Famine Foods of Brazils Seasonal Dry Forests: Ethnobotanical and Nutritional Aspects Viviany Teixeira do Nascimento, Maria Anglica

da Silva Vasconcelos, Maria Ins Sucupira Maciel & Ulysses Paulino Albuquerque
Economic Botany ISSN 0013-0001 Econ Bot DOI 10.1007/s12231-012-9187-2

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Famine Foods of Brazils Seasonal Dry Forests: Ethnobotanical and Nutritional Aspects1
VIVIANY TEIXEIRA DO NASCIMENTO2, MARIA ANGLICA DA SILVA VASCONCELOS3, MARIA INS SUCUPIRA MACIEL4, AND ULYSSES PAULINO ALBUQUERQUE*,2
Laboratrio de Etnobotnica Aplicada, Depto. Biologia, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco (UFRPE) Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil 3 Laboratrio de Anlise e Experimentao de Alimentos, Depto. Nutrio, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil 4 Laboratrio de Analises Fsico-Qumica de Alimentos, Depto. Cincias Domsticas, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil *Corresponding author; e-mail: upa@db.ufrpe.br
2

Famine Foods of Brazils Seasonal Dry Forests: Ethnobotanical and Nutritional Aspects. Famine foods are used by people in times of food scarcity. Although the northeast of Brazil regularly faces periods of drought that cause a shortage of traditional foods, the use of famine foods is insufficiently recorded. The purpose of this study was to record the knowledge of famine food in two rural Caatinga communities, Caro and Cachoeira, in the states of Pernambuco and Paraiba, respectively, and to determine the chemical composition of the major famine foods utilized. The ethnobotanical aspect was divided into two stages: free lists and semistructured interviews. Based on the interviews, the main famine foods known by communities were selected for nutritional analysis. The study revealed that certain foods are used by communities only in times of shortages. Caro showed a higher species richness than Cachoeira, but the food knowledge was more widespread among the interviewees in Cachoeira. In Caro, the main species mentioned were Dioclea grandiflora and Manihot dichotoma, whereas in Cachoeira, Encholirium spectabile and Pilosocereus gounellei were the major species indicated. The species examined had a high carbohydrate content, especially D. grandiflora, Manihot glaziovii, and M. dichotoma, and could be used for complementary feeding of the population if adverse effects could be minimized. Mandevilla tenuiflora is indicated for future studies of potential agro-industrial applications and the beneficial aspects of its root, which could represent an alternative source of income for the population. Aspectos etnobotnicos e nutricionais de alimentos emergenciais usados em florestas estacionais secas do Nordeste do Brasil. Os alimentos emergenciais so aqueles que as pessoas consomem apenas em tempos de escassez de alimentos. Muito embora a populao da regio Nordeste do Brasil enfrente perodos de seca que provoca a falta dos alimentos oriundos da agricultura, o uso dos alimentos emergenciais pouco registrado. O objetivo deste estudo foi registrar o conhecimento sobre alimentos emergenciais em duas comunidades rurais da Caatinga e determinar a composio qumica dos principais alimentos conhecidos. O estudo foi conduzido no municpio de Altinho, estado de Pernambuco e no municpio de Soledade, estado da Paraba. O trabalho etnobotnico foi dividido em duas etapas: lista livre e entrevistas semi-estruturadas. Com base nas entrevistas, selecionaram-se para a anlise nutricional os principais alimentos conhecidos pelas comunidades. O estudo revelou que as comunidades conhecem espcies alimentcias consumidas apenas em perodos de escassez alimentar. Caro tem maior conhecimento que Cachoeira, no entanto, em Cachoeira o conhecimento mais disseminado entre os informantes. Em Caro as principais

1 Received 11 January 2011; accepted 30 January 2012; published online ___________.

Economic Botany, XX(X), 2012, pp. 113 2012, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

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espcies conhecidas foram Dioclea grandiflora e Manihot dichotoma, em Cachoeira foram Encholirium spectabile e Pilosocereus gounellei. As espcies analisadas tm alto teor de carboidratos, especialmente D. grandiflora, Manihot glaziovii e M. dichotoma que podem ser utilizadas na complementao da dieta da populao se minimizados os seus efeitos colaterais. Por suas caractersticas Mandevilla tenuiflora indicada para estudos futuros de seu potencial agroindutrial e beneficiamento de suas razes, que podem representar uma fonte alternativa de renda para a populao. Key Words: Caatinga, food plants, emergency food, nutritional composition, nutritional potential, semi-arid, famine food.

