto react to mothers return - Fearful and depressed - Abusive and neglectful caregiver

Eriksons Psychosocial Theory: Challenges in social relationships play a key role in the development of personality Eight stages Socio-emotional crisis Resolved the crisis result to developmental competencies 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 1 year old) Task: basic needs must be met Significant others: sensitive and responsive caregiver Competency: Hope and Optimism 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 years old) Task: Do things on his own Significant others: supportive and flexible caregivers Competency: Self-esteem and sense of accomplishment

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 5 years old) Task: Accomplish self-control and take some responsibilities Significant others: supportive caregivers Competency: Sense of responsibility 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (5 to 12 years old) Task: Develop expertise Significant Others: Supportive and encouraging caregivers and teachers Competency: Can do attitude; Realistic assessment of capabilities 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence, 11 to 20 years old) Task: Answer Who am I? Identity Crisis: Experimenting, non-conformity Significant Others: Accepting and supportive caregivers, authorities and society Competency: Integrity and commitment to ones values and beliefs 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20 40 years old) Task: Share a mature committed relationship with a partner; true intimacy Significant other: a life partner who is accepting and capable of genuine love Competency: Self-sacrifice and compromise 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 60 years old) Midlife crisis Task: leave a legacy; share life with larger community Significant others: society; younger generation Competency: meaning and fulfillness 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (60 and beyond) Task: review life, deal with unfinished businesses, find peace in ones decisions and choices Competency: acceptance of mortality ADOLESCENCE ADOLESCENCE period of life from about age 13 to the early 20s, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult Physical development

o Puberty physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak Cognitive development o Personal Fable type of thought common to adolescents in which they believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm o Imaginary Audience young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescents thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are Moral Development Kohlbergs Level of Morality o Preconventional Level Very young children 4 to 11 years old Behavior that is rewarded is right, that which is punished is wrong Egocentric o Conventional Level Older children, adolescents, most adults Conformity to social norms is right, nonconformity is wrong Sociocentric o Postconventional Level Some adults (Gandhi, Robin Hood) Ones ideas of right and wrong may violate societal norms The primary consideration is ones personal conscience and the greater good ADULTHOOD Menopause the cessation of the ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a womans reproductive capability Perimenopause period of 5 to 10 years over which climacteric changes occur Andropause gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of middle-ages males Intimacy an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share and care while still maintaining a sense of self Generativity providing guidance to ones children or the next generation, or contributing to the well-being of the next generation through career and volunteer work

Parenting Styles: 1. Authoritarian Parenting style of parenting in which the parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child 2. Permissive Parenting style of parenting in which the parent makes few, if any demands on a childs behavior a. Permissive Neglectful permissive parenting in which parents are uninvolved with the child or his/her behavior b. Permissive Indulgent permissive parenting in which parents are so involved that children are allowed to behave without set limits 3. Authoritative Parenting style of parenting in which parents combine warmth and affection with firm limits on a childs behavior Life Review process when people look back on the life they have lived Integrity/Ego Integrity final completion of the identity sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life and the ability to let go of regrets Despair a sense of deep regret over things that will never be accomplished because time has run out

Stages of Death and Dying (Elisabeth Kubler-Ross) 1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance CHAPTER 13: THEORIES OF PERSONALITIES PERSONALITY unique way in which individual thinks, acts and feels throughout life CHARACTER value judgments of a persons moral and ethical behavior TEMPERAMENT enduring characteristics with which each person is born Four Main Perspectives: 1. Psychodynamic Perspective focuses on the role of the unconscious mind in the development of personality; heavily focuses on biological causes of personality differences 2. Behaviorist Perspective focuses on the effect of the environment on behavior 3. Humanist Perspective focuses on the role of each persons conscious life experiences and choices in personality development 4. Trait Perspective unlike the first three which are concerned with process, trait perspective is more concerned with the end result the characteristics themselves PSYCHODYNAMIC PERRSPECTIVE Sigmund Freud - Austrian neurologist - Eldest of 8 children and was favored by his parents - Closer to his mom my golden sigy - Jewish; Fled to England to avoid the Nazi invasion - Lived during the Victorian Era - Sexually repressed desires - Treated women with hysteria - Used psychoanalysis, dream analysis, hypnosis - Sexual content of childhood development - Psychoanalytical Theory of Personality

