Research Methodology

Chapter 1 : Scientific Methods and Research Design  Methods of knowing :(3) Intuition as a method of knowing. (4) Science as a method of knowing.

(1) Tenacity as a method of knowing. (2) Authority as a method of knowing. 

Scientific Methods Meaning :-

Scientific method is a set of prescribed procedures for establishing and connecting general laws about the events and for predicting the events yet to take place.
 Characteristics of Scientific method :(2) Generality and system. (3) Empirical verification.

(1) Critical Discrimination. 

Research Design Meaning :Research design is the plan,structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control the variance.

Types of Research Design :Research Design

Exploratory Research

Descriptive Design

Causal Design

Cross Sectional

Longitudinal

Natural

Controlled

Field Survey

Surveys

Criteria for Research Design :(1) Must answer the question. (3) Generalisability. (2) Control of the variables.
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Research Methodology

Sources of Experimental Errors :(5) Instrumentation. (6) Selection Bias. (7) Statistical Regression. (8) Mortality.

(1) History. (2) Maturation. (3) Premeasurement Effect. (4) Interactive Testing Effect.

Meaning of Hypothesis:-

A hypothesis is a proposition which the researcher wants to verify. It suggests a possible solution to the problem. It is a statement about the relationship between two or more variables.  Types of Hypothesis:(1) Descriptive. (2) Relational. Features of a Good Hypothesis:(1) It is simple. (3) It is quantifiable. (2) Minimum of possibilities. (4) It is Precise.

Procedure for Testing of Hypothesis:(1) State the Null and Alternatives Hypothesis.(Ho & H1) (2) Select the desired level of significance.(5% or 1%) (3) Select Appropriate statistical test(T,Z,Chisquare,F,) (4) Determine the rejection of critical regions. (5) Calculate the value of the test statistic appropriate for the sampling distribution. (6) Draw a statistical conclusion regarding the null Hypothesis.

Variables :Variables are properties of some event,object,or person that can take on different values or amounts. Types of Variables :(1) Discrete Variables. (2) Continuos Variables. (3) Dependent Variables. (4) Independent Variables. (5) Moderating Variables. (6) Intervening Variables. (7) Extaneous Variables.
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Research Methodology

Chapter 2 Research Process Definition of Research :-

1. Define Research Problem.

2. Extensive literature Survey.

3.Formulate Hypothesis. 4. Preparing Research Design

5. Determine Sample Design.

6. Data Collection.

7.Execution of Project.

8.Data Processing & Data Analysis.

9.Testing of Hypothesis.

10.Generalization & Interpretation.

11. Preparing the Research Report.

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Research Methodology

Chapter : 3 Secondary Data

 Meaning: Secondary Data Any data which has been gathered earlier by someone other person are secondary data in the hands of researcher.

Advantages of Secondary Data :-

(1) Economical. (2) Less time consuming. (3) Mental and Physical efforts are less. (4) Already analyzed.(no need to editing) (5) To Authenticity and correctness of primary data.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data :(1) Obsolete.(Lose validity, very past data)

(2) Units of measurement can be different. (5) May not be useful for our purpose.

(3) Inaccuracy and Lack of Reliability. (4) Lack of Completeness.

Sources of Secondary data.

INTERNAL DATA

EXTERNAL DATA

Ready to use data.

Data Requiring Processing.

Published Data

Computerized Databases

Data selling firms

General Sources

Government Sources International Sources

Online Databases

Off-line Databases

REMAINING : PROCESS OF SECONDARY DATA

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Research Methodology

Chapter : 4 Collection of Primary Data  Meaning of Data :The search for answer to research question is called collection of data. Data are facts,& other relevant materials, past and present, serving as bases for study & analysis. Data means the fact on which the decision is to be taken. Primary data collection.

