Simple properties of rocks for field-testing

Hardness is the ability of one substance to scratch another substance. Geologists use Moh's Hardness scale, which is an arbitrary scale that ranks minerals based on hardness, on a scale from 1 to 10. Minerals with higher numbers are harder. The average pocket knife has a hardness of about 5.5, a copper penny 3.5 and a human fingernail about 2.5. A field geologist has such tools in his pocket. Hardness above 7 is called gemstone hardness (cannot be scratched by quartz). Some minerals are softer in a certain direction only. 1 Talc 2 Gypsum 3 Calcite 4 Fluorite 5 Apatite 6 Potassium feldspar 7 Quartz 8 Topaz 9 Corundum 10 Diamond, the hardest naturally-occurring substance Density: The density of a mineral is an important natural property, although not easily tested in the field. Heaviest are the gold and platinum metals (density close to 20). Silicates weigh in between 2.5 and 3.5, ores between 4 and 8. Cleavage: the cleavage of a mineral refers to how it breaks. Depending on the crystal structure, some minerals break in a regular, predictable manner, whereas others don't. If a mineral breaks in such a way that it leaves smooth, shiny surfaces, then it is said to have cleavage, and those surfaces are called cleavage surfaces. Cleavage can be perfect, good or merely incipient. The more perfect cleavage is, the thinner the sheets are that can be split off. Among the thinnest are flakes of mica. Such minerals form 'books' and their cleavage planes look pearly lustrous. Fracture: When a mineral is shattered or broken open, fracture surfaces are formed that may not have good cleavage. The appearance of such fracture surfaces is judged conchoidal (rounded), smooth, splintery, hackly, fibrous, even or uneven. Twinning: Twinning can be defined by the appearance of fine parallel lines, called striations, on the cleavage planes of some minerals. Twinning occurs when a mineral repeatedly changes the direction in which it is growing. Transparency: According to its transparency to visible light, a mineral is called water-clear, transparent, translucent or opaque. Between these, there are innumerable intermediate stages. Minerals may be translucent at their edges only. Lustre: Lustre refers to the way a mineral reflects light. It is independent of colour and can occur in various qualities. If a mineral reflects light in a similar way as a metal, it is said to have metallic lustre. Other types of lustre are: glassy (vitreous), pearly, silky, resinous, greasy, waxy and earthy. The degree of lustre is described as splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering, matt, dull. Colour: Variety of colour is the most striking characteristic of minerals, and in many cases it is their natural colour (yellow sulphur, red cinnabar, green malachite, blue azurite, etc). But alien atoms in small quantities can cause changes in the natural colours of crystals. Some minerals occur in an amazing variation of hues (fluorspar is transparent, white, wineyellow, honey-yellow to green, blue and violet) Special light effects: Light is reflected and diffracted by regularly intercalated foreign substances, by fine fractures or by twinning. Labradorescence is a magnificent play of colours like in the blue labradorite. Opalescence is the reflection of light as bright rainbow colours when an opal is turned. Streak: the colour of a powdered mineral on a white underlay, like pyrite crystals having greenish-black powder on their naturally yellow crystals.

Classification of common rock minerals.

