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UNIT 1: MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATIONS

Contents: 1) Introduction 2) Multimedia Information Representation 3) Multimedia Networks 4) Multimedia Applications 5) Media Types 6) Communication Modes 7) Network Types 8) Multipoint Conferencing 9) Network QOS
10) Application QOS

Instructional Objectives: At the end of the unit, the student should be able to: 1. Define multimedia signal. 2. Understand the representation of multimedia information. 3. Illustrate the use of various networks for multimedia communication. 4. Interpret the various applications of multimedia for interpersonal, interactive and entertainment purposes. 5. Identify the various terminologies used for multimedia applications. 6. Explain the working of multipoint conferencing. 7. Understand the quality of Service issues for networks and applications.
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1 INTRODUCTION:
In the era of information technology, we are dealing with free flow of information with no barriers of distance. Information is generally represented by multimedia. Multimedia means the information being transferred is composed of one or more of the following media types: - Text: Comprises of Unformatted (strings of characters from limited character set) and formatted texts (electronic documents). - Images: Comprises of Computer-generated images (lines, curves and circles) and digitized images (pictures) - Audio: Comprises of Low-fidelity speech (telephony) and high-fidelity stereophonic music (DVD, mp3) - Video: Comprises of moving images and complete movies. 1.1 Applications of multimedia: The applications of multimedia can be categorised into two categories: 1. Person to person communication This involves two people communicating with each other using terminal equipment (TE). Example: mobile communication. 2. Person to system communication This involves a person communicating with a server or a workstation. Example: Set-top box television. 1.2 Multimedia Networks:

Basically there are two types of networks. The first one comprises of networks that were developed initially to support only one type of data. Due to the advancement of technology they can now accommodate various other kinds of data as well. One such example is the Public switched telephone networks (PSTN) initially designed to provide speech services. However, due to the advances in Digital Signal Processing (DSP) hardware and software now can support multimedia applications.
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The second comprises of networks that were developed to support multimedia communication services. Example: Data networks that support data applications (email and ftp) along with other variety of services.

2 MULTIMEDIA INFORMATION REPRESENTATIONS:

Text: Block of characters, each represented by a fixed number of binary digits (bits) known as codeword. Digitized image: Two-dimensional block of picture elements represented by a fixed number of bits. Both text and image require less amount of time for the overall transaction (downloading). Audio and Video: Type of signal is known as an analog signal and varies continuously with time. The duration involving audio and video require a long time. Example: a telephone conversation can last for several minutes while a movie (audio + video) can last for a number of hours.

Single type of media - basic form of representation of a specific media type is used. Mixed media applications involving text and images (Textbook/notes) or audio and video (movie) their basic form is used, since the two media types in these applications have the same form representation. Integrated media (text, images, audio and video) - Must convert all the four media into a suitable digital form. Text and image are in digital in nature, but audio and video are basically analog in nature and needs to be converted to digital.

3 MULTIMEDIA NETWORKS:
Following 5 types of networks are used to provide multimedia communication services: 3.1 Telephone Networks 3.2 Data Networks 3.3 Broadcast Television Networks 3.4 Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN) 3.5 Broadband Multiservice Networks Multi service NB: The first 3 networks were initially developed to support only single type of service like,
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telephony, data communications and television respectively. But later came to be used for host of other services. The last 2 services were developed to support multiple services. 3.1 Telephone Networks: Public switched telephone networks were basically used to provide basic switched telephone service. They are also currently known as Plain Old Telephone Service (POTs) The term switched means a subscriber can make a call to any other telephone on the network. PSTN (public switched telephone network) is the world's collection of interconnected voice-oriented public telephone networks, both commercial and governmentowned. Currently the network is almost entirely digital in technology except for the final link from the central (local) telephone office to the user. The network component is as illustrated in fig 3.1.1.

