Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering Chapter 21.

OPTICAL PROPERTIES
What happens when light shines on a material? Why do materials have characteristic colors? Why are some materials transparent and others not? Optical applications:

Luminescence Photoconductivity Solar cell Laser Optical communication fibers

Contents
1 2 3 4 5
2

Electromagnetic Radiation Light Interactions with Solids Optical Properties of Metals Optical Properties of Nonmetals Applications

Index of refraction - Relates the change in velocity and direction of radiation as it passes through a transparent medium (also known as refractive index). Ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum to

the velocity of light in the material

Dispersion - Frequency dependence of the refractive index. Linear absorption coefficient - Describes the ability of a material to absorb radiation.

Absorption constant: the reciprocal of the absorption coefficient is a measure of how far the light will travel before being reduced by a factor of exponential. Penetration depth: the distance with 1/e reduction in intensity
Reflectivity - The percentage of incident radiation that is reflected.

Photoconduction - Production of a voltage due to the stimulation of electrons into the conduction band by light radiation.

Luminescence - Conversion of radiation to visible light. Fluorescence - Emission of light obtained typically within ~10-8 seconds. Phosphorescence - Emission of radiation from a material after the stimulus is removed. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) - Electronic p-n junction devices that convert an electrical signal into visible light. Electroluminescence - Use of an applied electrical signal to stimulate photons from a material. Laser - The acronym stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. A beam of monochromatic coherent radiation produced by the controlled emission of photons. Thermal emission - Emission of photons from a material due to 4 excitation of the material by heat.

Introduction
Optical Properties - A materials response to exposure to electromagnetic radiation, particularly to visible light. Light is energy, or radiation, in the form of waves or particles called photons that can be emitted from a material. The important characteristics of the photons energy E, wavelength , and frequency are related by the equation:

C=

E = h =

hc

0 electric permittivity of a vacuum

0 Magnetic permeability of a vacuum

Electromagnetic Spectrum

400 nm - 700 nm
7

Contents
1 2 3 4 5
9

Electromagnetic Radiation Light Interactions with Solids Optical Properties of Metals Optical Properties of Nonmetals Applications

Light Interaction with Solids

Incident light is either reflected, absorbed, or transmitted.

Reflected : IR

Absorbed : IA Transmitted : IT

I0 = IT + IA + IR

T+A+R=1
Transmissivity (IT/I0) Absorptivity (IA/I0) Reflectivity (IR/I0)

Incident: I o

Optical classification of materials transparent translucent opaque 10

Light Interaction with Solids

Reflection Absorption Transmission Refraction

Absorption index

opaque

transparent

11

Light Interaction with Solids dI = dx I = I o exp( x) I0 I Io

: absorption coefficient

12

R: reflectance

T, A, and R

13

green glasses

Interaction between electromagnetic radiation & atoms/ions/electrons Polarization

electronic ionic

Electron transitions

14

Light Interaction with Solids

Electronic polarization - Some of the radiation energy may be absorbed. - Light waves are retarded in velocity as they pass through the medium (manifested as refraction). Electron transitions

- Absorption & emission - Discrete, specific energy

E = h

15

- Short stay in an excited state - decay back into its ground state

Contents
1 2 3 4 5
16

Electromagnetic Radiation Light Interactions with Solids Optical Properties of Metals Optical Properties of Nonmetals Applications

Absorption in metals
Absorption of photons by electron transition
Energy of electron
unfilled states

Io

ton o t ph h n ide y Inc erg f en o

E = h required!
filled states

Planck constant (6.63 x 10 -34 J/s)

freq. of incident light

Metals have a continuously available empty e states, which permit e transitions.

17

Near-surface electrons absorb visible light.

Reflection in metals
Electron transition emits a photon
Energy of electron

IR
Re-emitted photon from material surface

unfilled states onducting?electron

E
filled states

18

Reflectivity = IR/I0 is between 0.90 and 0.95. Reflected light has same frequency as incident. Metals are opaque & highly reflective (shiny).

Optical Properties of Metals

- Reemit in the form of visible light of same wavelength (below a metal plasmon energy) - Reflectivity: 0.90 - 0.95
19

Contents
1 2 3 4 5
20

Electromagnetic Radiation Light Interactions with Solids Optical Properties of Metals Optical Properties of Nonmetals Applications

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Refraction

- refractive index sin i (snell's law) n= sin r - wavelength dependent (dispersion)

vvac -n= = = r r vmat o o

n r for nonmagnetic r 1
21

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Refraction - Refraction is related to electronic polarization at the relatively high frequencies for visible light. Electronic component of the dielectric constant may be determined from the index of refraction measurements. - Electronic polarization retard electromagnetic radiation

The greater the electronic polarization -> the slower the velocity -> the greater the index of refraction

22

ex) soda-lime glass n = 1.5 90 wt.% PbO containing glass n = 2.1

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Polarizability

23

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

24

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Dispersion

25

- antireflective coating-microscope, telescope Antireflective coating for lenses and other optical
instruments.