Introduction
The northeast of Brazil (specifically the area covered by the Caatinga semi-arid vegetation) is marked by a short rainy season, which lasts a few months, and a long dry season that often causes significant damage to the harvest, mass unemployment in the region, and major economic losses (Arajo et al. 2007). In addition to these economic hardships, drought causes a decreased food supply for the population, with the risk of starvation from long droughts due to the destruction of crops intended to meet families needs. Colson (1979) suggests that subsistence farmers develop strategies for coping with these shortages over time, including 1) diversification of activities rather than specialization or dependence on a few natural resources, 2) food storage, 3) the conversion of surplus food into goods, 4) the development of social networks that facilitate the use of natural resources in other regions, and 5) the maintenance and transmission of knowledge about foods that are useful in times of famine. Foods consumed in times of food scarcity are known as famine foods. Guinand and Lemessa (2001:31) defined famine foods as plants normally not consumed due to presenting some of the following: their limited seasonal availability, local taboos, offensive nature of plants such as abundance of thorns and tiny spines (mostly not on the edible part of the plant), certain unpleasant characteristics and side effects such as bad taste, complicated and prolonged preparation, and association with stomach complaints, constipation, diarrhea, and even intoxication. Although these features describe typical famine foods, in practice other types of food are used by people in emergencies. These foods include the following: 1) wild food plants with emergency features, such as plants that have some organs that are consumed year-round (fruits, for instance) but other organs that are consumed only in times of food shortages yet do not necessarily have the typical

characteristics of a famine food; 2) food plants that attract additional categories of consumers during drought periods, such as foods that are normally consumed by one social group (children, for instance) and that, in times of scarcity, are consumed by additional social groups (such as adults); and 3) plants grown with emergency components, that is, organs that are consumed only in times of great need because their consumption can compromise the survival of the main crop. Famine food has been an extremely important survival strategy for maintaining the food security of populations living in regions that face recurrent drought. Thus, a growing body of scientific research examines famine foods, especially in Africa, where approaches range from analysis of the diversity of plants to the nutritional value of species. In contrast, research on famine food in Brazil is still in its incipient stages. This is especially true in the Caatinga region, a large, semi-arid land area in northeastern Brazil. The few studies on famine food in this region are outdated reports written in the past century that examined the role of certain foods in the fight against the hunger ravaging the population (Castro 1967; Castro et al. 1947; Cunha 1902). Given this information gap and the recent interest in famine foods in Brazil, the aim of this study was to gather knowledge about the food plants used in times of food scarcity in two rural communities in the Caatinga region and to identify the nutritional potential of these species.

Materials and Methods

DESCRIPTION
AND OF THE STUDY AREAS COMMUNITIES

The research was conducted in Caro and Cachoeira, which are two rural communities in northeastern Brazil. Caro is located in the city of Altinho (082923 S and 360334 W; in the state of Pernambuco), and Cachoeira is located in the city of Soledad (70326 S 362146 W; in

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the state of Paraba). According to the Kppen classification, both locations are hot, semiarid climates (Peel et al. 2007) marked by seasonal rainfall. The locations have a short winter season between February and April, which encompasses the majority of the rainy season, and a long dry season from May to January. Among these areas, Caro has the greatest rainfall, reaching an average of 826 mm between 2007 and 2009 (FIDEM 2010). For the same period, Cachoeira reached approximately half of this precipitation value (AESA-PB 2012). The communities are located in the Drought Polygon, a term used to designate the territory recognized by the Brazilian government as subject to critical periods of prolonged drought and dominated by Caatinga vegetation (CODEVASF 2010). However, the higher levels of precipitation occurring in Caro favor the development of hypoxerophytic Caatinga. The locations are physically and economically similar. Both are composed of small brick houses (61 in Caro and 18 in Cachoeira) far from the center of their municipalities (approximately 15 km), with access via dirt roads. Subsistence farming is the main economic sector. In both locations, economic productivity significantly drops during the drought period, when people survive primarily on pensions and government subsidies. Both locations have electricity, but the water supply is precariously obtained through tanks that collect rainwater or by carrying water from the closest natural reservoir in carts pulled by livestock. The communities make use of the native vegetation for various purposes, such as firewood (S e Silva et al. 2009), timber, fodder, medicine (Alencar et al. 2010; Almeida et al. 2010; Arajo et al. 2008), and food for human consumption (Lins Neto et al. 2010; Nascimento et al. 2011).