Fig 3.1.1: PSTN Network Components

Telephones in the home or in a small business are connected directly to their nearest local exchange/end office. Telephones in a large office are connected to a private switching office known as private branch exchange (PBX). PBX provides free service between two telephones that are connected to it. A PBX is a telephone system within an enterprise that switches calls between enterprise users on local lines while allowing all users to share a certain number of external phone
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lines. The main purpose of a PBX is to save the cost of requiring a line for each user to the telephone company's central office. PBX is connected to the local exchange and this enables phones connected to the PBX to make calls through PSTN too. Cellular phone networks Provides service to mobile subscribers. The switches used in a cellular phone network are known as Mobile Switching Centers (MSC). International calls are routed to and switched by international gateway exchanges (IGE). Speech signals (analog signals), are converted into analog electrical signals with the help of microphones before they are transmitted through the telephone network. Hence the telephone networks operate in the circuit mode. In this mode, a separate circuit is set up through the network for each call for the duration of the call. Access Circuits link the telephone handsets to a PSTN or PBX and carry two-way analog signals associated with a call. Within a PSTN, all the switches and the circuits operate in a digital mode. But these digital signals have to be accessed over access circuits (subscriber end), which are analog circuits we need to use a modem. The same is illustrated in fig 3.1.2.

Fig 3.1.2: Modem used for providing digital service over analog access circuits.

Modems are used to provide switched digital service. From fig 3.1.2, at the transmission end the modems converts a digital data into analog data which is similar to the speech signal and is transmitted over the PSTN network. At the receiving end another modem converts the analog data into digital data.
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Earlier modems provided a data rate of 300 bps, but currently provide 56 kbps of data rate.

By the use of modems and improvement in DSP techniques, in the telephony network, along with a telephony speech signal we have an additional high data rate channel. This additional high data rate channel is used to provide entertainment related applications involving high resolution audio and video. The same is illustrated in fig 3.1.3.

Fig 3.1.3: Multiple Service by the use of a high speed modem

3.2 Data Networks: These networks were designed to provide basic data communication services such as email and general file transfer. The user equipment is a PC or a workstation. Most widely deployed networks: X.25 network (low bit rate data) not suitable for multimedia and the Internet (Interconnected Networks which use the same communication protocol). Communication protocol is a set of rules (defines the sequence and syntax of the messages) that are adhered to by all communicating parties for the exchange of information/data. Internet is also termed as the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI)- is a standard description or "reference model" for how messages should be transmitted between any two points in a telecommunication network. Fig 3.2.1 shows the various types of networks that can be connected to the Internet.

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Fig 3.2.1: Illustration of various types of networks that can be connected to the Internet

From the fig 3.2.1, the user at a home or a small business, to access the internet uses an Internet Service provider (ISP) network. The user is connected to the ISP either through PSTN modems or Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN). From fig 3.2.1 business users obtain access either through site network (single site) or through an enterprise-wide private network (multiple sites). Universities and colleges, with single campus use a network known as the Local Area Network (LAN). However bigger universities with more than one campus use enterprise wide network. In enterprise wide networks, the multiple sites are interconnected through an intersite backbone network. If the communication protocols of the computers on the network are the same as the internet protocols then the network is known as an intranet (e.g large companies and universities). All types of networks are connected to the to the internet backbone network using a gateway (router). Router is a device or, in some cases, software in a computer, that takes care of the routing and communication of all messages in the network. All data networks operate in Packet mode. A packet is a container for a block of data, and the address of the intended recipient computer which is used to route the packet through the
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network. This mode of operation is chosen because normally the data associated with data applications is in discrete block format. With the new multimedia PCs packet mode networks are used to support in addition to the data communication applications a range of multimedia applications involving audio, video and speech.

3.3 Broadcast Television networks:

Broadcast television networks support the diffusion of analog television programs to a wider geographical area via a cable distribution network or a satellite/terrestrial broadcast network (for larger areas). The broadcast television provides a host of services like gaming and shopping along with the regular television services. This is because of the availability of a low data rate return channel from the user end to the service provider.

The general architecture of a cable distribution network is shown in fig 3.3.1.

Fig 3.3.1: Broadcast television network using cable network.

A cable modem integrated into the STB (set-top-box) provides both a low bit rate channel (connects the subscriber to the PSTN) and a high bit rate channel (connects to the Internet) from the subscriber back to the cable head-end. A set-top box is a device that enables a television set to become a user interface to the Internet and also enables a television set to receive and decode digital television (DTV) broadcasts. DTV set-top boxes are sometimes called receivers. The general architecture of a satellite/terrestrial broadcast network is shown in fig 3.3.2. In Satellite and broadcast networks by integrating a high speed modem into the STB, a range of interactive services can be supported. This is the origin of the term interactive television.
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Fig 3.3.2: Broadcast television network using satellite/terrestrial network.