A mineral is an inorganic, natural solid which is found in nature. Its atoms are arranged in definite patterns (an ordered internal structure) and it has a specific chemical composition that may vary within certain limits. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. y Native elements. Minerals consisting of a single element. o Platinum. Pt. density 21.46, hardness 4-4.5. Found as granules in sand from some igneous rocks. Most noble of metals. o Gold. Au. Density 19.3, hardness 2.5-3. Often found in association with pyrite, chalco pyrite and arsenopyrite in quartz veins. When found in streams, the gold is in small flat particles of varying sizes. It is very ductile (heat and electricity) and malleable. Used for ornaments because of its malleability. o Silver Ag. Density 10-11, harness 2.5-3. o Copper. Cu. Density 8.95, hardness 2.5-3. First used for making tools, later mixed with tin to make bronze. o Tin. Sb. o Sulfur. S. Density 2.07, hardness 1.5-2.5. o Graphite. C. Density 2.09-2.21, hardness 1-2. Found in compact masses, large deposits. Its high melting point and electrical conductivity makes it suitable for high temperature electrodes. It is used as a dry lubricant in high temperature applications. o Diamond. C. Density 3.50, hardness 10. Lustrous, transparent, colourless, yellow or green. Brittle and hard. o Also: mercury Hg (density 13.59), Arsenic As (density 5.63, hardness 3.5), Antimony Sb (density 6.61, hardness 3-3.5), Oxides (-O). Oxides are common in geochemical environments poor in silica. Silicates form easily from a magma, so if silica is used up in a magma chamber, then the oxides remain to be formed. Their structure is complex: octahedral and dodecahedral crystals. Very stable against weathering, but dissolving slowly in hydrochloric acid (HCl). o Magnetite (lodestone). Fe3O4. Density 5.17, hardness 6. Magnetic iron oxide. Large deposits are segregated from igneous magmas at high temperatures and are mined near the surface as iron ores. Can contain chromium or manganese. o Maghemite. Fe2O3. Iron sesquioxide. Magnetic. o Hematite. Fe2O3. Iron sesquioxide, ferric iron oxide. Non-magnetic. o Ilmenite group ATiO3.:  Ilmenite FeTiO3, titanic iron ore, a black sand containing 36.8% iron and 31.6% titanium, is the principal ore for titanium, but is hard to melt. Ilmenite is part of basic igneous rocks such as gabbro and norite.  perovskite CaTiO3, stibiconite SbSb2(O,OH,H2O)7, betafite, o Hydrous oxides of iron, limonites  Limonite. FeO[OH].nH2O. Density 5.26, hardness 5-6. Rust. Non-magnetic. Oxidized iron minerals. Is an important iron ore, found in many shapes and colours, from ochre to blood red.  Goethite. HFeO2. Non-magnetic o Aluminium oxides.  Alumina. Al2O3. Aluminium sesquioxide,  Beauxite. A mixture of various oxides such as boehmite, diaspore, hydrargillite, alumogel, etc., mixed with iron hydroxides which impart the red colour.  Corundum. Al2O3. Aluminium oxide. Density 4-4.1, hardness 9. An important mineral, used as precious stone (red ruby and blue sapphire), and its greyish variety as emery for abrasive and refractory products. o Spinel group AB2O4.  Spinel. Magnesium-aluminium oxide. MgAl2O4. Density 3.55, hardness 7.5-8.  Also: hercynite, galaxite, gahnite, chrysoberyl, franklinite, trevorite, alexandrite. o Cuprite. Cu2O. Density 6.14, haardness 3.5-4. Copper ore. Octahedral crystals, dark red. o Also: Tenorite (CuO), rutile (TiO2), Cassiterite (SnO2), Pyrolusite (MnO2) Psilomelane (Ba,H2O)Mn5O10, Manganite (MnO(OH), anatase (octahedrite), brookite, wolframite (Mn,Fe)WO4, columbite, euxenite, Uraninite (UO2), curite, gummite,brucite (Mg(OH)2, Hydroxides (-OH) o Gibbsite. Aluminium hydroxide. Al(OH)3. Found in aluminium ore. o Brucite. Magnesium hydroxide. Mg(OH)2. One of magnesium's ores. Carbonates (-CO3) metal-ion solid solutions. Usually medium or low hardness. Soluble in hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Calcite. Density 2.71, hardness 3. Most common, most abundant of all minerals. It has many forms of crystallisation (up to 700 forms!). Fine-grained, dissolves easily in rainwater, especially when loaded with carbon dioxide in the form of carbonic acid (H2CO3). Stalactites, stalacmites, etc.  Limestone. CaCO3.  Marble. (metamorphic). CaCO3. Limestone in a metamorphic crystalline (or granular) state, and capable of taking a polish. Used in sculpture and architecture.  Aragonite CaCO3. Orthorhombic crystals. o Dolomite. Calcium Magnesium carbonate. (Ca,Mg)CO3. CaMg(CO3)2. Is the chief source of magnesium. Used for agricultural fertiliser, steel manufacturing, and as a filler in paint, putty and rubber. Marble composed of dolomite has beautiful colours. o Ankerite CaFe(CO3)2. o Also: Magnesite (MgCO3), breunerite, mesitite, smithsonite (ZnCO3), siderite (FeCO3), sphaerocobaltite (CoCO3), rhodochrosite/ dialogite (MnCO3), strontianite (SrCO3), witherite (BACO3), cerussite (PbCO3), Azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2, Malachite Cu2CO3(OH)2, rosasite, aurichalite, and many more.... Sulfides (-S) o Pyrite (Fool's Gold). FeS2. A yellow lustrus form of irondisulphide. o Galena. Lead sulfide. PbS. o Cinnabar. Mercury sulfide. HgS. o Also: Chalcocite, covellite, bornite, argentite, sphalerite, marmatite, wutzite, chalcopyrite, tetrahydrite, tennantite,pyrrhotite, niccolite, metacinnabarite, stibnite, bismuthinite, marcasite, hauerite, cobaltite, ullmanite, arsenopyrite, molybdenite, skutterudite, proustite, pyrargyrite, bournonite, cannizarite, sartorite, realgar, orpiment. Sulfates (-SO4) o Gypsum. CaSO4.2H2O. Density 2.31, hardness 2. A hydrated form of calcium sulphate, occurring naturally and used in the building industry and to make plaster of Paris. Easily identified because it can be scratched by fingernail and is light. Also: selenite, sericolite, alabaster. o Barite. Barium sulfate. BaSO4. o Also: Thenardite Na2SO4, Celestine SrSO4, anglesite PbSO4, jarosite KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6, brochantite, linarite, leadhillite, lanarkite Pb2SO5, alunite KAL3(SO4)2(OH)6, hanksite, chalcanthite, melanterite, goslarite, epsomite MgSO4, morenosite NiSO4, pickeringite, halotrichite, coquimbite, alunogen Al2(SO4)3.16H2O, copiapite, soda-alum, potash-alum, ammonia-alum, urano-pilite, zippeite, johannite. Phosphates (-PO4) o Apatite. Ca5F(PO4)3. Density 3.1, hardness 5. A naturally occurring crystalline mineral of calcium phosphate and fluoride, used in the manufacture of fertilisers. A fairly common mineral found in pegmatites, metamorphic and igneous rock, and in ore veins. o Also: lithiophilite Li,MnFePO4, xenotime YPO4, monazite CePO4, linbethenite Cu2(OH)PO4,olivenite CU2(OH)AsO4, adamite Zn2(OH)AsO4, cornetite Cu3(OH)3PO4, descloizite, brazilianite, crandallite, and many others. Halides (-Cl, -F) o Chlorites (-Cl)  Halite (Salt). NaCl. Rock-salt.  Sylvite. KCl. Potassium salt, occurs in compact masses.  Karnallite. KMgCl3.6H2O. milk white or reddish granular masses. o Fluorides  Fluorite. Calcium fluoride. CaF2. Density 3.18, hardness 4, isometric crystals. Very wide range of colours.  Also: cryolite, atacamite, cotunnite, nadorite. Silicates (SiO2) (-SiO4) (-Si3O8) (-SiO3). Arranged by heavy element content (the Bowen series) o Olivine. Density 3.27-3.37, hardness 6.5-7. Ultrabasic. (Fe,Mg,Mn) silicates in solid solution. olivine = forsterite + fayalite. Density 3.3-4.4. Tetrahedral structure. Green. Resistant to weathering but susceptible to metamorphism. Much of the Earth is made out of this mineral, and it is a major component of the mantles of other terrestrial planets. It is usually a greenish crystal, often found as inclusions in basaltic lavas. Large crystals are called chrysolite and are used for jewellery.  Foresterite. Mg2SiO4. light-green  Fayalite. Fe2SiO4. dark-green or black. o Inosilicates  Pyroxene. Ultrabasic. (Ca,Fe,Mg,Na,Al,Ti) silicates in solid solution. White. Density 2.8-3.7. Common in meteorites. 10% of crust. Single chain tetrahedral structure. Moderately resistant to weathering.  Diopside. (Ca,Mg)SiO3 = wollastonite + enstatite in solid solution  Wollastonite (metamorphic). CaSiO3  Enstatite. MgSiO3 o