was initially carried out. This work was done in collaboration with researchers from the Ethnobotany Laboratory (Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Brazil), who obtained different information about the useful plants of each location by different approaches. In this step, we used the free-list technique (Albuquerque et al. 2010), in which the following information was acquired: 1) the local plants that the individuals knew to use; and 2) the uses of these plants. From the general survey, people who mentioned more than three food plants were selected (44 from Caro and 24 from Cachoeira) for semistructured interviews (Albuquerque et al. 2010) that focused on plants eaten only in times of food scarcity. The following information was collected: the name of the plant; the part consumed; the manner of preparation; the difficulties of preparation; the taste of the food; the side effects from consumption; and, if they were no longer utilized, the reasons why the species were no longer in use. The numbers of respondents who met the inclusion criteria were equivalent to 89.8% and 82.8% in Caro and Cachoeira, respectively. The species cited during the interviews were collected for botanical identification according to the usual techniques recommended by Mori et al. (1989). All of the material was identified through comparisons with specimens previously deposited in the Geraldo Mariz herbarium (UFP) in the Department of Botany at the Federal University of Pernambuco, Brazil.

DATA ANALYSIS
Initially, the plants cited in the survey were classified as native (all species of South American origin were included in this category) or exotic (species of extra-continental origin) (Alencar et al. 2010; Almeida et al. 2010). To analyze the floristic similarity among the species known by the local communities, the Jaccard coefficient was used as follows: JI=a / (a+b+c), where a is the number of common species between the communities, b is the number of species used only for one community, and c is the number of species used only by the other community (Arajo and Ferraz 2010; Hft et al. 1999). The KruskalWallis test was used to verify the existence of significant differences among the number of known species to men and women within the same community and between the two locations.

ETHNOBOTANICAL AND BOTANICAL DATA COLLECTION

Our work in these communities began in July 2006. All of the heads of household, including men and women, who agreed to participate in the survey were asked to sign the informed consent form in accordance with the requirements of Resolution 196/96 of the National Ethics Council, which manages the information collection and publication of data involving humans (Ministrio da Sade 2002). For each locality, a broad ethnobotanical survey of all of the useful plants in the region

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Analyses were performed with BioEstat 5.0, considering P<0.05 as statistically significant (Ayres et al. 2007). The citation frequency of each species was calculated using the ratio between the number of informants who mentioned a given species and the total number of informants. The results were expressed as percentages. Spearmans correlation coefficient (Conover 1971; Sokal and Rohlf 1995) was used to analyze the relationship between the number of species mentioned and different socioeconomic factors, such as age, duration of residence in the locality, household income, and gender.

Carotenoids were extracted according to a previously described method (Rodriguez-Amaya 1999). The carotenoid quantification was performed using the mathematical expression described by Gross (1987) with an absorption coefficient of 2500, and the spectrophotometric readings were performed at a wavelength of 450 nm. The extraction of flavonols was conducted using the method of Lees and Francis (1972), and the concentration was measured using a wavelength of 476 nm.

Results
LOCAL KNOWLEDGE
OF

FAMINE FOODS

SPECIES SELECTION
The main species that were mentioned (by more than two informants) in the ethnobotanical surveys and that were also available in the communities during the period from February to June of 2009 were selected for analysis. Seven species fit these criteria, five in Caro and two in Cachoeira (Fig. 1).

SAMPLES
Three different lots (300 g) of the plants were collected. The samples were picked from adult plants and then carefully selected (discarding spoiled samples). After selection, samples were crushed in a household food processor and homogenized. The plants were packaged and stored in plastic containers at -18C until processed. All species selected for analysis were native to the Caatinga region.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
The moisture (method 935.29), ash (930.2232.3.08), protein (N6.25) (991.20-33.2.11), and total lipid (963.15-31.4.02) contents were determined according to the AOAC (2006). The total carbohydrate content was determined by the difference between 100 and the sum of the moisture, protein, total lipids, and ash content, as percentages. The energy value was calculated from the protein, total lipid, and total carbohydrate (including fiber) contents using an Atwater system (Merrill and Watt 1973). Each determination was performed in triplicate. The acidity/alkalinity (pH), titratable acidity (TA), and soluble solid (Brix) were determined using accepted procedures (AOAC 2006).