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

26

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Absorption - valence band-conduction band transition (energy band structure)

electron-hole generation

electron-hole recombination

27

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Absorption - Valence band-conduction band transition can take place only if the photon energy is greater than that of the band gap energy Eg.

h > Eg or

hc

- for visible light

> Eg

0.7 m (=1.8 eV) ~ 0.4 m (=3.1 eV)

- Eg less than 1.8 eV - all visible light absorb - opaque
28

1.8 eV < Eg < 3.1 eV - partial absorption - color

Selected Absorption: Nonmetals

Absorption by electron transition occurs if h > Egap
Energy of electron
blue light: h = 3.1eV red light: h = 1.7eV E gap unfilled states

400nm = 3.1 eV 700nm = 1.8 eV

incident photon energy hn

Io

filled states

If Egap < 1.8 eV, full absorption of visible light

color is black

Si (1.12 eV), GaAs (1.42 eV)

If Egap > 3.1 eV, no absorption

transparent & colorless

Diamond (5.6 eV)

29

If Eg in between, partial absorption - material has a color

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Absorption Impurities or other electrically active defects

30

Absorption and Energy gap

metals

Dielectrics and intrinsic semiconductors

Extrinsic (doped) semiconductors 31

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Absorption
' ' IT = I o exp( x) ' I o : intensity of nonreflected incident

Io
x

IT

radiation

: absorption coefficient ( =

4 k

ex) The fraction of nonreflected light that is transmitted through a 200 mm thickness of glass is 0.98. Calculate the absorption coefficient of this material. solution
32

1 I'T 1 =- ln( ' )=ln(0.98)=1.01x10-4 mm -1 x Io 200mm

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Transmission

33

Transmitted Light: Refraction

Transmitted light distorts electron clouds
no transmitted light

transmitted light

electron cloud distorts

Light is slower in a material vs. vacuum.

Index of refraction (n) = speed of light in a vacuum speed of light in a material - Adding large, heavy ions (e.g., lead) can decrease the speed of light. - Light can be "bent." Material Lead glass Silica glass Soda-lime glass Quartz Plexiglas Polypropylene n 2.1 1.46 1.51 1.55 1.49 1.49

34

Color of Materials

Color determined by sum of frequencies of

Transmitted light Re-emitted light from electron transitions

35

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Color

As a consequence of selective absorption of specific wavelength ranges of light. If absorption is uniform for all visible wavelength, the material appears colorless (inorganic glass, diamond, sapphire). Selective absorption by electron excitation.

Example - Cadmium Sulfide (CdS) Eg = 2.4 eV

absorb photons > 2.4 eV (blue-violet portion) Re-radiate other wavelength Red/yellow/orange is transmitted and gives it color

36

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Color impurities - electron level within the forbidden bandgap ruby (0.5 to 2% Cr2O3 doped Al2O3) - red color

ex) sapphire (Al2O3) colorless (Egap > 3.1eV) Adding Cr2O3 to sapphire:

- Alters the band gap, blue light is absorbed, yellow/green is absorbed, red is transmitted Ruby is deep red in color

37

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Color impurities - transition or rare earth ions in inorganic glasses

Blue color

1% cobalt oxide containing silicate glass (Co2+) 38

Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Opacity and translucency - Internal reflection and refraction - Scattering - Polycrystalline - grain boundary - Two phase materials with different refractive indices - Porosity with finely dispersed pores
single crystal sapphire porous alumina

39

fully dense polycrystalline

Contents
1 2 3 4 5
40

Electromagnetic Radiation Light Interactions with Solids Optical Properties of Metals Optical Properties of Nonmetals Applications

Application: Luminescence
Luminescence: Light emission in the visible spectrum accompanying the absorption of other forms of energy (thermal, mechanical, chemical or particles (high energy electrons) (photoluminescence, electroluminescence). Fluorescence: Emission of electromagnetic radiation that occurs within ~10-8 s of an excitation event. Phosphorescence: Emission of electromagnetic radiation over an extended period of time after the
41

excitation event is over.