3.4 Integrated Services Digital Networks: Started to develop in the early 1980s to provide PSTN users the capability to have additional services. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) in concept is the integration of both analog/voice data together with digital data over the same network. It supports 2 telephone calls simultaneously or a telephone call and a data call. The various services provided by an ISDN is illustrated in fig 3.4.1.

Fig 3.4.1: Various services provided by the ISDN

The various services provided by the ISDN are explained below 1. The access circuit in an ISDN is a DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) which brings highbandwidth information to homes and small businesses over ordinary copper telephone lines. DSL service helps to receive continuous transmission of motion video, audio, and even 3-D effects. 2. The data rate of DSL is 64 kbps, for one channel. And the DSL supports two 64 Kbps channels, and is called the basic rate access. The DSL lines can be used as a single 128 kbps channel (using aggregator circuit) or two independent 64 kbps channels for carrying both data
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and voice signals and the data part of the line is continuously connected. 3. The service provided by the ISDN has been enhanced to support a single switched channel of p x 64 kbps, where p = 1,2.30. 4. The ISDN also supports a channel with a higher data rate of 1.5/2Mbps. 5. All the above services are apart from regular analog telephony services. 3.5 Broadband Multiservice Networks:

Broadband Circuits associate with a call could have bit rates in excess of the maximum bit rate of 2Mbps 30X64 kbps provided by ISDN. They were designed as a next generation technology after ISDN and hence are also called as Broadband integrated services digital network (B-ISDN). The different types of media require different data rates, while PSTN or ISDN are inflexible to the varying data rates of the media. In B-ISDN, all different media types are converted in the source equipment into a digital form, integrated together and divided into multiple fixed-sized packets (cells) and hence provides a flexible way of transmitting and switching the multimedia information. Because of the use of cells, it is easy to integrate the traffic.

The cells are of different rates, and hence the mode of operation through the network varies and is called as asynchronous transfer mode (ATM). Thus broadband multiservice are also called as ATM networks or cell switching networks. Examples are ATM LANs and ATM MANs. An example of ATM broadband multiservice network is as illustrated in fig 3.5.1.

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Fig 3.5.1: ATM Broadband multiservice network example

In the fig 3.5.1, the ATM MAN is used as a high speed back bone network to interconnect ATM LANs and also the older version of high speed LANs.

4 MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS:
The various multimedia applications can be categorized as follows: 4.1 Interpersonal Communications: involves speech, image, text or video 4.2 Interactive Applications over the Internet: Browsing, sales, literature, etc. 4.3 Entertainment Applications: Movie/Video on demand, interactive television 4.1 Interpersonal Communications: 4.1.1 Interpersonal Communication using only speech: Traditional interpersonal communication involving speech was provided by using telephones connected to either PSTN/ISDN or PBX hub. The same is illustrated in fig 4.1.1. Today multimedia PC equipped with a microphone and speakers can be used to make telephone calls. This technology is known as computer telephony integration (CTI). The advantages of CTI over regular telephony are:
The users can create their own private directory of numbers and can initiate a call simply

by selecting the desired numbers from the PC screen.

Provides access circuit to the network with more capacity known as the bandwidth.

Integration of the PC based network services with the telephony is possible.

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Fig 4.1.1: Public & private switched telephone network

Additional services provided by the public and private networks are: Voice mail: Used in the event of the called party being unavailable. The voice mail is saved in the server mailbox and can be read by the owner next time they contact the server Teleconferencing: Involves multiple interconnected telephones/PCs. Each person can talk to all the others involved in the call. This is known as a conference call. A central unit called an audio bridge provides the necessary support to set up the call automatically. Internet telephony: initially supported computer-to-computer communications. Today the technology is extended to computer-to-telephony is possible. The same is shown in fig 4.1.2

Fig 4.1.2: Internet Telephony

To make a PC-to-PC telephone call the standard addresses that identify the PC on the network are used same as in a data transfer application However, since the internet operates in a packet mode necessary conversion software and hardware is mandatory in both the PCs. This type of telephony is known as Voice over IP (VoIP) To make a call using a PC connected to the Internet to a telephone connected to a PSTN/ISDN an interworking unit known as telephony gateway is necessary. Initially the PC user sends a request to make a telephone call to a preallocated gateway
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using its internet address. If the user is registered the gateway will request the phone number to establish the call from the PC. On receipt of this the source gateway will initiate a call with the gateway nearest to the called party. The called gateway then establishes the call to the recipient telephone using its telephone number and the call setup procedures. If the called party answers then a signal is sent back by the recipient gateway to the PC user via the source gateway.