Augite. A complex calcium magnesium aluminous silicate occurring in many igneous rocks. (Fassaite, bronzite, capholite)  Hypersthene. A rock-forming greenish mineral of magnesium iron silicate, harder than hornblende.  Also: hedenbergite CaFeSi2O6, Johannsenite CaMnSi2O6, spodumene LiAlSi2O6. (triphane, kunzite, hiddenite),  Amphibole. Basic. (Ca,Mg,Fe,Al,Na)7-8 (Si,Al)8O22(OH,F,O)2. Density 2.8-3.7. Double chain tetrahedral structure. 7% of crust.  Horneblende. (Ca,Na,K)2-3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)9O22(OH,F)2  Also: tremolite Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2, actinolite,glaucophane, crocidolite, riebeckite,  Also: wollastonite CaSiO3, pectolite, rhodonite (Mn,Ca)SiO3, babingtonite, prehnite, bavenite, Tektosilicates  Feldspar. (Aluminum silicates). Ultrabasic to intermediate. (K,Na,Ca,Al) silicates in solid solution. Density 2.6-2.8, 60% of crust. Framework-tetrahedral structure. Hard. Glassy or pearly looking, light colour. Moderately resistant to weathering and metamorphism.  Plagioclase feldspars  Anorthite. CaAl2Si2O8. Plagioclase calcium feldspar. Ultrabasic. White to medium gray with striations.  Albite. NaAlSi3O8. Plagioclase sodium feldspar. Intermediate. White.  Also: danburite, sodalite, haueyinite, lazurite (lapis lazuli), scapolite, wernerite.  Othoclase feldspars  K-feldspar. KAlSi3O8. Orthoclase (Microcline) potassium feldspar. Intermediate. Density 2.56. Hardness 6. Light cream to salmon pink. Used in ceramics and glass making.  Also: Adularia, Sanidine, Microcline.  Feldspathoid group: nepheline (Na,K)AlSiO4, analcite NaAlSi2O6.H2O, leucite KALSI2O6  Zeolites: natrolite, scolecite, thomsonite, mesolite, dachiardite, forestite, laumontite, mordenite, arduinite, ferrierite, heulandite, stilbite, and many more. Mica. Basic to acidic. (K,Mg,Fe,Al) silicates. Black. Density 2.76-3.2. Common in igneous rocks. 4% of crust. Is a sheet silicate with properties of talcum/ formica. Any of a group of silicate minerals with a layered structure.  Biotite. Basic. K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2. a black, dark brown or green micaceous mineral occurring as a constituent of metamorphic and igneous rocks.  Muscovite. Acidic. KAl3Si3O10(OH)2. A silver-grey form of mica ('white mica') with a sheetlike crystalline structure, giving a pearly lustre, used in the manufacture of electrical equipment, etc. Also: fuchsite, alurgite  Also: paragonite, phlogopite, lepidolite, chrysocolla CuSiO3.2H2O, Chlorite group. Are similar to the micas, lamellar, dark green or blue green.  Serpentine. Mg3Si2O5(OH)4. A soft rock mainly of hydrated magnesium silicate, usually dark green (a chlorite) and sometimed mottled or spotted like a serpent's skin, taking a high polish and used as a decorative material.  Chrysotile. Asbestos serpentine with exceptionally long fibres. Colour white, greenish, silky lustre. Used for buildings, insulation and high temperature applications.  Also: kaemmererite, penninite, clinochlore, antigorite, Zircon. Zr(SiO4). Density 4.6-4.7. Hardness 7.5. Trigonal crystal., prismatic pyramid. Glassy or milky in colour, but may be coloured (rock quartz, smoky quartz, morion quartz, citrine, amethyst). Most abundant and widest disseminated mineral. Essential constituent of volcanic, metamorphic and sedimentary rock. Quartz. Acidic. SiO2. Ionic co-valent bond. Density 2.6. Hard mineral, virtually insoluble in water. Translucent. One of the most important components of granite. Opal, jasper, agate, chalcedony, flint. Tetrahedral structure. Also: Chalcedony, agate, onyx, jasper, tridymite, opal, hyalite, flint, Garnet. A3B2(SiO4)3. Density 3.3-3.5. Tetrahedral structure. A vitreous silicate mineral, especially a transparent deep-red kind used as a gem.  Almandine. Fe3Al2(SiO4)3. Common, wine-red. Density 4.25  Also: pyrope. Mg3Al2(SiO4)3, spessartite. Mn3Al2(SiO4)3, grossularite. Ca3Al2(SiO4), andradite Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3, uvarovite. Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3, Clay minerals (hydrous aluminium silicates). Are the end products of weathering. All clay minerals are sheet silicates, each clay type owing its distinctive character to the cations such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg++) or calcium (Ca++), which occupy positions in and between the sheets.  Fibrous, open clays, palygorskite. Open and well hydrated clays, not common in soils but are important in lake deposits which have salt-lagoon characteristics. 