Theories of Physical and Psychological Aging Cellular Clock Theory cells are limited in the number of times they can reproduce to repair damage; existence of telomeres which shorten every time a cell reproduces Wear-and-Tear Theory the bodys organs and cell tissues simply wear out with repeated use and abuse Free Radical Theory gives a biological explanation for the damage done to cells over time o Free Radicals oxygen molecules that have an unstable electron which bounce around the cell, stealing electrons from other molecules and increasing the damage to structures inside the cell Activity Theory theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way

o o o o

Divisions of the Mind Divisions of Personality Defense Mechanism Psychosexual stages of personality development

One of the most important tools for dealing with anxiety caused by the conflict among the id, ego and the superego

The mind is divided into three parts: preconcious, conscious and unconscious minds. Preconscious - contains info that can be accessed into awareness (memories, LTM information) Freud believed that the unconscious was the most important determining factor in human behavior and personality UNCONSCIOUS MIND level of the mind in which thoughts, feelings, memories and other information are kept that are not easily or voluntarily brought into consciousness

Divisions of Personality 1. ID: If it feels good, do it (from the Latin word which means it) Completely unconscious, pleasure-seeking, amoral part of personality that exists from birth Hunger, thirst, self-preservation, sex PLEASURE PRINCIPLE the desire for immediate gratification of needs with no regard for the consequences 2. EGO: The Executive Director (from the Latin word for I) Mostly conscious and is far more rational, logical and cunning than the id REALITY PRINCIPLE the need to satisfy the demands of the id only in ways that will not lead to negative consequences 3. SUPEREGO: The Moral Watchdog (from Latin, meaning over the self) Moral center of personality Contains the CONSCIENCE, the part of the personality that makes people feel pride when they do the right thing and guilt or moral anxiety when they do the wrong thing Psychological Defense Mechanisms - Ways of dealing with stress through unconsciously distorting ones perception of reality - Mainly outlined by Anna Freud

Denial refusal to acknowledge anxiety-producing situations Repression refusal to consciously remember an unacceptable event Rationalization making up acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior Reaction Formation forming a reaction that is the opposite of an unacceptable thought Projection placing ones unacceptable thoughts onto others Displacement redirecting feelings from a threatening target to a less threatening one Regression falling back on childlike patterns as a way of coping with stressful situations Identification trying to become like someone else to deal with ones anxiety Compensation/ Substitution becoming superior in other areas to make up for weaknesses Sublimation turning socially unacceptable behavior urges into socially acceptable behavior Stages of Personality Development Erogenous Zone area of the body that produces pleasurable feelings Fixation disorder in which the person does not fully resolve the conflict in a particular psychosexual stage, resulting in personality traits and behavior associated with that earlier stage; behavioral manifestations of unresolved conflicts from earlier psychosexual stage 1. Oral Stage: Weaning and Oral Fixation Age: birth to 1 years old Focus of pleasure: Mouth; oral activities sucking, feeding Development of the ID Focus of conflict: weaning Difficulties at this stage result to: o Inability to form interpersonal attachment o Basic feelings about the world o Oral Fixation Oral forms of aggression: chain smoking, gum chewing, over reacting, over drinking, gossiping,