4.1.2 Interpersonal Communication using Image only: Facsimile or fax is used to exchange electronic images or documents over PSTN/ISDN and is shown below in fig 4.1.3.

Fig 4.1.3: Facsimile

As shown in fig 4.1.3, the image only communication requires a pair of fax machines, one at each termination point. Both fax machines have an internal modem in them. Steps in using fax are:

Step1: Initially the caller keys in the telephone number of the intended recipient and a circuit is set up through the network. Step2: The two fax machines communicate with each other to establish operational parameters. Step3: The sending machine starts to scan and digitized each page of the document in turn and is simultaneously transmitted over the network. Step4: After the final page has been sent/received, the connection through the network is cleared by the calling machine. PC can also be used instead of a normal fax machine. The PC can send an electronic version of a document stored directly within the PCs memory. This requires a telephone interface card and associated software. In addition it is possible to send digitised documents over other enterprise network (LAN interface card and software required).
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4.1.3 Interpersonal Communication using text only: An example of interpersonal communications involving just text is email. The user terminal is normally a PC or a work station. Associated with each network is a server. Each is known as an email server and they contain mailboxes for each user connected to the network. The same is illustrated in fig 4.1.4.

Fig 4.1.4: E-mail Transfer

Users at home, access the internet through the PSTN/ISDN and ISP. Large corporations and companies, obtain access through enterprise network or site/campus network. Each one is known as an email server.

4.1.4 Interpersonal communication using both text and images: An example of an application that involves both text and images integrated together is computersupported cooperative working (CSCW). The network used is Intranet, Internet or LAN, and is shown in fig 4.1.5.

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Fig 4.1.5: CSCW

A distributed group of people working on the same project can share each others display. This is known as shared whiteboard. The CSCW comprises a central whiteboard program and a linked set of subprograms in each PC/workstation with a shared window or workspace (shared whiteboard).

4.1.5 Interpersonal communication using both speech and video: An application which involves both speech and video is the video telephony. The same is illustrated in fig 4.1.6. As can be seen from the figure the terminals/PCs incorporate a video camera in addition to the microphone and speaker. The network must provide sufficient bandwidth to support the integrated speech and video generated.

Fig 4.1.6: Video Telephony Another application is the desktop videoconferencing call, where several interconnected PC users in geographically distributed sites can share speech and video between various locations. To support video conferencing a central unit called a multipoint control unit (MCU) is used, as illustrated in fig 4.1.7. This selects a single information stream to send to each participant hence reducing the communication bandwidth.

Fig 4.1.7: Use of MCU in desktop video calling

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Another application is the Multicasting in which all transmissions from any of the
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PCs/workstations belong to a predefined group are received by all the other members of the group. Using multicasting eliminates the need for an MCU unit and is illustrated in fig 4.1.8.

Fig 4.1.8: Multicasting Many to many video conferencing are also possible. A group of people present at each location must contain audio and video equipments and are known as videoconferencing studios. Each studio will have few cameras, a large-display, and associated audio equipment. These will be connected to a central unit called the videoconferencing system, and is illustrated in fig 4.1.9.

Fig 4.1.9: Many to many video conferencing system A multimedia email will consist of text, images, audio and video. Examples of email applications consisting media types other than text are Voice-mail, Video mail and multimedia mail. Voice-mail: With internet-based voice-mail, there is an associated voice-mail server. The user enters a voice message addressed to the intended recipient and the local recipients voice-mail server then relays this to the local recipient the next time he logs in.

4.2 Interactive Applications over the Internet: Applications such as home shopping, home banking, etc... The user may want to pass on information back to the server. This information might contain credit card details and personal details and hence a rigorous security procedure needs to be in place. This type of two way process is known as interactive application over the Web.
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The specification are: 1. Anchor The optional linkage points within documents are defined by the creator of the document and are known as anchors. 2. Hypertext Web documents comprising only text are created using hypertext.

3. Hypermedia Web documents comprising multimedia (Video, Sound) are created using hypermedia. 4. Browser The client function that is used to explore the total contents of the web.

4.3 Entertainment Applications: Entertainment applications are classified into: 4.3.1 Movie/video-on-demand 4.3.2 Interactive television 4.3.1 Movie/ video on demand: The entertainment applications require higher quality / resolution for video and audio since widescreen televisions and stereophonic sound are often used.