 Sepiolite and attapulgite. Two-layer clays. (1:1 clay; Si-Al lattice) fixed distance hydrogen-bonded (-O-OH-) between the silica and alumina sheets. Formed through rapid leaching of silica in volcanic soils (allitic weathering). Consist of a tetrahedral silica and an octahedral alumina layer. These are rich in alumina, have poor cation-exchange capacity, stable structure and swell very little when moistened. Tropical climates, high rainfall, acidic conditions.  Kaolinite. Al4Si4O10(OH)8. Absorbs little water but is just right for pottery and ceramics. A fine soft white clay produced by the decomposition of other clays of feldspar, used especially for making porcelain (pipe clay), and in medicines. Also called china clay. The word kao lin meanshigh hill in Chinese.  Also: nacrite, dickite.  Hydrated 1:1 clays: Halloysite, Al2Si2O5(OH)4.2H2O. A high alumina clay, which has slender tube crystals, and is white coloured. Used for making high quality 'bone' china porcelain and industrial ceramics.  Three-layer clays, smectite. (2:1 clays; Si-Al-Si lattice) variable distance (-O-O-) bonded. Formed by slow leaching of silica, consisting of one octahedral alumina layer sandwiched between two tetrahedral silica layers. Have high cation-exchange capacity (CEC), but lower than amorphous clays. Weak structure, low water permeability and swells when moistened. Temperate climates, low rainfall, neutral to alkaline soils, especially under grasslands.  Expanding lattice clays  Montmorillonite. (Al,Mg)8(Si4O10)3(OH)10.12H2O. or Al4(Si4O10)2(OH)4.xH2O. Holds and absorbs large amounts of water. 20% in clay from volcanic weathering.  Bentonite: a soft plastic light-coloured clay formed by chemical alteration of volcanic ash. It is composed essentially of montmorillonite and related smectite minerals. Used to bond moulding sands, oil well drilling and to remove colour from oils.  Also: beidelite  hydrous micas  Chlorite. Mg10Al2(Si6Al2)O20(OH)16. Absorbs large amounts of water. A green flaky mineral, decomposition product of dark micas and is found in many altered rocks such as schists. (Note that this mineral bears no relationship to the element chloride Cl, but its name relates to its green colour)  Illite (muscovite). K2Al4(Si6Al2)O20(OH)4.  Vermiculite:  Amorphous clays. Formed from easily weatherable materials such as volcanic ashes, lava or basalt. Have high cation-exchange capability. Low density, permeable to water and air. Decay of organic matter is slow and humus content high. Tropical climates.  Nontronite. Absorbs and holds large amounts of water. 50% in clay from volcanic weathering.  Pelagic clays ('red clay'). Aluminium silicates. Any combination of montmorillonite, kaolinite, chlorite with an admixture of silt- and clay-sized grains of quartz, feldspar and other minerals. The chlorite crystal can be modified into an iron-rich form. Deep sea sediments commonly contain this iron-rich form, from which it derives its name 'red clay'. Subsaturite  Kyanite (metamorphic). A blue crystalline mineral of aluminium silicate.  Topaz. Al2SiO4(OH,F)2. Density 3.6, hardness 8.A transparent or translucent aluminium silicate mineral, usually yellow, used as a gem. Many colours.  Staurolite. (Fe,Mg)4Al18Si8O46(OH)2. Density 3.65-3.77, hardness 7-7.5. Crystals cross shaped, dark grey to reddish brown.  Sillimanite. Al2SiO5. An aluminium silicate occurring in orthorhombic crystals or fibrous masses. Aillimanite, Andalusite, Kyanite or Dysthene.  Also: humite, titanclinohumite, braunite, titanite CaTiSiO5, datolite, dumortierite, howlite, grandidierite, gadolinite, uranophane. Sorosilicates  Also: gehlenite Ca2Al2SiO7, cuspidine Ca4Si2O7(F,OH)2, ilvaite, hemimorphite, epidote Ca2(AL,Fe)3Si3O12OH, piedmontite, zoisite, clinozoisite, allanite, orthite,idocrase/ vesuvianite, Cyclosilicates  Also: benitoite BaTiSi3O9, eudialyte, taramellite, axinite, beryl Be3Al2Si6O18 (emerald, aquamarine, heliodor, morganite), cordierite, tourmaline, dioptase. Phyllosilicates 