talking too much, being argumentative, excessive debating 2. Anal Stage: Toilet Training and Anal Fixation Age: 1 to 3 years old Focus of pleasure: anus; bowel control Focus of conflict: toilet training Ego development Difficulties at this stage affect later o Sense of competence and control o Stubbornness and rebellious behavior o Anal Fixations: Anal expulsive personality: slobs, destructive and hostile Anal retentive personality: stingy, stubborn and excessively neat 3. Phallic Stage Age: 3 to 6 years old Focus of pleasure: genitals, masturbation Focus of conflict: sexual awareness, castration anxiety and penis envy, Oedipus and Electra complex Castration Anxiety fear of losing the penis for boys Penis Envy what girls experience for not having a penis Resolution: repress sexual feelings for opposite-sex parent and identify with same-sex parent Difficulties at this stage affect later o Development of conscience (super ego) o Phallic fixations: Immature sexual attitudes, promiscuity and flirtatiousness or excess modesty, vanity, mamas boy or daddys girl 4. Latency Stage Age: 6 years old to puberty Focus of pleasure: dormant period for psychosexual development, social skills Focus: school, play, same-sex friendship 5. Genital Stage Age: Puberty onwards Focus of pleasure: sexual behavior

Focus of conflicts: sexually relationship with partner Difficulties at this stage affect o Immature love or indiscriminate hate

Evaluation of Psychoanalytic Perspective Defense mechanisms and unconscious mind are supported by research Concepts are difficult to test and unverifiable o Subjective interpretations of dreams and childhood memories Very deterministic and pessimistic viewof human beings Focus on sex and male bias NEO-FREUDIANS Carl Jung His father was a Hebrewpastor and his mother was eccentric with bouts of depression Believed he had two personalities o Normal schoolboy o Grown man from the past Had fainting spells when its time to go to school Carved a wooden mannequin at the end of his ruler and wrote letters to it in his secret language Medical psychiatrist Freuds crown prince Analytical Psychology o Personal Unconscious o Collective Unconscious memories shared by all members of the human species o Archetypes collective, universal human memories Manifestations of the Collective Unconscious Characters and Themes in: dreams, art, movies and stories Hero The Quest Shadow (the dark side of your personality; the side of your personality that is shown is called persona) Wise old man Animus/Anima

Characters in your dreams are manifestations of your own archetypes

Alfred Adler Life o Sickly as a young child Had rickets until 4 years old Almost died of pneumonia at 5 years old Run over twice in the street Average student o Experienced feeling of inferiority and was very competitive towards his older brother o Individual Psychology The driving force behind all human endeavors, emotions and thoughts is because one seeks for superiority Inferiority feelings Compensation Inferiority and Superiority Complex Birth order o Birth order and personality First born Tend to overachieve Overcompensation for feelings of inferiority after being dethroned by younger siblings Younger children Has inferiority complex Middle children Can be very competitive Karen Horney Life o Parents often fought and later divorced o Dad and mom favored her older brother o Very independent character o Early feminist One of the very fewfemale doctors Womb envy The need for men to compensate for their inability to bear children by excelling in their careers

Relational Theory o Need for security o Basic anxiety anxiety created in a child born into a world that is so much bigger and more powerful than the child o Three strategies Moving towards people Dependent and clingy Moving against people Aggressive, demanding, cruel Moving away from people Withdrawal from relationships

Erik Erikson Life o Jewish of Danish descent o Problems with identity and gaining social acceptance o Product of mothers extramarital affair o Circumstances of birth was kept hidden from him o Was teased for being Nordic in temple school o Was teased for being a Jewin grammar school o Emigrated to the US to escape the Nazis Psychosocial Theory of Personality Development o Emphasized the importance of social relationships BEHAVIORIST AND SOCIAL CONGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE Behaviorists researchers who use the principles of conditioning to explain the actions and reactions of both humans and animals Social Cognitive Theorists researchers who emphasize the influence of social and cognitive factors on learning Personality is nothing more than a set of learned responses or habits HABIT set of well-learned responses that have become automatic Personality is determined by external factors (environment reinforcers) Personality can change throughout life