1.
Observation Method

2.
Laboratory Experiments

3.
Field Experiments

4.
Survey Method

(1) Observation Method :Observation may be defined as Systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon under its natural setting for the purpose of gathering data for a particular study. y Advantages :(1) Directness. (2) Under natural setting. (3) Less biasing effect. (4) Mechanical device may be used. (5) Possible to capture whole event. y Disadvantages :(1) It is not useful for past events. (2) It is not suitable for studying opinions. (3) Wait for event occur. (4) slow and expensive process.  Methods/Application of Observation :-

(1) Structured-unstructured observation. (2) Disguised Undisguised observation. (3) Observation under Natural setting & Laboratory setting. (4) Direct- Indirect Observation. (5) Human- Mechanical Observation.

(2) Laboratory Experiments :y Meaning of Experiments :-

Experiment is a research process used to study the causal relationship. It aims at studying the effect of independent variable on a dependent variable.

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Research Methodology

y Advantages :(1) Laboratory Experiment is quite cost less in terms of resources. (2) An experiments yield exact results. (3) It enables a company to minimize chance that competitors will learn of its new ideas.

y Disadvantages :(1) Experimental situation. (2) Experimenter.

 Application of Laboratory Experiment :(1) Package test. (2) Advertisement test.

(3) Product test.

(3) Field Experiment :This is an experiment conducted in real life situation in which the experimenter manipulates an independent variable in order to test a hypothesis y Uses :(1) Improving the quality of work life in post offices, insurance companies, banks etc. (2) Learning process in educational institutions & training centers. (3) Changing organizational culture. (4) Changing super-subordinate relationship in organization. (5) Changing food habits, testing new products in markets,etc. y Advantages :(1) Stronger effect than those of a laboratory experiments. (2) Appropriate for studying methods of social influence, social processes & social changes in real life settings.

y Limitations :(1) Lack of precision. (2) It is a time consuming process. (3) It is difficult in practical involved of independent variables.

(4) Survey Method :y Personal Interview. y Telephone Interview. y Mail Survey.

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Research Methodology

Chapter : 5 Scaling Techniques  Concept of Attitude :Attitudes are learned predispositions towards aspects of our environment. They may be positively or negatively directed towards certain people, services or institution. Attitudes represent beliefs, feelings and action tendencies towards objects, ideas or people.  Scaling Meaning :-

Scaling is a procedure for the assignment of numbers to a property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in question.
 Types of Scaling :(1) Nominal. (3) Interval.  (2) Ordinal. (4) Ratio Scale.

Attitude Scales (To measures our attitude scale)

1. Comparison Scaling Techniques. 1) Pair wise comparison scale. 2) Rank-order scale. 3) Q-sort scale. 4) Guttmann scale. 5) Constant sum scale. 

2. Non-Comparison Scaling Techniques. 1) Continuous rating scale. 2) Liker scale. 3) Semantic differential scale. 4) Staple scale. 5) Multi dimensional scaling.

Limitation of Attitude Measurement :-

(1) Fail in predicting future. (2) Relationship not very clear. (3) Overlook the immediate environment.
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Research Methodology

Chapter : 6 Survey Method  Meaning : Survey Survey is a fact finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of data from a population or a sample there of at particular time.  Characteristics of Survey Method. :-

(1) Conducted in a natural setting. (2) Responses directly from the respondents. (3) Cover very large population. (4) Covers a definite geographical area.

Process of Survey :-

(1) Preliminary step. (2) Preparation of Questions. (3) Preparation of Questionnaire. (4)Training to data collectors. (5) Pilot Survey. (6) Actual field Survey. (7) Post survey works.

Purpose of Survey Method :(3) Comparisons. (4) Use full for making predictions.

(1) To provide information. (2) Phenomena.

 Methods of Survey :(1) Personal Interview. (2) Telephone Interview.  Different method (PI) :y Door to door interviewing. y Executive interviewing. y Mall intercept Survey.

(3) Mail Survey.