 

Talc. Mg3Si4O10(OH)2. Any crystalline form of magnesium silicate that occurs in soft flat plates, usually white or pale green in colour and used as a lubricator. Also: Apophyllite, pyrophillite Al2Si4O10(OH)2, agalmatolite

The geotherm - a graph of the relationship of temperature and depth, is a useful means of visualizing the processes that cause rocks to melt. The terrestrial geotherm extend only upto the depths of the asthenosphere. Peridotite is the rock type that mostly makes up the mantles of terrestrial planets. The melting curve shows the boundary of temperature and pressure beyond which peridotite melts. How do magmas form? Three factors influence melting point: Temperature, Pressure,Volatiles:

Temperature. All other things being equal, every mineral has a distinct melting point. In the mantle, heat is brought upward by convection. As hot rocks convect upward they transfer heat to cooler rocks lying above them, which may melt. y Pressure: All other things being equal, the greater the pressure, the less likely materials are to melt. (This explains why the asthenosphere is limited to a shallow region of the mantle and the inner core is solid despite being hotter than the liquid outer core.) When rocks experience decompression without losing their heat, they can experience decompression melting. Consider the fate of hot rocks rising through the mantle from a hot spot.
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Volatile substances: Generally, the addition of substances like water or CO2 to a mineral lowers its melting point. In this case, the shape of the melting curve for peridotite changes.
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Where does magma form on Earth? Mid-ocean ridges: Rising rocks in mantle convection cell bring heat near the surface, transfering heat to overlying rocks. At the same time, the hot rising mantle rocks experience decompression melting. The motion of lithospheric
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plates away from the mid-oceanic ridge further diminishes pressure yielding more melting. y Mantle plumes: Those enigmatic localized upwellings of hot mantle rock from hot spots very deep in the mantle, expressed on the surface as hot spots. As in mid-ocean ridges, hot spot rocks transfer heat to overlying rocks and experience decompression as they come up. y Subduction zones: As oceanic crust sits at bottom of ocean, it becomes charged with sea water. Subduction slab, although relatively cold, dives into hot surrounding rock. The slab acts as conveyors drawing water into the hotter, drier asthenosphere. When the water percolates into the surrounding hot rocks, melting due to the infusion of volatiles occurs. This leads to some interesting consequences: o Subduction zone magmas tend to be low temperature magmas compared to those from the other regions. Because they are, they are compositionally enriched in SiO4. These magmas are the ultimate origin of continental crust. o We said earlier that Venus apparantly has no subduction zones. Even if it did, this kind of melting would not occur there because the subducting slab would be carrying no water downward. If we ever discover continental crust on Venus it will suggest that subduction zones and oceans were previously present. Composition: Here's a paradox: Even though peridotite (right) is typically what melts to make magma, hardly any magma ever solidifies into peridotite. WTF? Five factors drive magmas to differ chemically from their parent rocks and, eventually, from one another: Composition and melting point: Generally speaking, minerals rich in Fe and Mg have much higher melting points (~1470 K) than those that are rich in silica (SiO2) (~1070 K). These compositions are end members of a spectrum of compositions. Basic terminology:Mafic: Rich in iron and magnesium, poor in silica (< 50%) (E.g. gabbro, right.) Felsic: Rich in silica (> 65%), poor in iron and magnesium.(E.g.granite,right.) Because silica (SiO4) rich minerals like quartz have lower melting points than mafic minerals like olivine a relatively low temperature magma will be rich in silica and poor in Fe and Mg. Conversely, a felsic magma can remain liquid at lower temperatures.Note: On Earth, oceanic crust is mafic, continental crust tends to be felsic.
o