Social Cognitive View learning theory that includes cognitive processes such as anticipating, judging, memory and imitation of models Albert Bandura Believes that three factors influence one anther in determining the patterns of behavior that make up personality: o ENVIRONMENT o BEHAVIOR ITSELF o PERSONAL OR COGNITIVE FACTORS from earlier experiences Bandura called this relationship RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM SELF-EFFICACY a persons expectancy of howeffective his/her efforts to accomplish a goal will be in any particular circumstance Self-efficacy can be high or lowdepending on what has happened in the past, what other people tell them about their competence and their own assessment of their abilities Julian Rotter People are motivated to seek reinforcement and avoid punishment Personality is a relatively stable set of potential responses to various situations LOCUS OF CONTROL the tendency for people to assume that either they have control or do not have control over events and consequences in their lives o Internal in locus of control people who assume that their own actions and decisions directly affect the consequences they experience o External in locus of control people who assume that their lives are controlled by powerful others such as luck o Two key factors influencing a persons decision to act in a certain way given a particular situation: EXPECTANCY and REINFORCEMENT VALUE o EXPECTANCY a persons subjective feeling that a particular behavior will lead to a reinforcing consequence BF Skinner Life o A creative inventor as a young child Potato shooting machine Berry separator

o Aspired to be a writer o Interested in the process of learning Operant Conditioning o Personality is learned through Rewards and Punishment Evaluation of Behaviorist Perspective Has scientific proof Too simplistic o Does not take into account mental processes Social Cognitive Learning Theory (Albert Bandura) o Personality is learned through observations, modeling and cognitive processes

HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE Third force in psychology that focuses on those aspects of personality that make people uniquely human, such as subjective feelings and freedom of choice Personality is determined by the innate human ability to make choices that will lead to growth Emphasized: o Optimistic viewof individuals o The present o Individual responsibility o Promotes self-actualization: striving to fulfill ones innate potentials Abraham Maslow Life o Came from a poor family of Russian immigrants to US o First of seven children Maslows Hierarchy of Needs o Deficiency needs Survival Physiological needs, safety needs, belonging and love needs, esteem needs o Growth needs Fulfillment and meaning Need to knowand understand, aesthetic needs

o When one has achieved self-actualization, one wants to meet transcendence (when you help others to be selfactualized) Carl Rogers and Self Concept Self-Actualizing Tendency striving for fulfillment of ones innate capacities and capabilities Self-Concept the image of oneself that develops from interactions with important, significant people in ones life o Real Self ones perception of actual characteristics, traits and abilities o Ideal Self ones perception of whom one should be or would like to be Positive Regard warmth, affection, love and respect that come from significant others o Conditional Positive Regard given only when the person is doing what the providers of positive regard wish o Unconditional Positive Regard given without conditions or strings attached Fully-Functioning Person is in touch with and trusting of the deepest, innermost urges and feelings TRAIT PERSPECTIVE Describe Personality to predict behavior TRAIT a consistent and enduring way of thinking, feeling or behaving Gordon Allport 18000 words from the dictionary 200 traits o Different combinations make up unique personalities Raymond Cattel Surface traits o Personality traits easily seen Source traits o Underlying basic traits 16 Personality Factors (16PF) Introversion tendency to withdrawfrom excessive stimulation McCrae and Costa Five-Factor Model/ Big Five Model

Openness: willingness to try newthings Conscientiousness: organization and motivation Extraversion: outgoingness and sociability Agreeableness: basic emotional style of a person Neuroticism: emotional stability Walter Mischel Trait Situation Interaction the assumption that the particular circumstances of any given situation will influence the way in which a trait is expressed Behavioral Genetics devoted to the study of just howmuch of an individuals personality is due to inherited traits

Assessment of Personality Interviews psychoanalysts, humanistic therapists Projective tests psychoanalysts Behavioral Assessments behavioral and social cognitive therapists Personality Inventories trait theorists INTERVIEW Method in which the professional asks questions of the client and allows the client to answer in a structured or unstructured fashion Relies on self-report HALO EFFECT tendency to form a favorable or unfavorable impression of someone at the first meeting PROJECTIVE TESTS Personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and asks the client to respond PROJECTION placing unacceptable thoughts onto others, as if those actually belonged to others Subjective Interpretation; have problems with reliability and validity

Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Sentence Completion Test, House-Tree-Person Test BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENTS Direct Observation Rating Scale assessment in which a numerical value is assigned to specific behavior that is listed in the scale Frequency Count the frequency of a particular behavior is counted Problems: Observer effect and observer bias PERSONALITY INVENTORY Questionnaire that has a standard list of questions and only requires certain specific answers 16PF, OCEAN, MMPI-II (based on the 5 factor model that tests abnormal behavior patterns in personality), MBTI

Long Test 4 CHAPTER 11 Explanatory Style: Optimists and Pessimists Optimists people who always tend to look for positive outcomes Pessimists always seem to expect the worst to happen Pessimists are found to have a much higher death rate Optimists are less likely to develop learned helplessness Optimists are more likely than pessimists to take care of their health by preventive measures because they believe that their actions make a difference in what happens to them Optimists are far less likely than pessimists to become depressed is associated with morality because of the effect of depression on the immune system Optimists have more effectively functioning immune systems than pessimists, perhaps because they experience less psychological stress

Advice on howto keep a positive outlook: Alternative thinking Downward social comparison Relaxation Howto be an optimistic thinker: When a bad mood strikes, stop and think about what just went wrong in your head When youve recognized the negative statements, treat them as if they came from someone else someone who is trying to make you life miserable. Think about the damage the statement is doing to you. Argue with those thoughts. Challenge each negative statement and replace it with a more positive statement. Positive Benefits of Social Support Social Support System network of friends, family members, neighbors, coworkers, and others who can offer help to a person in need. Social support can make a stressor seem less threatening because people with such support knowthat there is help available Coping with Stress Coping Strategies actions that people take to master, tolerate, reduce or minimize the effects of stressors; they can include both behavioral strategies and psychological strategies Problem-Focused Coping coping strategy that tries to eliminate the source of a stress or reduce its impact through direct actions Emotion-Focused Coping coping strategy that changes the impact of a stressor by changing the emotional reaction to the stressor Meditation mental series of exercises meant to refocus attention and achieve a trancelike state of consciousness Concentrative Meditation form of meditation in which a person focuses the mind on some repetitive or unchanging stimulus so that the mind can be cleared of disturbing thoughts and the body can experience relaxation

Receptive Meditation form of meditation in which a person attempts to become aware of everything in immediate conscious experience or an expansion of consciousness

Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Focus on Wellness Wellness defined as practice of behaviors and lifestyle choices that promote both physical and mental health o Exercise o Get involved with others o Get some sleep o Eat healthy food o Have some fun o Manage your time o Take a deep breath CHAPTER 12: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Social Psychology scientific study of how a persons behavior, thoughts and feelings are influenced by real, imagined, or implied presence of others; the three main areas of social psychology are: social influence, social cognition and social interaction.

Social Influence: Conformity, Compliance and Obedience Social Influence the process through which the real or implied presence of others can directly or indirectly influence the thoughts, feelings and behavior of an individual Conformity changing ones own behavior to match that of other people o Aschs Classic Study of Conformity Conformity is increased with each newconfederate until there were four confederates Conformity decreased if there was just one confederate who gave the correct answer o Groupthink kind of thinking that occurs when people place more importance on maintaining group cohesiveness than on assessing the facts of the problem with which the group is concerned