A total of 17 species were known as famine foods by the communities, with 13 species known in the community of Caro and 5 in the community of Cachoeira. Only Manihot dichotoma was familiar to the residents of both locations. The Jaccard index showed only a 4.76% similarity between the species known as famine foods in the communities. Wild species constituted the majority of species in each locality (Fig. 2). Due to a lack of fertile botanical material during the study period, it was not possible to identify the origin of three species cited in Caro (Table 1). In Caro, the most frequently mentioned species during the interviews were M. dichotoma and Dioclea grandiflora, which were each cited by 13.6% of the respondents, followed by Manihot glaziovii (11.4%). In Soledad, Encholirium spectabile and Pilosocereus gounellei were reported with a frequency of 91.7% and 87.5%, respectively (Table 1). The species that were used in Caro belonged to ten families and seven genera. The most prominent family was Euphorbiaceae, the most prominent genus was Manihot, and both taxa were represented by two species. The species that were used in Cachoeira belonged to three families and four genera, emphasizing the Cactaceae family, with three species, and the Pilosocereus genus, with two species. In Caro, we obtained 33 species citations, with an average of 1.8 0.86 citations per informant. In Cachoeira, 47 citations were obtained, with an average of 2.330.96 citations per informant. There were no significant differences between the number of citations between the communities (H=3.57 and p=0.06). A comparison of the data obtained from each community showed that, in Cachoeira, women

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Fig. 1. The species selected for analysis: (a, b, and c) the fruit with seeds, broken seeds, and flour production from Dioclea grandiflora; (d, e, and f) the plant, starch, and tapioca of Manihot glaziovii; (g) the inflorescence of Encholirium spectabile; (h) the buttons of Manihot dichotoma; (i) a Pilosocereus gounellei plant; (j) a flower of Mandevilla tenuifolia; and (k) a tuber of Dioscorea coronata. (Photos by: A. T. N. Florentino; L. L. Santos; H. C. H. Silva; J. E. Nascimento, Jr.; and V.T. Nascimento).

cited 2.330.89 species per informant, and in Caro, women cited 1.99 0.74 species per informant, on average. These differences were not significant (H=1.35 and p=0.25). Similarly, men in Cachoeira cited 2.331.12 species per informant, and men in Caro cited 1.751.04

species per informant; again, no significant differences were found (H=1.24 and p=0.27). In addition, there were no significant differences in the citations between the men and women from Caro (H=0.52 and p=0.47) or the men and women of Cachoeira (H=0.01 and p=0.94).

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Fig. 2. The origin of species known as famine foods by the rural communities of Caro (Pernambuco) and Cachoeira (Paraiba) in northeastern Brazil.

THE PARTS CONSUMED, PREPARATION METHODS, AND CURRENT COLLECTION OF FAMINE FOODS
Underground organs (roots and tubers) were the plant parts most often cited as famine foods in Caro, accounting for 71.4% of the citations, followed by seeds, with 21.2% of the citations. In Cachoeira, cladodes received the largest number of citations (60%) (Table 1). In both locales, the consumption of a species as flour was cited most frequently (63.6% in Caro and 93.6% in Cachoeira). Seven species were used for flour in Caro, and three species in Cachoeira. At both locations, flour (Fig. 1c and e) was used as a basis for making cakes, couscous (a dish made of flour, maize, cassava, or rice, which is cooked in steam and can be prepared sweet or savory), tapiocas (Fig. 1f), and beijus (dishes prepared with flour made from different species of the Manihot genus and prepared on a hot plate). However, there was no current usage of famine foods in either of the communities, which, in the opinion of 97.4% of all of the respondents, was the result of the improved financial conditions of the communities. These have resulted from government pensions and subsidies, which have allowed a greater acquisition of food goods in local shops, causing the abandonment of famine food-collecting practices. In addition to famine food use, 21.4% of the species from Caro and 60% of the species from Cachoeira had other edible organs that were used year-round.

plants for famine use (r=0.3207 and p=0.0495). In Caro, those who lived there for more than 50 years cited more plants. In contrast, there was a correlation between the age of those interviewed and the number of citations (r=0.5014 and p=0.0125) in Cachoeira, with people over 60 years of age knowing the greatest number of species.