Fractional melting: Mantle rocks like peridotite consist of several different minerals (mostly olivine and pyroxene), each with its own melting point. As the rock heats, decompresses, or is infused with water, the minerals with the lowest melting point melt first and begin to move away from the source rock, so a magma is always somewhat more felsic than its source. Consider that the magma erupting at mid-ocean ridges has moved maybe a mere ten km from its source, but whereas that source was Fe and Mg rich peridotite, the magma is slightly less.
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Compatible and incompatible: Add to this the fact that some elements such as potassium (K) and sodium (Na) are "incompatible" - they prefer to inhabit a liquid phase, and will migrate from a solid crystal into an adjacent pocket of magma."Compatible" elements like magnesium (Mg) tend to remain in the solid phase. Fractional crystallization: Reverse process of fractional melting. The most Mg and Fe rich minerals in a melt (i.e. those with the highest melting point) will be the first to crstallize out, leaving an increasingly felsic magma.
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Assimilation: The vast majority of intrusives we see on the continents are felsic, like granite. Fractional crystallization can't account for this. Remember, in general, continental crust is much more felsic than oceanic. As ultramafic magmas encounter the felsic rocks of the continental crust, they cause the most felsic minerals in those felsic rocks (the ones with the lowest melting point) to
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melt. Thus, felsic material is added to the magma as mafic material is lost to fractional crystalization. The result is that magmas that have passed through thick layers of continental crust represent highly refined concentrations of felsic materials. y Size matters: The puzzle remains as to why we might have felsic and mafic magmas erupting adjacent to one another on the continents. A fourth parameter is the size of the magma chamber. A large one may work its way to the surface and, despite its having assimilated continental crust, retain something of its original composition while a smaller one will be significantly altered by passage through the same thickness of crust. How does magma behave? When melting first occurs, it happens at the peripheries of individual crystal grains (b - right), yielding minute pockets of magma. When these pockets grow to the point that they interconnect (a - right) the magma is able to move.Being liquid, magma tends to be lighter than surrounding material from which it has melted. Thus, it tends to percolate upward by any available means. As this happens, droplets coalesce, eventually forming large magma chambers that can be relatively small to very large .The rocks, themselves: Rocks formed from the solidification of magma are termed igneous. Igneous rocks differ widely depending on: Composition: Magmas with different chemistries will solidify into different minerals at different temperatures. y Emplacement process: Magma chambers may solidify slowly underground or rapidly upon reaching the surface. Resulting igneous rocks will be radically different in texture, even if their composition is similar.
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Common minerals in igneous rocks:

y y y y y y y y

Olivine: (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 Pyroxine: (Ca,Mg,Fe)2Si2O6 Amphibole: (Ca,Na)2-3(Mg,Fe,Al)5Si6(Si,Al)2O22(OH)2 Plagioclase feldspar: (Ca,Na)(Al, Si)AlSi2O8 Muscovite: KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2 Bioite: K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSiO10)(OH)2 Quartz: (Composed entirely of silica ion) SiO2 Orthoclasefeldspar: KAlSi3O8 Process differences in igneous rocks:Intrusive rocks: An igneous rock

that is formed by the cooling of magma that has forced its way into surrounding rock but not reached the surface. Typically displays:Large interlocking crystals,Crystals usually have no preferred orientation - i.e. a piece of intrusive rock looks the same no matter which way you turn it. Extrusive rocks: Definition: An igneous rock that is formed by the cooling of magma that has erupted onto the surface. Crystals are typically small. Chemical and Mineral composition: The actual names of igneous rock types reflect both:
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Composition Texture and crystal size

The chart below gives a taxonomy of the most common igneous rocks. Its x axis shows the percentage of silica in the rock, the y axis shows the relative abundance of different minerals in the rock. Remember, for each composition there are intrusive and extrusive versions.