Luminescence
Photo-luminescence (PL), Electro-L (EL) Process:
incident radiation
Energy of electron

unfilled states

emitted light

Energy of electron

unfilled states

E gap filled states

E gap filled states

electron transition occurs

re-emission occurs

Ex: fluorescent lamps

glass coating e.g., -alumina doped w/Europium

White light

UV radiation

42

(a)

Luminescence
Luminescence occurs when photons have a wavelength in the visible spectrum.
(a) In metals, there is no energy gap, so luminescence does not occur. (b) Fluorescence occurs when there is an energy gap. (c) Phosphorescence occurs when the photons are emitted over a period of time, due to donor traps in

(b)

(c)

43

the energy gap.

Luminescence
A fluorescent lamp is a type of lamp that uses electricity to excite mercury vapor in argon or neon gas, resulting in a plasma that produces short-wave ultraviolet light. This light then causes a phosphor to fluoresce, producing visible light.

44

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

45

A forward-bias voltage across the p-n junction can produce photons.

Photoconductivity
Additional charge carriers can be generated by photon-induced e transition in which light is absorbed. The resultant increase in conductivity is photoconductivity.

Description:

+
Energy of electron Energy of electron

semi conductor:

unfilled states

unfilled states

E gap filled states

Incident radiation

E gap

conducting electron

filled states

A. No incident radiation: little current flow

46

B. Incident radiation: increased current flow

Ex: Photodetector (Cadmium sulfide)

Photoconduction & Solar Cell

Photoconduction in semiconductors involves the absorption of a stimulus by exciting es from the valence band to the conduction band. Rather than dropping back to the valence band to cause emission, the excited electrons carry a charge through an electrical circuit.

47

A solar cell takes advantage of this effect. Operation is the reverse of that for LED.

p-n Junction

Solar Cell

48

Solar Cell
p-n junction:
conductance electron P -doped Si Si Si P Si n-type Si p-n junction p -type Si hole Si Si B Si Si
n-type Si p-n junction p -type Si

Operation:
- incident photon produces hole-e pair - typically 0.5 V potential - current increases with light intensity
light creation of hole-electron pair

- + + + +

Solar powered weather station:

Si B-doped Si

polycrystalline Si

49

Solar Cell

( 50 1,100M )

44,435

Laser
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Coherent beam - monochromatic Collimation - pumping and population inversion

Communication, surgery, machining, welding, heat treating, CDs, bar-code reading, hole piercing, ----------

51

GaAs Laser
Because the surrounding p- and n-type GaAlAs layers have a higher energy gap and a lower index of refraction than GaAs, the photons are trapped in the active GaAs layer.

52

Solid State Ruby Laser

Al2O3 single crystal (sapphire) with 0.05 wt% Cr

53

Laser

1. The laser in its non-lasing state

2. The flash tube fires and injects light into the ruby rod. The light excites atoms in the ruby.

54

3. Some of these atoms emit photons

Laser
4. Some of these photons run in a direction parallel to the rubys axis, so they bounce back and forth off the mirrors. As they pass through the crystal, they stimulate emission in other atoms

5. Monochromatic, single-phase, colliminated light leaves the ruby through the half-silvered mirror. -laser light!

55

Laser
Semiconductor laser

56

Laser
Semiconductor laser

57

Because the surrounding p- and n-type GaAlAs layers have a higher energy and a lower index of refraction than GaAs, the photons are trapped in the active GaAs layer.

Laser

58

Fiber Optics and Data Transmission

Photonic communication Total internal reflection Core/cladding/coating

144 glass fiber carry three times

59

High purity silica glass 5 - 100 um

Fiber Optics
step-index optical fiber design
core: silica glass w/higher n cladding : glass w/lower n n enhances internal reflection

input pulse
intensity

total internal reflection

out put pulse

intensity

time

shorter path longer paths

broadened!

time

graded-index optical fiber design

core: Add graded impurity distrib. to make n higher in core center cladding : (as before)

input pulse
intensity

total internal reflection

out put pulse

intensity

time

shorter, but s lower paths longer, but faster paths

60

graded-index

less broadening

improvement

less broadening!

time

Summary
When light (radiation) shines on a material, it may be:

Reflected, absorbed and transmitted. Transparent, translucent, or opaque Fine succession of energy state causes absorption and reflection. May have full (Eg < 1.8 eV) , no (Eg > 3.1 eV), or

Optical classification:

Metals:

Non-Metals:

partial absorption (1.8 eV < Eg < 3.1 eV)

Color is determined by light wavelengths that are transmitted or re-emitted from electron transitions. Color may be changed by adding impurities that the band structure. (e.g., Ruby)

Problems from Chap. 21

Prob. 21-1 Prob. 21-2 Prob. 21-20 Prob. 21-12

http://ep.snu.ac.kr
Prob. 21-4 Prob. 21-23 Prob. 21-7 Prob. 21-28

61