ETHNOBOTANICAL AND NUTRITIONAL DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MAJOR FAMINE FOODS KNOWN BY THE COMMUNITIES
Dioclea grandiflora D. grandiflora belongs to the Fabaceae family, and the seeds from this species are used during periods of extreme food shortages for the production of flour to prepare couscous. For the preparation of the flour, the seeds are broken with the help of a stone or a hammer and then crushed (Fig. 1b and c). According to the residents of Caro, the use of this species as food can cause intestinal problems, or even death, due to seed toxicity. To attenuate and even eliminate such effects, it is necessary to wash the flour several times before using it for food preparation. The seeds of D. grandiflora possess a high quantity of carbohydrates and proteins (Table 2), resulting in a high caloric value per 100 grams of consumed food. Dioscorea coronata The edible part of D. coronata is the tuber. An unpleasant taste is a characteristic of this species. According to the residents of Caro, the part of Dioscoreaceae that can be eaten is washed and cooked, which often eliminates the bad taste. Side effects associated with its consumption were not

THE SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE KNOWLEDGE OF FAMINE FOODS

In Caro, there was a (weak) correlation between the time of residence of the informant at the location and the number of citations of food

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FOODS KNOWN BY THE RURAL COMMUNITIES OF CARO (PERNAMBUCO) AND CACHOEIRA (PARAIBA) IN NORTHEASTERN BRAZIL.

TABLE 1. FAMINE

Scientific Name

Popular Name

Origin

Organ used

Frequency(%) Preparation Caro Cachoeira

Anacardiaceae Spondias tuberosa Arruda Apocynaceae Mandevilla tenuifolia (J.C. Mikan) Woodson Bromeliaceae Bromelia laciniosa Mart. ex Schult. f. Encholirium spectabile Mart. ex Schult. f. Cactaceae Cactaceae sp1. Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. Pilosocereus gounellei (F.A.C. Weber) Byles & G.D. Rowley Pilosocereus pachycladus F. Ritter Cucurbitaceae Wilbrandia sp. Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea coronata Hauman Euphorbiaceae Manihot dichotoma Ule Manihot glaziovii Mll. Arg. Fabaceae Dioclea grandiflora Mart. ex Benth. Solanaceae Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Vitaceae Cissus simsiana Roem. & Schult Unidentified N.I. 1 N.I. 2

Umbu Manof Macambira roxa Macambira Ubeba Palma Xique-xique Facheiro Cabea de nego Car do mato Manioba Purnuna Mucun Batata doce Parreira Fava cabocuu Manioba do mato

W W W W W C W W W W C C W C V C W

R T L L R Cl Cl Cl U T R R S L Ua S Ua
a

raw/sweet freshe freshe flourcouscous flour baked roasted/baked/ flour/couscousd beiju flour baked flour/beijuc flour/beiju flour/couscousb/ bread baked flour baked flour

4.55 6.82 2.27 2.27 2.27 6.82 13.64 11.36 13.64 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.27

91.67 8.33 87.5 4.17 4.17

Conventions: Cl, cladode; L, leaves; R, root; S, seed; T, tubercle; U, underground organ; C, crop; and W, Wild. The organ could not be identified due to a lack of knowledge of the species; b Used only in Caro; c Beij and tapioca are typical foods of Brazil and are made with different types of Manihot spp. flour and prepared on a hot plate; d Couscous is a dish made from flour (maize, cassava, and rice), where it is cooked by steaming and can be prepared either sweet or savory; e Consumed without any preparation.
a

mentioned. The species has a low amount of carbohydrates, lipid, and protein per 100 g of the raw food (Table 2). Encholirium spectabile Individuals of E. spectabile are pulled out of the soil to access the leaf base, which is the edible part

of this Bromeliaceae. Pulling the plant out of the ground can cause small cuts on the hands because the leaves have thorns. The leaves are removed, grated, exposed to the sun to dry and then sieved to produce flour used for preparing couscous. The taste of the couscous is bitter in the opinion of the majority (56.5%) of those interviewed in Cachoeira. Side effects were not mentioned

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TABLE 2. THE CENTESIMAL COMPOSITION, PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS, FLAVONOID AND CAROTENOID CONTENT OF THE EDIBLE PARTS OF THE PLANTS USED AS FAMINE FOODS, AS SELECTED FROM THE ETHNOBOTANICAL INVENTORY OF RURAL COMMUNITIES OF THE CAATINGA IN NORTHEASTERN BRAZIL.