Invulnerability members feel that they cannot fail Rationalization members explain away warning signs and help each other rationalize their decision Lack of Introspection members do not examine the ethical implications of their decision because they believe that they cannot make immoral choices Stereotyping members stereotype their enemies as weak, stupid or unreasonable Pressure members pressure each other not to question the prevailing opinion Lack of disagreement members do not express opinions that differ from the group consensus Self-deception members share in the illusion that they all agree with the decision Insularity members prevent the group from hearing disruptive but potentially useful information from people who are outside the group Howto prevent groupthink: Remain impartial Seek opinion of others Secret ballot vote Hold each member responsible for the groups decision Compliance changing ones behavior as a result of other people directing or asking for the change o Foot-in-the-door technique asking for a small commitment and after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment o Door-in-the-face technique asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment Norm of Reciprocity assumption that if someone does something for a person, that person should do something for the other in return o Lowball Technique getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of the commitment

o That s-not-all technique the persuader makes an offer and then adds something extra to make the offer look better before the target person can make a decision Obedience changing ones behavior at the command of an authority figure

Source Message Target Audience Elaboration Likelihood Model model of persuasion stating that people will either elaborate on the persuasive message or fail to elaborate on it and that the future actions of those who do elaborate are more predictable than those who do not Central-Route Processing type of information processing that involves attending to the content of the message itself Peripheral-Route Processing type of information processing that involves attending to factors not involved in the message, such as the appearance of the source of the message, the length of the message and other non-content factors o Cognitive Dissonance sense of discomfort or distress that occurs when a persons behavior does not correspond to that persons attitudes One must change their conflicting behavior to make it match their attitudes One must change their current conflicting cognition to justify their behavior One must form new cognitions to justify their behavior Impression Formation forming of the first knowledge that a person has concerning another person o Social Categorization assignment of a person one has just met to a category based on characteristics the new person has in common with other people with whom one has had experience in the past Stereotype a set of characteristics that people believe is shared by all members of a particular social category o Implicit Personality Theory sets of assumptions about how different types of people, personality traits and actions are related to each other

Task Performance Social Facilitation the tendency for the presence of other people to have a positive impact on the performance of an easy work; positive influence of others on performance Social Impairment the tendency for the presence of other people to have a negative impact on the performance of a difficult task Social Loafing the tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with others on that task Social Cognition: Attitudes, Impression Formation and Attribution Social Cognition focuses on the ways in which people think about other people and how those cognitions influence behavior toward those other people Attitudes tendency to respond positively or negatively toward a certain person, object, idea or situation; learned through experiences and contact with others and even through direct instruction from parents, etc, o ABC Model of Attitudes Affective Component way person feels toward the object, idea, or person; emotional component Behavior Component action that a person takes in regard to the person, object or situation Cognitive Component the way a person thinks about a person, object or situation o Attitude Formation Direct Contact Direct Instruction Interaction with others Vicarious Conditioning (Observational Learning) o Attitude Change: The Art of Persuasion Persuasion the process by which one person tries to change the belief, opinion, position or course of action of another person through argument, pleading or explanation

Attribution process of explaining ones own behavior and the behavior of others o Attribution Theory theory of how people make attributions Situational Cause cause of behavior attributed to external factors Dispositional Cause cause of behavior attributed to internal factors Fundamental Attribution Error correspondence bias or actor-observer bias; tendency of people to overestimate the influence of internal factors in determining behavior while underestimating situational factors

Social Interaction: Prejudice, Love and Aggression Prejudice negative attitude held by a person about the members of a particular social group Discrimination treating people differently because of prejudice toward the social group to which they belong In-groups social groups with whom a person identifies with Out-groups social groups with whom a person does not identify with Realistic Conflict Theory prejudice and discrimination will be increased between groups that are in conflict over a limited resource Scapegoat person or a group, typically a member or members of an out-group who serves as the target for the frustrations and negative emotions of members of the in-group Social Cognitive Theory refers to the use of cognitive processes in relation to understanding the social world Social Identity Theory theory in which the formation of a persons identity within a particular social group is explained by social categorization, social identity and social comparison Social Identity part of ones self-concept that includes the view of oneself as a member of a particular social group within the social category Social Comparison the comparison of oneself to others in ways that raise ones self esteem