For example, we see that granite might have 70% silica and be composed of 50% orthoclase, 25% quartz, and 25% plagioclase, muscovite, biotite, and amphibole. Its extrusive equivalent is rhyolite. Felsic: High quantities of orthoclase and quartz,
small amounts of plagioclase, muscovite, biotite, and amphibole.Granite(Intrusive). Common component of continental crust. Rhyolite (Extrusive). Tends to erupt on continents, often above subducting plates. Intermediate:Diorite (Intrusive). Common component of continentalcrust. Andesite (Extrusive). Tends to erupt on continents, often above subducting plates. Mafic (Mafic = Ma + Fe): High quantities of olivine and pyroxene, smaller amounts of plagioclase.Gabbro (Intrusive). Major component of oceanic crust. Basalt (Extrusive). The principle surface rock of oceanic crust and probably the most

common rock on the surface of the terrestrial worlds. The basalt of the oceanic crust formed at mid-oceanic ridges, so it is known as "MORB" - Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt. Ultramafic: Very rare on surface, often found as mantle xenoliths. Low silica content, with rocks primarily made up of olivine with some pyroxene .Peridotite (Intrusive). The dominant rock of the mantle. Komatiite (Extrusive). No extrusive ultramafics exist in the recent world. Komatiite, an ultramafic extrusive rock, was erupted commonly during roughly the first half of Earth's history, in the Archean and early Proterozoic eons. .
Granite is a common and widely-occurring type of intrusive, felsic, igneous rock. Granites are usually a white or buff color and are medium to coarse grained, occasionally with some individual crystals larger than the groundmass forming a rock known as porphyry. Granites can be pink to dark gray or even black, depending on their chemistry and mineralogy. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors, rounded massifs, and terrains of rounded boulders cropping out of flat, sandy soils. Granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and it is for this reason it has gained widespread use as a construction stone. The average density of granite is 2.75 g/cm3; with a range of 1.74 to 2.80. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the coarse-grained structure of such a crystalline rock.

Mineralogy

Figure 1. QAPF diagram of granitoids and phaneritic foidolites (plutonic rocks). Granite primarily consists of orthoclase and plagioclase feldspars,quartz, hornblende, mica, biotite, muscovite and minor accessory minerals such as magnetite, garnet, zircon and apatite. Rarely, a pyroxene is present. Granite is classified according to the QAPF diagram for coarse grained plutonic rocks (granitoids) and is named according to the percentage of Quartz, Alkali feldspar (orthoclase) and PlagioclaseFeldspar on the A-Q-P half of the diagram. Highly peralkaline forms of granite which are silica undersaturated may have a feldspathoid such as nepheline, and are classified on the A-F-P half of the diagram. See Figure 1, below. True granite according to modern petrology contains bothplagioclase and orthoclase feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid oforthoclase the rock is referred to as alkali granite or adamellite. When a granitoid contains <5% orthoclase it is known as a granodiorite, or tonalite when pyroxene is present. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite. Two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. The volcanic equivalent of plutonic granite is rhyolite.

Chemical Composition A worldwide average of the average proportion of the different chemical components in granites, in descending order, is approximately: SiO2 - Silicon dioxide 70.18% Al2 O3 - Aluminium oxide 14.47% K2O - Potassium oxide 4.11% Na2 O - Sodium oxide 3.48% CaO - Calcium oxide 1.99% FeO - Iron II oxide 1.78% Fe2 O3 - Iron III oxide 1.57% MgO - Magnesium oxide 0.88% H2O - Water "molecule" 0.84% TiO2 - Titanium dioxide 0.39% P2O5 - Diphosphorus pentoxide 0.19% MnO - Manganese Oxide 0.12%

Occurrence Granite is currently known only on Earth where it forms a major part of continental crust. Granite occurs as relatively small, less than 100 km2 stock-like masses and as large batholiths often associated with orogenic mountain ranges and is frequently of great extent. Small dikes of granitic composition called aplites are associated with granite margins. In some locations very coarse-grained pegmatite masses occur with granite. Granite has been intruded into the crust of the Earth during all geologic periods; much of it is of Precambrian age. Granite is widely distributed throughout the continental crust of the Earth and is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin sedimentary veneer of the continents.