92.5 1.1 0.4 0.3 5.7 27.5 5.070.29 3.200.93 0.100.01 31.588.65 3.130.70

M. glazioviia

79.6 0.8 1.01 0.2 18.3 79.5 5.960.20 6.331.03 0.130.03 51.0817.77

regarding the consumption of the couscous. Analysis of the triturated leaves revealed that E. spectabile has low levels of lipids and proteins, but a significant carbohydrate content. The species has a slightly acidic pH, which was the second highest acidity percentage of the species analyzed (Table 2). Mandevilla tenuifolia M. tenuifolia belongs to the Apocynaceae family and has tuberous roots. Caro residents use the roots of this species for food, which are eaten fresh after removing the skin. Problems associated with taste and side effects were not mentioned. The species does not have attributes that characterize it as a famine food. However, in Caro, this species was consumed in the past as an alternative food to satisfy hunger. The roots of M. tenuifolia contain low total caloric values, high water content, and a small quantity of bioactive compounds (Table 2). Manihot dichotoma and Manihot glaziovii These species belong to the family Euphorbiaceae. Flour and starch are prepared from the roots, which can be used to prepare tapioca, cakes, and beijus. To avoid causing health problems, however, the roots need to be washed several times (still uncooked) before consumption to reduce their toxic effects, as they can otherwise cause dizziness and even death. The carbohydrate content is the main benefit of this food, especially for M. dichotoma, although M. glaziovii had higher levels of soluble solids and a better ratio of soluble solids to acidity (Table 2). Pilosocereus gounellei The key element that characterizes this Cactaceae as a famine food is the difficulty of its preparation because the species has many thorns. Flour for preparing couscous can be produced from the cladode, and it can be consumed boiled or roasted. The taste of this food was considered pleasant by 23.8% of those interviewed in Cachoeira; the other 76.2% of those interviewed never consumed the species. Side effects were not mentioned. P. gounellei possessed the lowest number of total calories (approximately 27 calories per 100 grams), and a small amount of flavonoids was found in the sample analyzed (Table 2).

P. gounelleib

M. dichotomaa

M. tenuifoliaa

D. coronataa

81.3 0.7 0.9 0.3 16.8 73.6

68.9 0.9 0.7 0.8 28.7 124.6 5.100.07 0.680.02 Humidity (g/100 g) Ash (g/100 g) Protein (g/100 g) Lipids (g/100 g) Carbohydrates (g/100 g) TCV (kcal/100 g) pH SS (%) Acidity (% citric acid) SS (%)/acidity Flavonoids (mg quercertin/100 g) (X SD) Carotenoids (-carotene g/g) (X SD)
b a

E. spectabileb

Sample collected in Caro, a municipality of Altinho, Pernambuco. Sample collected in Cachoeira, a municipality of Soledad, Paraba. 9.3 2.5 30.9 2.9 54.3 367.3 6.060.04 3.141.54 6.760.88

D. grandifloraa

85 0.5 0.7 1.1 12.7 63.2 5.300.04 5.00.00 0.190.00 26.790.00 1.710.24

73.6 0.8 0.1 0.4 24.2 104.2 5.570.06 4.531.15 0.140.08 38.1112.50

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Discussion
THE LOCAL KNOWLEDGE
OF