Stereotype Vulnerability refers to the effect that a persons knowledge of anothers stereotyped opinions can have on the persons behavior Self-Fulfilling Prophecy the tendency of ones expectations to affect ones behavior in such a way as to make the expectations more likely to occur Stereotype vulnerability is highly related to stereotype threat in which members of a stereotyped group are made anxious and wary of any situation in which their behavior might confirm a stereotype Overcoming Prejudice education o Equal Status Contact contact between groups in which the groups have equal status with neither group having power over the other o Jigsaw Classroom educational technique in which each individual is given only a part of the information needed to solve a problem, causing the separate individuals to be forced to work together to find the solution Interpersonal Attraction liking or having the desire for a relationship with another person Rules of Attraction o Physical Attractiveness o Proximity refers to being physically near someone else o Reciprocity of Liking tendency of people to like other people who like them in return The only time that liking someone does not seem to make that person like the other in return is if a person suffers from feelings of lowself-worth o The Chemistry of Attraction Pheromones Robert Sternbergs Triangular Theory of Love o Intimacy feelings of closeness that one has for another person or the sense of having close emotional ties to another o Passion emotional and sexual arousal a person feels toward the other person o Commitment involves the decisions one makes about a relationship

o o o o o o o

Liking intimacy only Romantic love intimacy + passion Infatuation passion only Fatuous love passion + commitment Empty love commitment only Companionate love intimacy + commitment Consummate love intimacy + passion + commitment

Aggression and Prosocial Behavior o Aggression behavior intended to hurt or destroy another person Frustration-aggression hypothesis Testosterone Pain Alcohol o Social Roles pattern of behavior that is expected of a person who is in a particular social position o Prosocial Behavior socially desirable behavior that benefits others rather than brings them harm Altruism prosocial behavior that is done with no expectation of reward and may involve the risk of harm to oneself o Bystander Effect refers to the finding that the likelihood of a bystander to help someone in trouble decreases as the number of bystanders increases o Diffusion of Responsibility phenomenon in which a person fails to take responsibility for either action or inaction because of the presence of other people who are seen to share the responsibility o Five Decision Points in Helping Behavior Noticing Defining an emergency Taking responsibility Planning a course of action Taking action

What is Abnormal? Statistical Definition frequently occurring behavior would be considered normal and behavior that is rare is abnormal Social Norm Deviance abnormal is something that goes against the norms or standards of the society where the individual lives Subjective Discomfort one sign of abnormality is when the person experiences a great deal of emotional distress while engaging in particular behavior Danger to Self/Others Inability to function normally maladaptive behavior Abnormality or Psychological Disorders any pattern of behavior that causes people significant distress, causes them to harm themselves or others, or harms their ability to function in daily life Models of Abnormality Biological Model model of explaining behavior as caused by biological changes in the chemical, structural or genetic systems of the body Psychological Models o Psychodynamic View explains disordered behavior as the result of repressing ones threatening thoughts, memories, etc. in the unconscious mind o Behaviorism o Cognitive Perspective abnormal behavior results from illogical thinking Biopsychosocial Perspective abnormal behavior is seen as the result of the combined and interacting forces of biological, psychological, social and cultural influences Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) Axis I clinical disorders Axis II personality disorders and mental retardation Axis III general medical conditions Axis IV psychosocial and environmental problems Axis V global assessment of functioning

CHAPTER 14: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Psychopathology the study of abnormal behavior Trepanning process of cutting holes into the skull of a living person

Mood Disorders disturbance in emotion and are also referred to as affective disorders Dysthymia moderate depression that lasts for 2 years or more and is typically a reaction to some external stressor Cyclothymia disorder that consists of mood swings from moderate depression to hypomania (episodes of elation) and lasts for 2 years or more Major Depression severe depression that comes on suddenly and seems to have no external cause Major depression unipolar disorder because the emotional problem exists at only one end or the emotional range Bipolar Disorder the emotions cycle between the two poles of possible emotions