Fig 4.3.1: Movie on demand Normally the subscriber terminal comprises television with a selection deive for interation purposes. The user interactions are relayed to the server through a set-top-box (STB) which contains a high speed modem. By means of the menu the user can browse through the movies/videos and initiate the showing of a selected movie. This is known as Movie-ondemand or Video-on-demand. The Key feature of MOD is - Subscriber can initate the showing of a movie from a library of
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movies at any time of the day or night The Issues associated with MOD are:

- The server must be capable of playing out simultaneously a large number of video streams equal to the number of subscribers at any one time - This will require high speed information flow from the server (multi-movies + multi-copies) In order to avoid the heavy load there is another mode of operation used. In which requests are queued until the start of the next play time, as illustrated in fig 4.3.2. This mode of operation is known as the near movie-on-demand (N-MOD)

Fig 4.3.2: Timing graph of N-MOD

4.3.2 Interactive Television: The set-top box (STB) provides both a low bit rate connection to the PSTN and a high bit rate connection to the internet. Through the connection to the PSTN, the subscriber is able to actively respond to the information being broadcast. It is shown in fig 4.3.3.

Fig 4.3.3: Interactive Television

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The STB associated requires a high speed modem to provide the connections to the PSTN and the Internet.

Fig 4.3.4: Internet access in Television

5 MEDIA TYPES
The terms used with the multimedia communication is listed in the fig 5.1

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Fig 5.1: the terms used in Mulitmedia Communication The information associated with the different applications can be either continuous or blockmode: Continuous: The information is played out directly as it is received continuously (called streaming or real-time media) (E.g Audio and video). Block-mode: The source information is created in a timeindependent way and is often stored at the source in, say, a file. When requested it will be transferred across the network and displayed at a time specified by the requesting application (called downloading) (e.g. email consisting of a block of text).

6 COMMUNICATION MODES:

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Simplex: The information associated with the application flows in one direction only. Half-Duplex: Information flows in both directions but alternatively (two-way alternative).
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Duplex: Information flows in both directions simultaneously (Two-way simultaneous). This is illustrated in fig 6.2.

Fig 6.2: Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex Communication modes Broadcast: The information output by a single node is received by all the other nodes connected to the same network.

Fig 6.3: Broadcast Communication mode Multicast: The information output by the source is received by only a specific subset of the nodes (Latter form known as multicast group). It is represented in fig 6.4.

Fig 6.4: Multicast Communication mode

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In half-duplex and duplex communications, the bit rate associated with the flow of
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information in each direction can be equal (symmetric) or different (asymmetric). Video Telephony Symmetric duplex communication. Web browsing Asymmetric half-duplex mode (as different bit rates for downloading and uploading).

7 NETWORK TYPES:
There are 2 types of networks: 7.1 Circuit Mode 7.2 Packet Mode 7.1 Circuit Mode: This operates in a time-dependent manner and comprises an interconnected set of switching offices/exchanges to which the subscriber terminals/computers are connected. It is illustrated in fig 7.1.

Fig 7.1: Circuit Mode The steps involved in the circuit mode are: Step1: The source must set up the connection first through the network. Step2: Each subscriber terminal has a unique network wide address and to make a call the source first enters this number of the intended communication partner. Step3: The local switching office uses this number to set up a connection. Depending on the availability of the destination the connection will be established. Step4: Finally at the end of information exchange the call will be terminated by the source or the destination.
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The various terminologies involved in the circuit mode are: Signalling messages The messages associated with the setting up and clearing of a connection. Call/Connection setup delay The delay associated with the connection procedures.

7.2 Packet Mode: There are 2 types of packet modes: 7.2.1 Connection Oriented 7.2.2 Connectionless

7.2.1 Connection Oriented: As the name implies a connection is established prior to information interchange. The connection utilizes only a variable portion of the bandwidth of each link and known as virtual circuit (VC). Packet switching exchanges are used to establish VC as shown in fig 7.2.1

Fig 7.2.1: Connection oriented operation The operational details are: To set up a VC the source terminal sends a call request control packet to the local PSE which in addition to the source and destination addresses holds a short identifier known as virtual circuit identifier (VCI). Each PSE maintains a table that specifies the outgoing link to use to reach the network address. On receipt of the call request the PSE uses the destination address within the packet to determine the outgoing link.
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The next free identifier (VCI) for this link is selected and two entries are made in the routing table.