FAMINE FOODS

The survey revealed that knowledge about emergency food is restricted to a small portion of the population. Nevertheless, according to Rahamani (1978), the existence of knowledge about plants used as famine foods in a population suggests that the population has experienced problems with food acquisition, even if the population does not show clear signs of difficulty. In Caro and Cachoeira, the richness of species known by the residents was low. It is possible that psychological factors are related to the low number of species known for emergency use in those communities. For example, Guinand and Lemessa (2001) state that it is common for plants that are consumed only when all other food resources become scarce, and when the food shortage is extreme, to be considered low-ranking, and for their consumption to be considered shameful. This situation may have limited the information passed on by those interviewed. The species richness cited in Caro was higher than that in Cachoeira, but in Cachoeira such knowledge was more cohesive, especially for E. spectabile and P. gounellei, species cited by nearly all of the residents. The prevalent knowledge of these species may be a result of their importance in the past to combat hunger in the region. In Caro, knowledge of more than half of the species cited was limited to a single individual in the population, which may reflect the disappearance of this knowledge. This finding may also suggest that this community depends less on famine food than Cachoeira. Interestingly, Ipomoea batatas, a species of the Solanaceae family whose roots are a globally significant crop, was cited as a food for emergency use. The leaf of this plant is the organ cited for emergency use. Guinand and Lemessa (2001) suggest that some crops may have emergency components that are not normally consumed in order to prevent harm to the main crop. According to these authors classification, Spondias tuberosa is a wild plant whose fruits are eaten in abundance, but it has another organ that is consumed only in times of scarcitythe xylopodium. We found a low similarity between the localities in the species composition of plants cited as famine foods. This may be attributed to the local differences in vegetation cover, as Caro is located in an area of the Caatinga region that is

subjected to greater annual rainfall, favoring the development of herbs, such as D. coronata, M. tenuifolia, and D. grandiflora, which are not present in the vegetation of Cachoeira. However, it is not possible to make precise comparisons between the floristic compositions of these areas due to the lack of published data. In the two communities, the knowledge of men and women on the famine use of plants was similar. This situation is contrary to what was found by Lozada et al. (2006) and Eyssartier et al. (2008), where women had a greater knowledge of food species. However, Guinand and Lemessa (2001) reported that, in times of food scarcity, both genders collect famine foods. Other possible explanations include 1) the communities have gone through long and/or intense periods of dependence on this type of food, 2) there is no clear division of tasks in the communities according to gender, 3) both communities have a strong oral history through which knowledge is uniformly passed to men and to women, and 4) a limited number of species are available for emergency use.

THE PARTS CONSUMED, PREPARATION METHODS, AND ACTUAL COLLECTION OF THE FAMINE FOODS
In Caro and Cachoeira, the large number of underground plant components that can be used as famine foods is striking. According to Guinand and Lemessa (2001), roots are typically used as food in times of shortage because they tolerate drought and can remain intact in the ground for a long time, being collected only when needed. However, Irvine (1952) stated that the leaves and fruits of woody perennial trees and wild grass seeds are also consumed. In addition to being available for a longer period of time, roots and tubers are energy foods that are traditionally processed into flour by the communities. Preservation as flour is an excellent strategy for the storage of resources, especially in times of drought. According to Vicenzi (2010), the free water in some foods allows for the development of microorganisms that can cause its deterioration. Foods processed into flour have little free water, which preserves the product for a longer period of time. At present, famine foods are not used in the communities studied. It is believed that this is related to the current financial improvement of the local populations. In recent years, these

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communities have used financial assistance from the government as a primary strategy for managing famine. In addition, the retirement of rural workers older than 55 has contributed to improving the quality of life. Because of this social safety net, the use of emergency food in the communities studied has become increasingly rare, contributing to the apparent erosion of this knowledge. These observations corroborate those made by Minnis (2000), who found that the use of financial resources from international agencies, coupled with government subsidies, has minimized the use of wild resources by local populations, especially famine foods. The disappearance of this knowledge at a time when governmental aid is contributing to the fight against hunger may seem insignificant. However, Begossi (1998) notes that the loss of the knowledge of local populations may contribute to the reduction of cultural variability and renders these communities less capable of responding to situations of change, thus affecting the resilience of the local system.

THE SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE KNOWLEDGE OF FAMINE FOODS

In Caro, the knowledge of famine foods is lower among people who have lived there for a shorter time, especially among those who came from non-neighboring communities. Therefore, these people have not witnessed the effects of drought in the area and are unaware of the strategies used to survive a drought. In Cachoeira, knowledge is influenced by the age of the informant, which suggests that older people have witnessed times of drought in this location. Despite the fact that the consumption of wild food is normally associated with poverty in the literature (Balemie and Kebebew 2006; Grosskinsky and Gullick 2001; Guinand and Lemessa 2001), a correlation between income and wild-food knowledge was not observed.