Origin Granite is an igneous rock and is formed from magma. Granite magma has many potential origins but it must intrude other rocks. Most granite intrusions are emplaced at depth within the crust, usually greater than 1.5 kilometres and up to 50 km depth within thick continental crust. The origin of granite is contentious and has led to varied schemes of classification. Classification schemes are regional; there is a French scheme, a British scheme and an American scheme. This confusion arises because the classification schemes define granite by different means. Generally the 'alphabet-soup' classification is used because it classifies based on genesis or origin of the magma.

Geochemical origins Granitoids are a ubiquitous component of the crust because they represent a eutectic point to which magmas will evolve via igneous differentiation. This occurs because fractional crystallisation serves to reduce a melt in iron, magnesium, titanium, calcium and sodium, and enrich the melt in potassium, aluminium and silicon - which are the major constituents of a granite. This process operates regardless of the origin of the parental magma to the granite, and regardless of its chemistry. However, the composition and origin of the magma which differentiates into granite, leaves certain geochemical and mineralogical evidence as to what the granite's parental rock was. The finalmineralogy, texture and chemical composition of a granite is often distinctive as to its origin. For instance, a granite which is formed from melted sediments will have more alkali feldspar, whereas a granite derived from melted basalt will be richer inplagioclase feldspar. It is on this basis that the modern classification shemes are based.

Alphabet Soup Classification The 'alphabet soup' scheme of Chappell & White was proposed initially to divide granites into I-type granite (or igneous protolith) granite and Stype or sedimentary protolith granite. Both of these types of granite are formed by melting of high grade metamorphic rocks, either other granite or intrusive mafic rocks, or buried sediment, respectively.

M-type or mantle derived granite was proposed later, to cover those granites which were clearly sourced from crystallised mafic magmas, generally sourced from the mantle. These are rare, because it is difficult to turn basalt into granite via fractional crystallisation. A-type or anorogenic granites are formed above hot spot activity and have peculiar mineralogy and geochemistry. These granites are formed by melting of the lower crust under conditions which are usually too dry. The granite caldera of Yellowstone National Park is an example of an A-type granite.

Granitization The granitization theory states that granite is formed in place by extreme metamorphism. The production of granite by metamorphic heat is difficult, but is observed to occur in certain amphibolite and granulite terrains. In-situ granitisation or melting by metamorphism is difficult to recognise except where leucosome and melanosome textures are present in gneisses. Once a metamorphic rock is melted it is no longer a metamorphic rock and is a magma, so these rocks are seen as a transitional between the two, but are not technically granite as they do not actually intrude into other rocks. In all cases, melting of solid rock requires high temperature, and also water or volatiles which act as a catalyst by lowering the solidus temperature of the rock.

Emplacement mechanisms The problem of emplacing large volumes of molten rock within the solid Earth has faced geologists for over a century, and is not entirely resolved. Granite magma must make room for itself or be intruded into other rocks in order to form an intrusion, and several mechanisms have been proposed to explain how large batholiths have been emplaced. Stoping, where the granite cracks the wall rocks and pushes upwards as it removes blocks of the overlying crust Diapirism where the density of the lighter granite causes relative buoyancy and the granite pushes upwards, warping and folding the rock above it Assimilation, where the granite melts its way up into the crust and removes overlying material in this way Inflation, where the granite body inflates under pressure and is injected into position Most geologists today accept that a combination of these phenomenon can be used to explain granite intrusions, and that not all granites can be explained by one or another mechanism.

Uses: Antiquity The Red Pyramid of Ancient Egypt (c.26th century BC), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed granite surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids. Menkaure's Pyramid, likely dating to the same era, was constructed of limestone and granite blocks. The Great Pyramid of Giza (c.2580 BC) contains a huge granite sarcophagus fashioned of "Red Aswan Granite." The mostly ruined Black Pyramid dating from the reign of Amenemhat III once had a polished granite pyramidion or capstone, now on display in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (see Dahshur). Other uses in Ancient Egypt, [1] include columns, door lintels, sills, jambs, and wall and floor veneer. How the Egyptians worked the solid granite is still a matter of debate. Dr. Patrick Hunt [2] has postulated that the Egyptians used emery shown to have higher hardness on the Mohs scale. ModernGranite has been extensively used as a dimension stone and as flooring tiles in public and commercial buildings and monuments. With increasing amounts of acid rain in parts of the world, granite has begun to supplant marble as a monument material, since it is much more durable. Polished granite has been a popular choice for kitchen countertops due to its high durability and aesthetic qualities. The Black Galaxy granites from the Cheemakurthy area of Andhra Pradesh in India are world known for their elegance.Engineers have traditionally used polished granite surfaces to establish a plane of reference, since they are relatively impervious and inflexible.In the world of sports, curling rocks are traditionally fashioned of granite.Sandblasted concrete with a heavy aggregate content has an appearance similar to rough granite, and is often used as a substitute when use of real granite is impractical.