7.2.2 Connectionless Packet mode: In connectionless network, the establishment of a connection is not required and they can exchange information as and when they arrive. Each packet must carry the full source and destination address in its header in order for each PSE to route the packet onto the appropriate outgoing link (router term used rather than PSE).

Fig 7.2.2: Connectionless Packet Mode In both types each packet is stored in a memory buffer and a check is performed to determine if any transmission errors are present in the received message. (i.e 0 instead of a 1 or vice versa). If an error is detected then the packet is discarded known as best-effort service. All packets are transmitted at the maximum link bit rate. As packets may need to use the same link to transfer information an operation known as store-and-forward is used. The sum of the store and forward delays in each PSE/router contributes to the overall transfer delay of the packets and the mean of this delay is known as the mean packet transfer delay. The variation about the mean is known as the delay variation or jitter. Example of connectionless mode Internet. Examples of connection oriented network X.25 (text) and ATM (multimedia).

8. MULTIPOINT CONFERENCING
Multipoint conferencing is implemented in either of the 3 ways: 8.1 Centralized mode 8.2 Decentralized mode 8.3 Hybrid Mode
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8.1 Centralized mode: This mode is used with circuit switched networks such as PSTN and ISDN, and is shown in fig 8.1

Fig 8.1: Centralized Mode With this mode a central server is used. Prior to sending any information each terminal needs to set up a connection to the server. The terminal then sends the information to the server. The server then distributes this information to all the other terminals connected in the conference.

8.2 Decentralized mode: The decentralized mode is used with packet-switched networks that support multicast communications. Example LAN, Intranet, Internet.

Fig 8.2: Decentralized Mode The output of each terminal is received by all the other members of the conference/multicast group. Hence a conference server is not required and it is the responsibility of each terminal to manage the information streams that they receive from the other members.

8.3 Hybrid Mode: This type of mode is used when the terminals are connected to different network types. In this mode the server determines the output stream to be sent to each terminal.

Fig 8.3: Hybrid Mode

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9. NETWORK QoS:
Network Quality of Service parameters: Operational parameters associated with a communication channel through a network that determines the suitability of the channel in relation to its use for a particular application. Circuit-switched network: Bit Error Rate (BER) is the probability of a bit being corrupted during its transmission in a defined time interval. The transmission delay is determined by the bit rate used plus the codes (network interfaces) and propagation delay of the digital signal. Packet-switched network: Mean packet transfer rate is a measure of the average number of packets transferred per second. Mean Packet Error Rate (PER) is the probability of a received packet containing one or more bit errors. Most networks (circuit and packet switched) provide an unreliable service which is also known as a best-try or best-effort service. If the application accepts only error free blocks then it is necessary for the sending terminal to divide the source information into blocks of a defined maximum size and the destination to detect any missing blocks. When a block is missing then the destination must request for a copy of the block from the source. The service is then called a reliable service.

10. APPLICATION QoS:

The startup delay defines the amount of time that elapses between an application making a request to start a session and the confirmation being received at the destination. To transfer a large file from the server to your home computer using the packet switched (PW) and circuit switched (CS) networks: - PSTN (28.8kbps) and ISDN (64/128kbps) operate in CS mode and provide constant bit rate channel. - Cable modem operates in Packet Switch mode and the bit rate of the shared channel is 27Mbps.
Assuming the file size is 100Mbits, the minimum time to transmit the file using the different Internet access modes is: - PSTN and 28.8 kbps modem: 57.8 minutes - ISDN at 64 kbps: 26 minutes - ISDN at 128 kbps: 13 minutes - Cable modem at 27 Mbps: 3.7 seconds

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Fig 10.1: Transmission of a constant bit rate stream over a packet switched network The application quality of service is different from the network QoS. For example in an application involving images the parameters may include a minimum image resolution and size while a video may include the digitization format and the refresh rate. To overcome the effect of jitter a technique known as buffering is used. The same is shown in fig 10.2. The effect of jitter is overcome by retaining a defined number of packets in a memory buffer at the destination before playout of the information bit stream is started.

Fig 10.2: Use of Buffers to avoid jittering In order to determine whether a particular network can meet the QoS requirements of an Application a number of standard application service classes have been defined. Each service class has an associated set of QoS parameters defined. For networks that support different service classes ( i.e internet), the packets relating to each class are assigned a different priority. Real time streams have higher priority than packets relating to email.

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