THE POTENTIAL OF FAMINE FOOD TO FIGHT HUNGER IN THE CAATINGA REGION

This study revealed that the carbohydrate content was the main nutritional component of all of the famine foods analyzed, especially D. grandiflora, which also had considerable protein content. The carbohydrate content in this famine food is extremely relevant because this species can be an excellent resource for dealing with hunger

in the Caatinga region. However, the harmful effect of the seeds is a limiting factor. The first trials that reported the toxic effects of species of the genus Dioclea were described by Chaves et al. (1948), who reported the death of rats and pigeons after the consumption of D. grandiflora. Hence, it is necessary to eliminate the toxic effects of the seeds (i.e., by washing) for the species to be safely introduced into the diet of the population. D. coronata contains carbohydrates that may be useful in times of food shortage, mainly as a substitute for D. alata, which is a species of the same genus that is traditionally used in food and is commercially available. However, even if side effects related to the consumption of the species were not mentioned by those interviewed in Caro, it would be necessary to perform studies on its toxicity, given that it is a wild species and some species of the genus Dioscorea can be toxic. The consumption of E. spectabile is an excellent strategy to combat hunger in the Caatinga region. In addition to having no apparent side effects (based on the information obtained in the Cachoeira community), the species has considerable caloric value. The caloric value of E. spectabile was similar to the value of grains that are traditionally consumed and purchased from commercial sources, such as rice (Oryza sativa L.), which has approximately 130 calories per 100 grams after cooking (TACO 2006). Although M. tenuifolia does not have a high caloric value, it is believed that the balance between the sweetness and acidity of its roots, expressed by its Brix/acid ratio, makes it a significant resource in times of famine, especially when the tubers are used as pickles or in salads and juices. However, the species belongs to the family Apocynaceae, which is known for its toxicity; thus, it is recommended that a careful analysis of its toxicity be undertaken. In addition to the consumption of this species by the local population, another excellent alternative would be the processing of the roots, for example, in the production of pickles in homemade mini-factories, which would make the species an alternative income resource for the communities of the Caatinga region. However, only further studies would reveal the possible benefits of the M. tenuifolia roots and the acceptability of its products. Although M. dichotoma and M. glaziovii had lower nutritional values in comparison to traditional cassava (M. esculenta), they have been

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considered as alternative food during the dry season, when the cultivation of cassava is no longer sufficient. These species are good food sources because they have high carbohydrate content, especially M. dichotoma. However, the consumption of either species causes side effects, according to the information obtained in Caro. The side effects may be due to the presence of hydrocyanic acid, which is a compound present at different concentrations in species of the Manihot genus (Cagnon et al. 2002). Therefore, some species cannot be eaten either raw or cooked. The hydrocyanic acid, which is a volatile compound in the species, is eliminated during the process of washing and roasting and is almost absent in the final product when it is prepared in this way (Chist and Cohen 2008). The cladode of P. gounellei was found to be an extremely poor food resource due to its nutritional characteristics, physicochemical characteristics, and complex preparation. Therefore, this species is not a good resource in times of drought because the energy expenditure used in the preparation exceeds the energy obtained by its consumption. The recent addition of the flour produced from the cladodes of the Cereus squamosus cactus in crackers, however, has had a moderate acceptance rate (Francisco et al. 2008) and has brought forth a new use of the cladodes of the species in this family. Finally, the data contained in the present report highlight the potential nutritional value of the famine foods of the Caatinga region. Certainly, this analysis is merely the first step in evaluating their nutritional value to humans; this research must be followed up by studies that assess the bioavailability of specific nutrients, the toxicity and the availability of each of the species in nature, as well as other ecological aspects, such as the demography, reproductive biology, and distribution of these species. Nevertheless, the expanding body of knowledge regarding the chemical and nutritional composition as well as methods to minimize the side effects of the famine foods of the Caatinga should be of increasing practical utility to those populations who make significant use of these edible plants during times of hardship.

Office of the municipality of Altinho for logistic support, especially the Secretary of Agriculture Sr. Miguel Andrade Jnior; the Lucena family for support in Soledade, especially Dr. Reinaldo Farias Paiva de Lucena; FACEPE and CNPq for financial support and the productivity grant awarded to Dr. U.P. Albuquerque; and Dr. Robert Voeks for his help improving our manuscript.

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Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the communities of Caro and Cachoeira for accepting us and helping us perform this study; the Mayors

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