Types of Personal Interview. :(1) Structured Interview. (2) Unstructured Interview. (3) Focused Interview. (4) Clinical Interview. (5) Non-directive Interview.

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Research Methodology

 Computer Assisted Personal Interview (CAPI) :y Advantages :Disadvantages :(1) More Information. (1) Very Expensive. (2) Observation can be applied. (2) More time consuming. (3) Group discussion. (3) Certain types of respondents may not be (4) Misinterpretation can be avoided. easily approachable.(e.g. Executives.) (5) Supplementary information. (6) Restructure questions. (7) Less chances of non-response from respondent.

(2)Telephone Interview. :y Uses :(1) When the study requires to very few simple questions. (2) When the information has been collected quickly & inexpensively. (3) When the subject is interesting to respondents. (4) When the respondents are widely scattered.

y Steps/Process :(1) Selecting respondents telephone numbers. (2) Making the telephone call. (3) Introduction and gain rapport with respondents. (4) Work out & clarify convenient time of respondents for interview. (5) Scheduling a call report.

 Computer Assisted Telephone Interview (CATI) :y Advantages :Disadvantages :(1) Very low cost. (2) Information collected in short time. (3) It does not involved field work. (4) Re-call is easy. (5) Cover wide area networks. (6) Quality of response is good. (1) Telephone facility is rare in rural area. (2) It is not used for long questionnaire. (3) Respondents characteristics, Environment, Personality cannot be observed. (4) It is quiet difficult to solve queries. (5) It is easier to deny someone on telephone.

(6) It is not possible to use aids like charts,maps,pictures. (7) If questions cover personal matters respondents not co-operate.
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Research Methodology

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(3) Mail Survey :This method involves sending questionnaire to the respondents with a request to complete them & return them by post.  Alternative Modules of Sending Questionnaire :(1) Personal Delivery. (door to door) (2) Attaching questionnaire to a product. (3) Advertising questionnaire in a newspaper or magazine. 

Improving the response rate in a mail survey :(4) Incentives. (5) Follow-up contacts. (6) Large sample size.

(1) Quality Printing. (2) Covering Letter. (3) Advance Information.

y Advantages :(1) Less costly than PI. (2) Wider geographical areas. (3) Anonymity. (4) Questionnaire fill-up without Conveniences. (5) Free from the interviewers bias.

Disadvantages :(1) Not used for rural area. (2) Response rate is very low. (3) Unanswered & incomplete responses. (4) Respondent may not be co-operative. (5) Follow up is very difficult.

Comparison between the three methods of survey :-

1.Meaning. 2.Speed of data collection. 3.Questionnaire Length. 4.Respondent co-operation. 5.Cost. 6.Accuracy.

7.Supervision of interviewer. 8.Possibility of follow up. 9. Possibility for misunderstanding. 10.Non-response rate. 11.Interviewer influence on answers. 12.Movements to places.

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Research Methodology

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Chapter : 7 Questionnaire construction  Definition of questionnaire :-

Questionnaire is a structural tool through which data are collected regarding a particular subject & it consists of series of different types of questions that respondent answers.  Types of Questionnaire :2.Non-structured. 1. Disguised. 2.Non disguised.

1.Structured questionnaire. 1.Disguised. 2.Non disguised.

Process of Questionnaire Design :-

1.Determine the specific Data/Information to be collected 2. Determine the type of survey Method 3. Evaluate Question content 4. Decide Question Format (Types of Question) 5. Determine the Wording of Question 6. Determine the Question order & sequence

7. Determine Physical characteristics of form 8. Pretest, revise & Final draft

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Research Methodology

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Chapter : 8 Sampling y Sampling Meaning :Sampling is the process of taking a few units from target population, analyzing them & making conclusion about the population. The process of drawing a sample from a large population is called sampling. y Population :The aggregate of all the units pertaining to a study is called the population. y Aim of sampling :Well selected sampling may reflect fairly & accurately the characteristics of the population.

The aim of sampling is to make an conclusion about an unknown parameter from measurable sample statistic.
Population

Mean of population. Mean of sample

y Advantages :(1) Save costs. (2) Save time. (3) Accuracy. (4) Destructive nature of elements.

Sampling Process :-

1.Define the population 2. Identify the Sample frame 3.Specify sampling unit 4.Specify the sampling method 5.Determine the sampling size. 6.Specify the sampling plan 7.Select the sample
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Sample Design or Sampling Methods :(2)Non-probability Sampling Method :

Convince Sampling Judgment Sampling Quota Sampling Snow-ball Sampling

(1) Probability Sampling Method :

y y y y y Simple random sampling (SRS) Systematic random sampling Stratified random sampling Cluster random sampling Area sampling

Total Error

A) Sampling Errors

B) Non-Sampling Errors 1.Response Researchers Data collectors 2.Non-Reponse Unwillingness Inability

1.Unbiased errors

2.Biased errors

1.Population Definition error. 2.Sample frame error. 3.Measurment error. 4.Analysis error. 5.Surrogate information error.

Respondents

 Probability Sampling : Every element in the target population has equal probability of being chosen in the sample for the survey being conducted.  Scientific, operationally convenient and simple in theory.  Results may be generalized.  Non-Probability Sampling : Every element in the target population does not have equal probability of being chosen in the sample  Operationally convenient and simple in theory.  Results may not be generalized.
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Research Methodology

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Chapter : 9 Data Processing

y Meaning : Data Processing

Data processing means includes the activities of editing,coding,classification and tabulation of collected data to make them easy for analysis and interpretation.
y Components of Data Processing : (1) Editing (2) Coding (1) Editing :(3) Classification (4) Tabulation

Editing of data is a process of examining the collected data, to find out the errors and to collect it when possible.
Possible Precaution in editing - Corrections with original data - Corrections with initials - Dating of corrections -Familiar and directions (2) Coding :Problems associated with editing - False interview - Incorrect answers - Incomplete answers - Unclear response

Coding is the process of assigning numbers or symbols to the answers to prepare them for tabulation.
(4) Tabulation :-

When the researcher has gathered too much data, he has to arrange them in some kind of proper and clear format. This is known as tabulation.
y Types of Tabulation :(1) Hand Tabulation. (3) One way Tabulation. y Structure of table : (1) Title (2) Unit (2) Computer Tabulation. (4) Cross Tabulation.

(3) Caption

(4) Content

(5) Sources

y Computer Processing of data :(1) Large volume of input. (2) Repetitive Projects. (3) Speed of Processing. (4) Desired and Greater Accuracy.

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Research Methodology

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Chapter : 10 Data Analysis  Meaning :Data analysis is a process of arrive at a meaning or conclusion of data collected.  Measurement of central tendency :1) Arithmetic mean. 2) Median. 3) Mode. (1) Arithmetic mean :-- It is generally known as average. -- It is average of all values in a frequency distribution. -- Sum of deviation of items from the arithmetic mean is always zero. i.e. (x-x) = 0 (2) Median :-- Median is middle value of an ordered an arranged set of numbers.

(3) Mode :-- It is the value which has the highest frequency. -- It is value which occurs the maximum number of times in given data.

Measurement of Dispersion:-

(1) Range :-- It is defined as difference between highest value & lowest value. -- This can be applied when researcher requires quick result. R=HL

(2) Standard Deviation :- It means deviation from average or central value.

(3) Variance : It is just sequence of standard deviation.

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Research Methodology

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Chapter : 11 Report Writing y Audience for whom Report is Written :-

y General Format of Report of report Writing :1) Title page. 2) Letter of transmitted and Authorization. 3) Table of content. 4) Introduction 5) Methodology. 6) Findings. 7) Limitation. 8) Summary and conclusion. 9) Recommendation 10) Appendices, Bibliography & Index.  Language :-

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